Environmental monitoring

Environmental monitoring(environmental monitoring) is a comprehensive system of monitoring the state of the environment, assessing and forecasting changes in the state of the environment under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.

Typically, a territory already has a number of observation networks belonging to various services, which are departmentally separated and not coordinated in chronological, parametric and other aspects. Therefore, the task of preparing assessments, forecasts, and criteria for alternatives for choosing management decisions on the basis of departmental data available in the region becomes, in the general case, uncertain. In this regard, the central problems of organizing environmental monitoring are ecological and economic zoning and the selection of “informative indicators” of the ecological state of territories with verification of their systemic sufficiency.

Types of monitoring

In general, the process of environmental monitoring can be represented by the following diagram: environment (or a specific environmental object) -> measurement of parameters -> collection and transmission of information -> processing and presentation of data, forecast. The measurement of parameters, collection and transmission of information, processing and presentation of data is carried out by the monitoring system. The environmental monitoring system is intended to serve the environmental quality management system (hereinafter referred to as the “management system” for brevity). Information about the state of the environment obtained in the monitoring system is used by the management system to eliminate the negative environmental situation or reduce the adverse consequences of changes in the state of the environment, as well as to develop forecasts for socio-economic development, develop programs in the field of environmental development and environmental protection.

In the management system, three subsystems can also be distinguished: decision-making (specially authorized state body), management of the implementation of the decision (for example, enterprise administration), implementation of the decision using various technical or other means.

Monitoring systems or its types differ according to the objects of observation. Since the components of the environment are air, water, mineral and energy resources, biological resources, soil, etc., monitoring subsystems corresponding to them are identified. However, monitoring subsystems do not have a unified system of indicators, unified approaches for zoning territories, monitoring frequency, etc., which makes it impossible to take adequate measures when managing the development and environmental condition of territories. Therefore, when making decisions, it is important to focus not only on the data of “private monitoring systems” (hydrometeorological service, resource monitoring, social and hygienic, biota, etc.), but to create comprehensive environmental monitoring systems based on them.

Monitoring levels

Monitoring is a multi-level system. In the chorological aspect, systems (or subsystems) of detailed, local, regional, national and global levels are usually distinguished.

The lowest hierarchical level is the level detailed monitoring implemented within small territories (plots), etc.

When detailed monitoring systems are combined into a larger network (for example, within a district, etc.), a local level monitoring system is formed. Local monitoring is intended to provide an assessment of system changes over a larger area: the territory of a city, district.

Local systems can be combined into larger systems regional monitoring, covering the territories of regions within a region or region, or within several of them. Such regional monitoring systems, integrating data from observation networks that differ in approaches, parameters, tracking areas and frequency, make it possible to adequately form complex assessments of the state of territories and make forecasts for their development.

Regional monitoring systems can be combined within one state into a single national (or state) monitoring network, thus forming national level) monitoring systems. An example of such a system was the “Unified State System of Environmental Monitoring of the Russian Federation” (USESM) and its territorial subsystems, successfully created in the 90s of the twentieth century to adequately solve the problems of territorial management. However, following the Ministry of Ecology, the Unified State Monitoring System was also abolished in 2002, and currently in Russia there are only departmental and scattered observation networks, which does not allow adequately solving strategic problems of territorial management taking into account the environmental imperative.

Within the framework of the UN environmental program, the task has been set to unite national monitoring systems into a single interstate network - the Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS). This is the highest global level organizing an environmental monitoring system. Its purpose is to monitor changes in the environment on Earth and its resources as a whole, on a global scale. Global monitoring is a system for monitoring the state and forecasting possible changes in global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impacts on the Earth's biosphere as a whole. For now, the creation of such a system in full, operating under the auspices of the UN, is a task for the future, since many states do not yet have their own national systems.

The global environmental and resource monitoring system is designed to solve universal environmental problems throughout the Earth, such as global warming, the problem of preserving the ozone layer, earthquake forecasting, forest conservation, global desertification and soil erosion, floods, food and energy resources, etc. An example of such a system is the global observation network for seismic monitoring of the Earth, operating within the framework of the International Program for Monitoring Earthquake Sources (http://www.usgu.gov/), etc.

Environmental Monitoring Program

Scientifically based environmental monitoring is carried out in accordance with the Program. The program should include the overall goals of the organization, specific strategies for its implementation and implementation mechanisms.

The key elements of Environmental Monitoring Programs are:

• a list of objects under control with their strict territorial reference (chorological organization of monitoring);

• list of control indicators and acceptable areas of their change (parametric organization of monitoring);

• time scales – frequency of sampling, frequency and time of data presentation (chronological organization of monitoring).

In addition, the application in the Monitoring Program must contain diagrams, maps, tables indicating the location, date and method of sampling and presentation of data.

Ground remote surveillance systems

Currently, monitoring programs, in addition to traditional “manual” sampling, emphasize data collection using electronic measuring devices for remote monitoring in real time.

The use of electronic remote monitoring measuring devices is carried out using connections to a base station either through a telemetry network or through land lines, cellular telephone networks or other telemetry systems.

The advantage of remote monitoring is that many data channels can be used in a single base station for storage and analysis. This dramatically increases the efficiency of monitoring when threshold levels of controlled indicators are reached, for example, in individual control areas. This approach allows monitoring data to take immediate action if the threshold level is exceeded.

The use of remote monitoring systems requires the installation of special equipment (monitoring sensors), which are usually camouflaged to reduce vandalism and theft when monitoring is carried out in easily accessible locations.

Remote sensing systems

Monitoring programs widely involve remote sensing of the environment using aircraft or satellites equipped with multi-channel sensors.

There are two types of remote sensing.

1. Passive detection of terrestrial radiation emitted or reflected from an object or in the vicinity of the observation. The most common source of radiation is reflected sunlight, the intensity of which is measured by passive sensors. Environmental remote sensing sensors are tuned to specific wavelengths - from far infrared to far ultraviolet, including visible light frequencies. The enormous volumes of data that are collected from environmental remote sensing require powerful computing support. This makes it possible to analyze subtle differences in the radiation characteristics of the environment in remote sensing data, successfully eliminating noise and “false color images”. With several spectral channels, it is possible to enhance contrasts that are invisible to the human eye. In particular, for biological resource monitoring tasks, it is possible to distinguish subtle differences in changes in chlorophyll concentrations in plants, identifying areas with differences in nutritional regimes.
2. In active remote sensing, a stream of energy is emitted from a satellite or aircraft and a passive sensor is used to detect and measure the radiation reflected or scattered by the object being studied. LIDAR is often used to obtain information about the topographic characteristics of the study area, which is especially effective when the area is large and manual surveying would be expensive.

Remote sensing allows you to collect data about dangerous or hard-to-reach areas. Applications of remote sensing include forest monitoring, the effects of climate change on Arctic and Antarctic glaciers, and coastal and ocean exploration.

Data from orbital platforms, obtained from different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, combined with ground-based data, provides information to monitor trends in long-term and short-term phenomena, natural and man-made. Other applications include natural resource management, land use planning, and various fields of geosciences.

Data interpretation and presentation

The interpretation of environmental monitoring data, even from a well-designed program, is often ambiguous. There are often analyzes or "biased findings" from monitoring, or a sufficiently controversial use of statistics to demonstrate the correctness of a particular point of view. This is clearly seen, for example, in the treatment of global warming, where supporters claim that CO 2 levels have increased by 25% over the last hundred years while opponents claim that CO 2 levels have only risen by one percent.

New science-based environmental monitoring programs have developed a number of quality indicators to integrate significant amounts of processed data, classify them and interpret the meaning of integral assessments. For example, in the UK the GQA system is used. These general quality ratings classify rivers into six groups based on chemical criteria and biological criteria.

To make decisions, using an assessment in the GQA system is more convenient than using a variety of private indicators.

Literature

1. Israel Yu. A. Ecology and control of the state of the natural environment. - L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1979, - 376 p.

2. Israel Yu.A Global Observing System. Forecast and assessment of the natural environment. Basics of monitoring. - Meteorology and hydrology. 1974, No. 7. - P.3-8.

The most important issue in the strategy for regulating the quality of environmental protection is the issue of creating a system capable of identifying the most critical sources and factors of anthropogenic impact on public health and environmental protection, identifying the most vulnerable elements and parts of the biosphere susceptible to such impacts.

Such a system is recognized as a system for monitoring anthropogenic changes in the state of the natural environment, capable of providing the necessary information for decision-making by the relevant services, departments, and organizations.

Environmental monitoring– a comprehensive system of observations, assessment and forecast of the state of the environment under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.

The basic principle of monitoring is continuous tracking.

The purpose of environmental monitoring is information support for the management of environmental activities and environmental safety, optimization of human relations with nature.

There are different types of monitoring depending on the criteria:

Bioecological (sanitary and hygienic),

Geoecological (natural and economic),

Biosphere (global),

Space,

Climatic, biological, public health, social, etc.

Depending on the severity of anthropogenic impact, impact and background monitoring are distinguished. Background (basic) monitoring– monitoring natural phenomena and processes occurring in a natural environment, without anthropogenic influence. Carried out on the basis of biosphere reserves. Impact monitoring- monitoring of anthropogenic impacts in particularly hazardous areas.

Depending on the scale of observation, global, regional and local monitoring are distinguished.

Global monitoring– monitoring the development of global biosphere processes and phenomena (for example, the state of the ozone layer, climate change).

Regional monitoring– monitoring natural and anthropogenic processes and phenomena within a certain region (for example, the state of Lake Baikal).

Local monitoring– monitoring within a small area (for example, monitoring the air condition in the city).

In the Russian Federation, the Unified State System of Environmental Monitoring (USESM) is functioning and developing, formed at three main organizational levels: federal, constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local (objective) with the aim of radically increasing the efficiency of the monitoring service. Based on the monitoring results, recommendations are developed to reduce the level of environmental pollution and a forecast for the future.

Monitoring systems are associated with environmental assessments and environmental impact assessments (EIA).

Standardization of environmental quality (ecological regulation)

Under environmental quality understand the degree to which a person’s living environment corresponds to his needs. The human environment includes natural conditions, workplace conditions and living conditions. Life expectancy, health, morbidity levels of the population, etc. depend on its quality.

Environmental regulation– the process of establishing indicators of the maximum permissible human impact on the environment. Its main goal is to ensure an acceptable balance between ecology and economics. Such rationing allows for economic activity and preservation of the natural environment.

In the Russian Federation the following are subject to rationing:

Physical impact factors (noise, vibration, electromagnetic fields, radioactive radiation);

Chemical factors - concentrations of harmful substances in air, water, soil, food;

Biological factors – the content of pathogenic microorganisms in the air, water, food.

Environmental standards are divided into 3 main groups:

Technological standards - established for various industries and processes, rational use of raw materials and energy, minimizing waste;

Scientific and technical standards - provide for a system of calculations and periodic revision of standards, monitoring the impact on the environment;

Medical standards determine the level of danger to public health.

Standardization of environmental quality– establishing indicators and limits within which changes in these indicators are allowed (for air, water, soil, etc.).

The purpose of standardization is to establish maximum permissible standards (environmental standards) for human impact on the environment. Compliance with environmental standards should ensure the environmental safety of the population, the preservation of the genetic fund of humans, plants and animals, and the rational use and reproduction of natural resources.

The standards for maximum permissible harmful effects, as well as methods for determining them, are temporary and can be improved as science and technology develop, taking into account international standards.

The main environmental standards for environmental quality and impact on it are as follows:

1. Quality standards (sanitary and hygienic):

Maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of harmful substances;

Maximum permissible level (MAL) of harmful physical influences (radiation, noise, vibration, magnetic fields, etc.)

2. Impact standards (production and economic):

Maximum permissible emission (MPE) of harmful substances;

Maximum permissible discharge (MPD) of harmful substances.

3. Comprehensive standards:

Maximum permissible ecological (anthropogenic) load on the environment.

Maximum permissible concentration (MPC)- the amount of a pollutant in the environment (soil, air, water, food), which, with permanent or temporary exposure to a person, does not affect his health and does not cause adverse consequences in his offspring. MPCs are calculated per unit volume (for air, water), mass (for soil, food products) or surface (for workers’ skin). MPCs are established on the basis of comprehensive studies. When determining it, the degree of influence of pollutants is taken into account not only on human health, but also on animals, plants, microorganisms, as well as on natural communities as a whole.

Maximum permissible level (MAL)- this is the maximum level of exposure to radiation, vibration noise, magnetic fields and other harmful physical influences, which does not pose a danger to human health, the condition of animals, plants, or their genetic fund. MPL is the same as MPC, but for physical impacts.

In cases where MPC or MPL have not been determined and are only at the development stage, indicators such as TPC - approximately permissible concentration, or TAC - approximately permissible level, respectively, are used.

Maximum permissible emission (MPE) or discharge (MPD)- this is the maximum amount of pollutants that a given specific enterprise is allowed to emit into the atmosphere or discharge into a body of water per unit of time, without causing them to exceed the maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants and adverse environmental consequences.

A comprehensive indicator of environmental quality is the maximum permissible environmental load.

Maximum permissible ecological (anthropogenic) load on the environment (PDEN)– this is the maximum intensity of anthropogenic impact on the environment, which does not lead to a violation of the stability of ecological systems (or, in other words, to the ecosystem going beyond the limits of its ecological capacity).

The potential ability of the natural environment to tolerate one or another anthropogenic load without disrupting the basic functions of ecosystems is defined as capacity of the natural environment, or ecological capacity of the territory.

The resistance of ecosystems to anthropogenic impacts depends on the following indicators:

Stocks of animal and dead organic matter;

Efficiency of organic matter production or vegetation production;

Species and structural diversity.

The higher these indicators are, the more stable the ecosystem.

The concept of environmental monitoring Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program Menn 1972. The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Clarifying the definition of environmental monitoring by Yu.

If this work does not suit you, at the bottom of the page there is a list of similar works. You can also use the search button

Lecture No. 14

Environmental monitoring

1. Concept of environmental monitoring
2. Objectives of environmental monitoring
3. Monitoring classification
4. Assessment of the actual state of the environment (sanitary and hygienic monitoring, environmental)
5. Forecast and assessment of the predicted state

1. Concept of environmental monitoring

Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program (Menn, 1972). The need for detailed information about the state of the biosphere has become even more obvious in recent decades due to the serious negative consequences caused by uncontrolled human exploitation of natural resources.

To identify changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activity, an observation system is needed. Such a system is now commonly called monitoring.

The word “monitoring” entered scientific circulation from English-language literature and comes from the English word “ monitoring " comes from the word " monitor ", which in English has the following meaning: monitor, instrument or device for monitoring and constant control over something.

The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Menn in 1972. at the UN Stockholm Conference.

In our country, Yu.A. was one of the first to develop monitoring theory. Israel. Clarifying the definition of environmental monitoring, Yu.A. Israel back in 1974 focused not only on observation, but also on forecasting, introducing the anthropogenic factor into the definition of the term “environmental monitoring” as the main cause of these changes. Monitoring environmentit calls a system of observation, assessment and forecast of anthropogenic changes in the state of the natural environment. (Fig.1) . The Stockholm Conference on the Environment (1972) marked the beginning of the creation of global environmental monitoring systems (GEMS/ GEMS).

Monitoring includes the followingmain directions activities:

• Observations of factors affecting the natural environment and the state of the environment;
• Assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;
• Forecast of the state of the natural environment. And an assessment of this condition.

Thus, monitoring is a multi-purpose information system of observation, analysis, diagnosis and forecast of the state of the natural environment, which does not include environmental quality management, but provides the necessary information for such management (Fig. 2).

Information system/monitoring/Management

Rice. 2. Block diagram of the monitoring system.

2. Objectives of environmental monitoring

1. Scientific and technical support for monitoring, assessing the forecast of the state of the environment;
2. Monitoring the sources of pollutants and the level of environmental pollution;
3. Identification of sources and factors of pollution and assessment of the degree of their impact on the environment;
4. Assessment of the actual state of the environment;
5. Forecast of changes in the state of the environment and ways to improve the situation. (Fig.3.)

The essence and content of environmental monitoring consists of an ordered set of procedures, organized into cycles: N 1 observations, O 1 assessment, P 1 forecast and U 1 management. Then the observations are supplemented with new data, on a new cycle, and then the cycles are repeated on a new time interval H 2, O 2, P 2, U 2, etc. (Fig. 4.)

Thus, monitoring is a complex, cyclically functioning, constantly operating system that develops in a spiral over time.

Rice. 4. Scheme of monitoring functioning over time.

3. Classification of monitoring.

1. According to the scale of observation;
2. By objects of observation;
3. According to the level of contamination of observation objects;
4. By factors and sources of pollution;
5. According to observation methods.

By scale of observation

Detailed monitoring

The lowest hierarchical level is the detailed levelenvironmental monitoring implemented within territories and on the scale of individual enterprises, factories, individual engineering structures, economic complexes, fields, etc. Detailed environmental monitoring systems are the most important link in a higher-ranking system. Their integration into a larger network forms a local level monitoring system.

Local monitoring (impact)

It is carried out in heavily polluted places (cities, settlements, water bodies, etc.) and is focused on the source of pollution. IN

Due to the proximity to sources of pollution, all the main substances included in emissions into the atmosphere and discharge into water bodies are usually present in significant quantities here. Local systems, in turn, are combined into even larger regional monitoring systems.

Regional monitoring

It is carried out within a certain region, taking into account the natural nature, type and intensity of man-made impact. Regional environmental monitoring systems are united within one state into a single national monitoring network.

National monitoring

Monitoring system within one state. Such a system differs from global monitoring not only in scale, but also in the fact that the main task of national monitoring is to obtain information and assess the state of the environment in national interests. In Russia it is carried out under the leadership of the Ministry of Natural Resources. Within the framework of the UN environmental program, the task has been set to unite national monitoring systems into a single interstate network “Global Environmental Monitoring Network” (GEMN)

Global monitoring

The purpose of GSMS is to monitor changes in the environment on Earth as a whole, on a global scale. Global monitoring is a system for monitoring the state and forecasting possible changes in global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impact on the biosphere as a whole. GSMOS deals with global warming, problems of the ozone layer, forest conservation, drought, etc. .

By objects of observation

1. Atmospheric air
2. in populated areas;
3. different layers of the atmosphere;
4. stationary and mobile sources of pollution.
5. Groundwater and surface water bodies
6. fresh and salt waters;
7. mixing zones;
8. regulated water bodies;
9. natural reservoirs and watercourses.
10. Geological environment
11. soil layer;
12. soils.
13. Biological monitoring
14. plants;
15. animals;
16. ecosystems;
17. Human.
18. Snow cover monitoring
19. Background radiation monitoring.

Pollution level of observation objects

1. Background (basic monitoring)

These are observations of environmental objects in relatively clean natural areas.

2. Impact

Focuses on the source of pollution or individual polluting impact.

By factors and sources of pollution

1. Ingradient monitoring

This is a physical impact on the environment. These are radiation, thermal effects, infrared, noise, vibration, etc.

2. Ingredient monitoring

This is monitoring of a single pollutant.

By observation methods

1. Contact methods

2. Remote methods.

4. Assessment of the actual state of the environment

Assessment of the actual state is a key area within the framework of environmental monitoring. It allows you to determine trends in changes in the state of the environment; the degree of trouble and its causes; helps make decisions to normalize the situation. Favorable situations can also be identified, indicating the presence of ecological reserves of nature.

The ecological reserve of a natural ecosystem is the difference between the maximum permissible and actual state of the ecosystem.

The method for analyzing observation results and assessing the state of the ecosystem depends on the type of monitoring. Typically, the assessment is carried out using a set of indicators or conditional indices developed for the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Unfortunately, there are no unified criteria even for identical elements of the natural environment. As an example, we will consider only individual criteria.

In sanitary and hygienic monitoring they usually use:

1) comprehensive assessments of the sanitary condition of natural objects based on a set of measured indicators (Table 1) or 2) pollution indices.

Table 1.

Comprehensive assessment of the sanitary condition of water bodies based on a combination of physical, chemical and hydrobiological indicators

The general principle for calculating pollution indices is as follows: first, the degree of deviation of the concentration of each pollutant from its MPC is determined, and then the resulting values ​​are combined into a total indicator that takes into account the impact of several substances.

Let us give examples of calculating pollution indices used to assess atmospheric air pollution (AP) and surface water quality (WQ).

Calculation of the air pollution index (API).

In practical work, a large number of different ISAs are used. Some of them are based on indirect indicators of air pollution, for example, atmospheric visibility, transparency coefficient.

Various ISAs, which can be divided into 2 main groups:

1. Unit indices of air pollution by one impurity.

2.Comprehensive indicators of air pollution by several substances.

TO unit indices relate:

Coefficient for expressing the concentration of an impurity in MPC units ( A ), i.e. the value of the maximum or average concentration, reduced to the maximum permissible concentration:

a = Cί / MPCί

This API is used as a criterion for the quality of atmospheric air by individual impurities.

Repeatability (g ) concentrations of impurities in the air above a given level by post or by K posts of the city for the year. This is the percentage (%) of cases where single values ​​of impurity concentration exceed a given level:

g = (m/n) ּ100%

where n - number of observations for the period under consideration, m - number of cases of exceeding one-time concentrations at the post.

IZA (I ) by an individual impurity - a quantitative characteristic of the level of atmospheric pollution by an individual impurity, taking into account the hazard class of the substance through standardization for the danger SO 2 :

I = (C g /PDKss) Ki

where I is an impurity, Ki - constant for various hazard classes in reducing the degree of harmfulness of sulfur dioxide, C g - average annual concentration of impurities.

For substances of different hazard classes Ki is accepted:

The calculation of the API is based on the assumption that at the MPC level, all harmful substances are characterized by the same effect on humans, and with a further increase in concentration, the degree of their harmfulness increases at different rates, which depends on the hazard class of the substance.

This API is used to characterize the contribution of individual impurities to the overall level of air pollution over a given period of time in a given area and to compare the degree of air pollution by various substances.

TO complex indexes relate:

The comprehensive city air pollution index (CIPA) is a quantitative characteristic of the level of air pollution created by n substances present in the city atmosphere:

KIZA=

where Ii - unit index of air pollution by the i-th substance.

The comprehensive index of air pollution by priority substances is a quantitative characteristic of the level of air pollution by priority substances that determine air pollution in cities, calculated similarly to KIZA.

Calculations of the natural water pollution index (WPI)can also be performed using several methods.

Let us give as an example the calculation method recommended by the regulatory document, which is an integral part of the Rules for the Protection of Surface Waters (1991) - SanPiN 4630-88.

First, the measured concentrations of pollutants are grouped according to limiting signs of harmfulness - LPV (organoleptic, toxicological and general sanitary). Then, for the first and second (organoleptic and toxicological DP) groups, the degree of deviation (A i ) actual concentrations of substances ( C i ) from their maximum permissible concentration i , the same as for atmospheric air ( A i = C i /MPC i ). Next, find the sums of indicators A i , for the first and second groups of substances:

where S is the sum of A i for substances regulated by organoleptic ( S org ) and toxicological ( S tox ) LPV; n - number of summarized water quality indicators.

In addition, to determine WPI, the amount of oxygen dissolved in water and BOD are used 20 (general sanitary LPV), bacteriological indicator - the number of lactose-positive Escherichia coli (LPKP) in 1 liter of water, smell and taste. The water pollution index is determined in accordance with the hygienic classification of water bodies according to the degree of pollution (Table 2).

Comparing the corresponding indicators ( Sorg, Stox, BOD 20 etc.) with the estimated ones (see Table 2), determine the pollution index, the degree of pollution of the water body and the water quality class. The pollution index is determined by the most stringent value of the assessment indicator. So, if according to all indicators water belongs to quality class I, but the oxygen content in it is less than 4.0 mg/l (but more than 3.0 mg/l), then the WPI of such water should be taken as 1 and classified as class II quality (moderate degree of contamination).

The types of water use depend on the degree of water pollution of a water body (Table 3).

Table 2.

Hygienic classification of water bodies by degree of pollution (according to SanPiN 4630-88)

Table 3

Possible types of water use depending on the degree of pollution of the water body (according to SanPiN4630-88)

To assess water quality, the services of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation use the methodology for calculating WPI only based on chemical indicators, but taking into account more stringent fishery MPCs. At the same time, there are not 4, but 7 quality classes:

I - very clean water (WPI = 0.3);

II - pure (WPI = 0.3 - 1.0);

III - moderately polluted (WPI = 1.0 - 2.5);

IV - polluted (WPI = 2.5 - 4.0);

V - dirty (WPI = 4.0 - 6.0);

VI - very dirty (WPI = 6.0 - 10.0);

VII - extremely dirty (WPI more than 10.0).

Assessment of the level of chemical contamination of soilcarried out according to indicators developed in geochemical and geohygienic studies. These indicators are:

• chemical concentration factor (K i),

K i = C i / C fi

where C i actual content of the analyte in the soil, mg/kg;

With fi regional background content of the substance in soil, mg/kg.

In the presence of maximum permissible concentration i for the soil type under consideration, K i determined by the multiple of exceeding the hygienic standard, i.e. according to the formula

K i = C i / MPC i

• total pollution index Z c , which is determined by the sum of the concentration coefficients of chemical substances:

Zc = ∑ K i (n -1)

Where n number of pollutants in the soil, K i - concentration coefficient.

The approximate rating scale of the danger of soil pollution according to the total indicator is presented in table. 3.

Table 3

Environmental monitoring is of particular importance in the global systemenvironmental monitoring and, first of all, in monitoring renewable resources of the biosphere. It includes observations of the ecological state of terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems.

The following criteria can be used to characterize changes in the state of natural systems: balance of production and destruction; the amount of primary production, the structure of the biocenosis; rate of circulation of nutrients, etc. All these criteria are numerically expressed by various chemical and biological indicators. Thus, changes in the Earth's vegetation cover are determined by changes in the area of ​​forests.

The main result of environmental monitoring should be an assessment of the responses of ecosystems as a whole to anthropogenic disturbances.

A response or reaction of an ecosystem is a change in its ecological state in response to external influences. It is best to evaluate the system's response by integral indicators of its state, which can be used as various indices and other functional characteristics. Let's look at some of them:

1. One of the most common responses of aquatic ecosystems to anthropogenic impacts is eutrophication. Consequently, monitoring changes in indicators that integrally reflect the degree of eutrophication of a reservoir, for example pH 100% , is the most important element of environmental monitoring.

2. The response to “acid rain” and other anthropogenic impacts may be a change in the structure of biocenoses of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. To assess such a response, various indices of species diversity are widely used, reflecting the fact that under any unfavorable conditions the diversity of species in the biocenosis decreases, and the number of resistant species increases.

Dozens of such indices have been proposed by different authors. The most widely used indices are those based on information theory, for example, the Shannon index:

where N - total number of individuals; S - number of species; N i is the number of individuals of the i-th species.

In practice, they deal not with the number of a species in the entire population (in a sample), but with the number of a species in a sample; replacing N i / N by n i / n , we get:

Maximum diversity is observed when the numbers of all species are equal, and minimum diversity is observed when all species except one are represented by one specimen. Diversity indices ( d ) reflect the structure of the community, weakly depend on the sample size and are dimensionless.

Y. L. Vilm (1970) calculated Shannon diversity indices ( d ) in 22 unpolluted and 21 polluted sections of different US rivers. In uncontaminated areas the index ranged from 2.6 to 4.6, and in polluted areas - from 0.4 to 1.6.

Assessment of the state of ecosystems based on species diversity is applicable to any type of impact and any ecosystem.

3. The system’s response may manifest itself in a decrease in its resistance to anthropogenic stress. As a universal integral criterion for assessing the stability of ecosystems, V.D. Fedorov (1975) proposed a function called the measure of homeostasis and equal to the ratio of functional indicators (for example, pH 100% or photosynthesis rate) to structural (diversity indices).

A feature of environmental monitoring is that the effects of impacts, subtle when studying an individual organism or species, are revealed when considering the system as a whole.

5. Forecast and assessment of the predicted state

Forecasting and assessing the predicted state of ecosystems and the biosphere are based on the results of monitoring the natural environment in the past and present, studying information series of observations and analyzing trends of changes.

At the initial stage, it is necessary to predict changes in the intensity of sources of impacts and pollution, to predict the degree of their influence: to predict, for example, the amount of pollutants in various environments, their distribution in space, changes in their properties and concentrations over time. To make such forecasts, data on human activity plans is needed.

The next stage is the forecast of possible changes in the biosphere under the influence of existing pollution and other factors, since changes that have already occurred (especially genetic ones) can last for many years. Analysis of the predicted state allows you to select priority environmental measures and make adjustments to economic activities at the regional level.

Forecasting the state of ecosystems is essential for managing the quality of the natural environment.

In assessing the ecological state of the biosphere on a global scale based on integral characteristics (averaged in space and time), remote observation methods play an exceptional role. The leading methods among them are those based on the use of space assets. For these purposes, special satellite systems are being created (Meteor in Russia, Landsat in the USA, etc.). Synchronous three-level observations using satellite systems, aircraft and ground services are especially effective. They make it possible to obtain information about the state of forests, agricultural lands, marine phytoplankton, soil erosion, urbanized areas, redistribution of water resources, atmospheric pollution, etc. For example, a correlation is observed between the spectral brightness of the planet’s surface and the humus content in soils and their salinity.

Satellite imaging provides ample opportunities for geobotanical zoning; allows us to judge population growth based on the area of ​​settlements; energy consumption based on the brightness of night lights; clearly identify dust layers and temperature anomalies associated with radioactive decay; record increased concentrations of chlorophyll in water bodies; detect forest fires and much more.

In Russia since the late 60s. There is a unified national system of observation and control of environmental pollution. It is based on the principle of comprehensive observations of natural environments according to hydrometeorological, physicochemical, biochemical and biological parameters. Observations are organized according to a hierarchical principle.

The first stage is local observation points serving the city, region and consisting of control and measuring stations and a computer center for collecting and processing information (CIS). Then the data enters the second level - regional (territorial), from where the information is transferred to local interested organizations. The third level is the Main Data Center, which collects and summarizes information across the country. For this purpose, PCs are now widely used and digital raster maps are created.

Currently, the Unified State Environmental Monitoring System (USESM) is being created, the purpose of which is to provide objective, comprehensive information on the state of the natural environment. The Unified State Environmental Monitoring System includes monitoring of: sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment; pollution of the abiotic component of the natural environment; biotic components of the natural environment.

Within the framework of the Unified State Environmental Monitoring System, the creation of environmental information services is provided. Monitoring is carried out by the State Observation Service (SOS).

Observations of atmospheric air in 1996 were carried out in 284 cities at 664 posts. The observation network for surface water pollution in the Russian Federation as of January 1, 1996 consisted of 1928 points, 2617 sections, 2958 verticals, 3407 horizons located on 1363 water bodies (1979 - 1200 water bodies); of which - 1204 watercourses and 159 reservoirs. As part of the State Monitoring of the Geological Environment (SMGE), the observation network included 15,000 groundwater observation points, 700 observation sites for hazardous exogenous processes, 5 test sites and 30 wells for studying earthquake precursors.

Among all the blocks of the USEM, the most complex and least developed not only in Russia, but also in the world is the monitoring of the biotic component. There is no uniform methodology for the use of living objects either for assessing or regulating environmental quality. Consequently, the primary task is to determine biotic indicators for each of the monitoring blocks at the federal and territorial levels, differentiated for terrestrial, aquatic and soil ecosystems.

To manage the quality of the natural environment, it is important not only to have information about its condition, but also to determine damage from anthropogenic impacts, economic efficiency, environmental measures, and to master economic mechanisms for protecting the natural environment.

Actual condition

environment

Environmental conditions

environment

For the state

environment

And the factors on

influencing it

Forecast

price

Observations

Monitoring

observations

State forecast

Assessment of actual condition

Assessment of the predicted state

Regulation of environmental quality

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

TASK

TARGET

OBSERVATION

GRADE

FORECAST

DECISION-MAKING

STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT

IDENTIFICATION

for changes in the state of the environment

proposed environmental changes

observed changes and identifying the effect of human activities

causes of environmental change associated with human activities

to prevent

negative consequences of human activity

optimal relations between society and the environment

Fig.3. Main tasks and purpose of monitoring

H 1

O 2

H 2

P 1

O 1

Environmental monitoring

Introduction

The environmental monitoring system must accumulate, systematize and analyze information:
about the state of the environment;
about the causes of observed and probable changes in state (i.e.
sources and influence factors);
about the admissibility of changes and loads on the environment as a whole;
about existing biosphere reserves.
Thus, the environmental monitoring system includes observations of the state of elements of the biosphere and observations of sources and factors of anthropogenic impact.
In accordance with the above definitions and the functions assigned to the system, monitoring includes three main areas of activity:
monitoring impact factors and environmental conditions;
assessment of the actual state of the environment;
forecast of the state of the natural environment and assessment
predicted state.

It should be taken into account that the monitoring system itself does not include environmental quality management activities, but is a source of information necessary for making environmentally significant decisions.
Main tasks of environmental monitoring:
monitoring sources of anthropogenic impact;
monitoring of anthropogenic impact factors;
monitoring the state of the natural environment and what is happening in it
processes under the influence of anthropogenic factors;
assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;
forecast of changes in the state of the natural environment under the influence of factors
anthropogenic impact and assessment of the predicted state
natural environment.
Environmental monitoring of the environment can be developed at the level of an industrial facility, city, region, territory, republic within the federation.

The nature and mechanism for generalizing information about the environmental situation as it moves through the hierarchical levels of the environmental monitoring system are determined using the concept of an information portrait of the environmental situation. The latter is a set of graphically presented spatially distributed data characterizing the ecological situation in a certain territory, together with a basic map of the area.
When developing an environmental monitoring project, the following information is required:

Sources of pollutants entering the natural environment are emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere from industrial, energy, transport and others, leading to the release of hazardous substances into the atmosphere and spills of liquid pollutants and hazardous substances, etc.;

Transfers of pollutants - processes of atmospheric transfer; processes of transfer and migration in the aquatic environment;

Processes of landscape-geochemical redistribution of pollutants - migration of pollutants along the soil profile to the groundwater level; migration of pollutants along landscape-geochemical interfaces, taking into account geochemical barriers and
biochemical cycles; biochemical cycle, etc.;

Data on the state of anthropogenic sources of pollution - the power of the source of pollution and its location, hydrodynamic conditions for the entry of pollution into the environment.

It should be taken into account that the monitoring system itself does not include environmental quality management activities, but is a source of information necessary for making environmentally significant decisions. The term control, often used in Russian-language literature to describe the analytical determination of certain parameters (for example, monitoring the composition of atmospheric air, monitoring the quality of water in reservoirs), should be used only in relation to activities that involve the adoption of active regulatory measures.

“Environmental control” is the activity of government bodies, enterprises and citizens to comply with environmental standards and regulations. There are state, industrial and public environmental control.
The legislative framework for environmental control is regulated by the Law of the Russian Federation “On Environmental Protection”;
1. Environmental control sets its objectives: monitoring
state of the environment and its changes under the influence of economic and
other activities; checking the implementation of security plans and measures
nature, rational use of natural resources, health improvement
environment, compliance with requirements
environmental legislation and environmental quality standards.
2. The environmental control system consists of a public service
monitoring the state of the natural environment, state,
industrial, public control. Thus, in
environmental legislation state monitoring service
defined in fact as part of the overall environmental control system.

Classification of environmental monitoring

There are different approaches to the classification of monitoring (by the nature of the tasks being solved, by levels of organization, by the natural environments being monitored). The classification reflected in Fig. 2 covers the entire block of environmental monitoring, monitoring the changing abiotic component of the biosphere and the response of ecosystems to these changes. Thus, environmental monitoring includes both geophysical and biological aspects, which determines a wide range of research methods and techniques used in its implementation.

As already noted, environmental monitoring in the Russian Federation is the responsibility of various government services. This leads to some uncertainty (at least for the public) regarding the distribution of responsibilities of public services and the availability of information about sources of impact, the state of the environment and natural resources. The situation is aggravated by periodic restructuring of ministries and departments, their mergers and divisions.

At the regional level, environmental monitoring and/or control is usually the responsibility of:
Committee on Ecology (observation and control of emissions and discharges
operating enterprises).
Committee on Hydrometeorology and Monitoring (impact, regional and partly
background monitoring).
Sanitary and Epidemiological Service of the Ministry of Health (condition of workers, residential and
recreational areas, quality of drinking water and food).
Ministry of Natural Resources (primarily geological and
hydrogeological observations).
Enterprises carrying out emissions and discharges into the environment
(monitoring and control of own emissions and discharges).
Various departmental structures (divisions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Ministry of Emergency Situations,
Ministry of Fuel and Energy, water and sewerage enterprises, etc.)
In order to effectively use the information already received by government services, it is important to know exactly the functions of each of them in the field of environmental monitoring (taol_ 2).
The system of official environmental monitoring involves powerful professional forces. Is public environmental monitoring still needed? Is there a place for it in the general monitoring system existing in the Russian Federation?
In order to answer these questions, let us consider the levels of environmental monitoring adopted in Russia (Fig. 4).

Ideally, an impact monitoring system should accumulate and analyze detailed information about specific sources of pollution and their impact on the environment. But in the system that has developed in the Russian Federation, information about the activities of enterprises and the state of the environment in the zone of their influence is mostly averaged or based on statements by the enterprises themselves. Most of the available materials reflect the nature of the dispersion of pollutants in air and water, established using model calculations, and the results of measurements (quarterly for water, annual or less frequent for air). The state of the environment is sufficiently fully described only in large cities and industrial zones.

In the field of regional monitoring, observations are carried out mainly by Roshydromet, which has an extensive network, as well as by some departments (agrochemical service of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food, water and sewerage service, etc.) And, finally, there is a network of background monitoring carried out within the framework of the MAB (Man and Biosphere) program. Small towns and numerous settlements, the vast majority of diffuse sources of pollution, remain practically not covered by the observation network. Monitoring of the state of the aquatic environment, organized primarily by Roshydromet and, to some extent, by sanitary-epidemiological (SES) and utility (Vodokanal) services, does not cover the vast majority of small rivers. At the same time, it is known that< загрязнение больших рек в значительной части обусловлено вкладом разветвленной сети их притоков и хозяйственной деятельностью в водосборе. В условиях сокращения общего числ; постов наблюдений очевидно, что государство в настоящее время не располагает ресурсами для организации сколько-нибудь эффективной системы мониторинга состояния малых рек.

Thus, the ecological map clearly shows the white spots where systematically! no observations are carried out. Moreover, within the framework of the state environmental monitoring network, there are no prerequisites for their organization in these places. It is these white spots that can (and often should) become objects of public environmental monitoring. The practical orientation of monitoring, the concentration of efforts on local problems, combined with a well-thought-out design and correct interpretation of the data obtained, make it possible to effectively use the resources available to the public. In addition, these features of public monitoring create serious preconditions for organizing a constructive dialogue aimed at consolidating the efforts of all participants. Global Environmental Monitoring System. In 1975 The Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) was organized under the auspices of the UN, but it began to operate effectively only recently. This system consists of 5 interconnected subsystems: the study of climate change, long-distance transport of environmental pollutants, hygienic aspects of the environment, research of the World Ocean and land resources. There are 22 networks of active global monitoring system stations, as well as international and national monitoring systems. One of the main ideas of monitoring is reaching a fundamentally new level of competence when making decisions on a local, regional and global scale.

The concept of public environmental review arose in the late 80s and quickly became widespread. The original interpretation of this term was very broad. Independent environmental assessment meant various methods of obtaining and analyzing information (environmental monitoring, environmental impact assessment, independent research, etc.). Currently, the concept of public environmental assessment is defined by law. “Ecological expertise” - establishing the compliance of the planned economic and other activities with environmental requirements and the admissibility of the implementation of the object of expertise in order to prevent possible adverse impacts of this activity on the environment and the associated social, economic and other consequences of the implementation of the object of environmental expertise.

Environmental assessment can be state and public. Public environmental assessment is carried out on the initiative of citizens and public organizations (associations), as well as on the initiative of local government bodies by public organizations (associations).
The objects of state environmental assessment are:
draft master plans for the development of territories,
all types of urban planning documentation (for example, master plan, development project),
draft schemes for the development of sectors of the national economy,
projects of interstate investment programs, projects of comprehensive schemes for nature conservation, schemes for the protection and use of natural resources (including land use and forest management projects, materials justifying the transfer of forest lands to non-forest lands),
draft international treaties,
materials for justifying licenses to carry out activities that may have an impact on the environment,
feasibility studies and projects for construction, reconstruction, expansion, technical re-equipment, conservation and liquidation of organizations and other objects of economic activity, regardless of their estimated cost, departmental affiliation and forms of ownership,
draft technical documentation for new equipment, technology, materials, substances, certified goods and services.
A public environmental assessment can be carried out in relation to the same objects as a state environmental assessment, with the exception of objects, information about which constitutes a state, commercial and (or) other secret protected by law.
The purpose of environmental impact assessment is to prevent possible adverse impacts of the proposed activity on the environment and associated socio-economic and other consequences.

According to the Law, environmental assessment is based on the principle of presumption of potential environmental danger of any planned economic or other activity. This means that the responsibility of the customer (the owner of the proposed activity) is to forecast the impact of the proposed activity on the environment and justify the admissibility of this impact. The customer is also obliged to provide the necessary measures to protect the environment and it is he who bears the burden of proving the environmental safety of the planned activity. Foreign experience shows the high economic efficiency of environmental assessment. The US Environmental Protection Agency conducted a sample review of the environmental impact statements. In half of the cases studied, a decrease in the total cost of projects was noted due to the implementation of constructive environmental measures. According to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, a possible increase in project costs associated with conducting an environmental impact assessment and subsequent consideration of environmental restrictions in working projects pays off on average in 5-7 years. According to Western experts, the inclusion of environmental factors in the decision-making process at the design stage turns out to be 3-4 times cheaper than the subsequent stage before installation of treatment equipment. Today, the network of observations of sources of impact and the state of the biosphere already covers the entire globe. The Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) was created through the joint efforts of the world community (the main provisions and goals of the program were formulated in 1974 at the First Intergovernmental Monitoring Meeting).
The primary task was recognized to be the organization of monitoring of environmental pollution and the impact factors causing it.

The monitoring system is implemented at several levels, which correspond to specially developed programs:
impact (study of strong impacts on a local scale in-I);
regional (manifestation of problems of migration and transformation of pollutants, joint impact of various factors characteristic of the regional economy - R);
background (on the basis of biosphere reserves, where any economic activity is excluded - F).
An impact monitoring program can be aimed, for example, at studying the discharges or emissions of a particular enterprise. The subject of regional monitoring, as its name suggests, is the state of the environment within a particular region. Finally, background monitoring, carried out within the framework of the international Man and the Biosphere program, aims to record the background state of the environment, which is necessary for further assessments of the levels of anthropogenic impact.
Observation programs are formed according to the principle of selection of pollutants and their corresponding characteristics. The definition of these pollutants when organizing monitoring systems depends on the purpose and objectives of specific programs: for example, on a territorial scale, priority of state monitoring systems is given to cities, drinking water sources and fish spawning grounds; With regard to observation environments, atmospheric air and fresh water deserve priority attention. The priority of ingredients is determined taking into account criteria reflecting the toxic properties of pollutants, the volume of their release into the environment, the characteristics of their transformation, the frequency and magnitude of the impact on humans and biota, the possibility of organizing measurements and other factors.

State environmental monitoring

GEMS is based on national monitoring systems that operate in various countries in accordance with both international requirements and specific approaches that have developed historically or due to the nature of the most pressing environmental problems. International requirements that national systems participating in GSMS must satisfy include uniform principles for developing programs (taking into account priority impact factors), mandatory observations of objects of global significance, and transfer of information to the GSMS Center. On the territory of the USSR in the 70s, on the basis of hydrometeorological service stations, the National Service for Observation and Control of the State of the Environment (OGSNK), built on a hierarchical principle, was organized.

Rice. 3. Information tray in the hierarchical system OGSNK

In a processed and systematized form, the information received is presented in cadastral publications, such as Annual data on the composition and quality of land surface waters (according to hydrochemical and hydrobiological indicators), Yearbook of the state of the atmosphere in cities and industrial centers, etc. Until the end of the 80s, all cadastral publications were marked for official use, then for 3-5 years they were open and available in central libraries. To date, massive collections such as Annual Data... practically do not reach libraries. Some materials can be obtained (purchased) from regional branches of Roshydromet.
In addition to OGSNK, which is part of the Roshydromet system (Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring), environmental monitoring is carried out by a number of services, ministries and departments.
Unified state environmental monitoring system
In order to radically increase the efficiency of work to preserve and improve the state of the environment, ensuring human environmental safety in the Russian Federation, “On the creation of a Unified State System of Environmental Monitoring” (USEM).
EGSEM solves the following problems:
development of observation programs for the state of the natural environment (ES) on the territory of Russia, in its individual regions and areas;
organizing observations and carrying out measurements of indicators of environmental monitoring objects;
ensuring the reliability and comparability of observation data both in individual regions and districts, and throughout Russia;
collection and processing of observational data;
organizing the storage of observation data, maintaining special data banks characterizing the environmental situation on the territory of Russia and in its individual regions;
harmonization of banks and environmental information databases with international environmental information systems;
assessment and forecast of the state of environmental protection facilities and anthropogenic impacts on them, natural resources, responses of ecosystems and public health to changes in the state of environmental protection areas;
organizing and conducting operational monitoring and precision changes in radioactive and chemical contamination as a result of accidents and disasters, as well as forecasting the environmental situation and assessing the damage caused to the hazardous environment;
ensuring the availability of integrated environmental information to a wide range of consumers, including the population, social movements and organizations;
information support for management bodies on the state of environmental protection, natural resources and environmental safety;
development and implementation of a unified scientific and technical policy in the field of environmental monitoring;
creation and improvement of organized, legal, regulatory, methodological, methodological, information, software, mathematical, hardware and technical support for the functioning of the Unified State System of Electrical System.
EGSEM, in turn, includes the following main components:
monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment;
monitoring of pollution of the abiotic component of the natural environment;
monitoring of the biotic component of the natural environment;
social and hygienic monitoring;
ensuring the creation and functioning of environmental information systems.

In this case, the distribution of functions between the central bodies of the executive federal power is carried out as follows.
State Committee for Ecology: coordination of the activities of ministries and departments, enterprises and organizations in the field of environmental protection monitoring; organization of monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment and areas of their direct impact; organization of monitoring of flora and fauna, monitoring of terrestrial fauna and flora (except forests); ensuring the creation and functioning of environmental information systems; maintaining data banks on the natural environment, natural resources and their use with interested ministries and departments. Roshydromet: organization of monitoring of the state of the atmosphere, surface waters of land, the marine environment, soils, near-Earth space, including comprehensive background and space monitoring of the state of the natural environment; coordination of the development and functioning of departmental background monitoring subsystems
OPS contamination; maintaining a state fund of data on environmental pollution.

Roskomzem: land monitoring.
Ministry of Natural Resources: monitoring of subsoil, including monitoring of groundwater and hazardous geological processes; monitoring of the aquatic environment of water management systems and structures in areas of water collection and wastewater discharge. Roskomrybolovstvo: monitoring of fish, other animals and plants.

Rosleskhoz: forest monitoring.
Roskartografiya: implementation of topographic, geodetic and cartographic support for the Unified State System of Geophysical Surveys, including the creation of digital, electronic maps and geographic information systems. Gosgortekhnadzor of Russia: coordination of the development and functioning of subsystems for monitoring the geological environment related to the use of subsoil resources at enterprises in the extractive industries; monitoring of industrial safety (with the exception of facilities of the Russian Ministry of Defense and the Russian Ministry of Atomic Energy). State Committee for Epidemiological Surveillance of Russia: monitoring the impact of environmental factors on the health of the population. Russian Ministry of Defense; monitoring of environmental protection and sources of impact on it at military installations; provision of the Unified State System of Electrical Vehicles with dual-use military equipment and systems. Goskomsever of Russia: participation in the development and functioning of the Unified State System of Electrical Energy in the Arctic and Far North regions. Technologies of unified environmental monitoring (UEM) cover the development and use of means, systems and methods of observation, assessment and development of recommendations and control actions in the natural-technogenic sphere, forecasts of its evolution, energy-ecological and technological characteristics of the production sector, medical-biological and sanitary- hygienic conditions for the existence of humans and biota. The complexity of environmental problems, their multidimensional nature, the closest connection with key sectors of the economy, defense and ensuring the protection of the health and well-being of the population requires a unified systematic approach to solving the problem. Monitoring in general is designed to prevent various environmental problems, as well as the destruction of ecosystems.

Extermination of species and destruction of ecosystems

Human impact on the biosphere has led to the fact that many species of animals and plants either disappeared completely or became rare. For mammals and birds, which are easier to count than invertebrates, completely accurate data can be provided. During the period from 1600 to the present, 162 species and subspecies of birds have been exterminated by humans, and 381 species are threatened with the same fate; Among mammals, at least a hundred species have disappeared and 255 are on the path to extinction. The chronology of these sad events is not difficult to trace. In 1627, the last aurochs, the ancestor of our cattle, died in Poland. In the Middle Ages, this animal could still be found in France. In 1671, the dodo disappeared from the island of Mauritius. In 1870-1880 Boers destroyed two species of South African zebras - Burchell's zebra and quagga. In 1914, the last representative of the passenger pigeon died at the Cincinnati Zoo (USA). One could give a large list of animals that are under threat of destruction. The American bison and European bison miraculously survived; the Asiatic lion survived only in one of the forests of India, where only 150 individuals remained; In France, there are fewer and fewer bears and birds of prey every day.
Species extinction today
Extinction is a natural process. However, since the advent of agriculture about 10,000 years ago, the rate of species extinction has increased dramatically as humans spread across the globe. According to rough estimates, in the period between 8000 BC. The average rate of extinction of mammal and bird species has increased 1000 times. If we include the rate of extinction of plant and insect species, the rate of extinction in 1975 was several hundred species per year. If we take a lower limit of 500,000 extinct species, then by 2010 an average of 20,000 species per year will disappear as a result of anthropogenic activities, i.e. a total of 1 species every 30 minutes - a 200-fold increase in extinction rate in just 25 years. Even if the average extinction rate at the end of the 20th century were taken to be 1,000 per year, the total loss would be incomparable to the great mass extinctions of the past. The disappearance of animals receives the greatest publicity. But the disappearance of plants is more important from an ecological point of view, since most animal species directly or indirectly depend on plant food. It is estimated that more than 10% of the world's plant species are threatened with extinction today. By 2010, 16 to 25% of all plant species will disappear.

Principles of a comprehensive characterization of the state of environmental pollution
A comprehensive characterization of the state of pollution is based on the concept of a comprehensive environmental analysis. The main and mandatory condition of this concept is the consideration of all the main aspects of interactions and connections in the natural environment and taking into account all aspects of pollution of natural objects, as well as the behavior of pollutants (pollutants) and the manifestation of their impact.
Program for a comprehensive study of pollution of terrestrial ecosystems
In the context of the increasing load of industrial civilization, environmental pollution is turning into a global factor that determines the development of the natural environment and human health. The prospects for such development of society are disastrous for the existence of a developed civilization. The proposed program makes it possible to realistically assess the complex of problems associated with the organization of environmental monitoring and plan work to study the pollution of a specific area. The program also aims to show that environmental pollution is a real and widespread environmental factor.
Environmental pollution is an objective reality and should not be feared in panic. (An example is radiophobia, i.e. a mental illness associated with a constant fear of radioactive contamination). We must learn to live in changed conditions in such a way as to reduce the impact of pollution on our health and the health of our neighbors. The formation of an environmental outlook is the main way to fight for the preservation and improvement of environmental quality. Usually, in school, extracurricular and university programs of applied ecology, the problems of pollution of water bodies and the world ocean are widely discussed. Particular attention is paid to assessing the condition of reservoirs and local watercourses based on environmental and hydrochemical indicators. Numerous programs exist and operate to assess the ecological state of water bodies. This issue has been well worked out methodologically and scientifically.

Terrestrial ecosystems, of which humans are an integral component, are less studied and are less often used as model objects in educational courses. This is due to the much more complex organization of terrestrial biota. When we consider terrestrial ecosystems, whether natural or significantly modified by humans, the number of internal and external interconnections increases dramatically, the source of pollution or other impact becomes more diffuse, and its impact is more difficult to identify, compared to aquatic ecosystems. The boundaries of ecosystems and territories subject to anthropogenic impact are also blurred. However, it is the state of terrestrial ecosystems, i.e. land area, most noticeably and significantly affects the quality of our lives. The cleanliness of the air we breathe and the food and drinking water we consume are ultimately linked to the state of pollution in terrestrial ecosystems. Since the mid-50s, environmental pollution has assumed a global scale - toxic products of our civilization can now be found anywhere on the planet: heavy metals, pesticides and other toxic organic and inorganic compounds. It took 20 years for scientists and governments around the world to realize the need to create a service for monitoring global environmental pollution.

Under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), it was decided to create a Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) with a coordination center in Nairobi (Kenya). At the first intergovernmental meeting held in 1974 in Nairobi, the main approaches to the creation of comprehensive background monitoring were adopted. Russia is one of the first countries in the world on whose territory, by the mid-80s, a national system of comprehensive background monitoring of the State Committee for Hydrometeorology was created. The system includes a network of complex background monitoring stations (SCFM) located in biosphere reserves, on the territory of which systematic observations of environmental pollution and the state of flora and fauna are carried out. Currently in Russia there are 7 background monitoring stations of the Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring, located in the biosphere reserves: Prioksko-Terrasny, Tsentralnolesny, Voronezh, Astrakhan, Caucasus, Barguzin and Sikhote-Alin.

The SKFM monitors pollution of air, precipitation, surface water, soil, vegetation and animals. These observations make it possible to assess changes in background environmental pollution, i.e. pollution caused not by any one or group of sources, but by the general pollution of a vast territory, caused by the total impact of close (local) and remote sources of pollutants, as well as the general pollution of the planet. Based on these data, it is possible to create a comprehensive description of the contamination of the territory.
In order to draw up a preliminary comprehensive characterization of the contamination of an area, there is no need for long-term monitoring. It is important that when conducting research, the basic requirements and principles on which the concept of research complexity is based are taken into account.

Principles of comprehensive characterization of the state of environmental pollution. A comprehensive characterization of the state of pollution is based on the concept of a comprehensive environmental analysis. The main and mandatory condition of this concept is the consideration of all
the main aspects of interactions and connections in the natural environment and taking into account all aspects of pollution of natural objects, as well as the behavior of pollutants (pollutants) and the manifestation of their impact. With a comprehensive characterization of pollution, pollutants are monitored in all
environments, with great importance attached to the study of the accumulation (accumulation) of one or another pollutant in natural objects or certain landscapes, its transition (translocation) from one natural environment to another and the changes (effects) caused under its influence. The ongoing comprehensive pollution studies are designed to determine the source of pollution, assess its power and exposure time, and find ways to improve the environment. An approach that takes into account the listed requirements is considered to be comprehensive.

In this regard, there are 4 main principles of complexity:
1. Integrity (observations of total indicators).
2. Multi-medium (observations in major natural environments).
3. Systematicity (recreation of biochemical cycles of pollutants).
4. Multicomponent (analysis of various types of pollutants).

When organizing long-term monitoring, special attention is paid to the fifth principle - unification of analysis methods and control and assurance of data quality. Below we describe each of these principles in detail.
It should be noted that when conducting a comprehensive study, not only purely ecological knowledge and methods are used, but also knowledge and methods of geography, geophysics, analytical chemistry, programming, etc.
Integrity
The peculiarity of the integral approach is to use signs of reactions of various natural objects and bioindicators to determine the presence of contamination.

When entering an unfamiliar area, an observant person, and especially a naturalist, can determine the state of pollution in a given area by indirect features. An unnatural smell, a smoky horizon, gray February snow, a rainbow film on the surface of a reservoir and many other features will tell the observer of increased industrial pollution of the area. In the given example, indicators of the state of contamination of the area are inanimate (abiotic) objects - surface air, the surface of snow cover and a reservoir. The most widely used abiotic indicator of industrial pollution of a territory is snow cover and the method of studying it is snow surveying (one of the methodological manuals in this series will be devoted to this method).
When using the integral approach, special attention is paid to the state of living organisms.

Thus, it is known that pine is the most vulnerable to air pollution in our region. With a high level of air pollution with oxides of sulfur, nitrogen and other toxic compounds, a general lightening of the color of the needles, dryness, and yellowing of the edges of the needles are observed. The juniper is drying up in the undergrowth. A few hours after acid rain, the edges of birch leaves turn yellow, the leaves become covered with a gray-yellow coating or specks. With an abundance of nitrogen oxides in the air, algae rapidly develop on tree trunks, while epiphytic fruticose lichens, etc. disappear. The presence of broad-toed crayfish in a reservoir indicates the high purity of the water.
The method of using living organisms as indicators signaling the state of the natural environment is called bioindication, and the living organism itself, the state of which is monitored, is called a bioindicator. In the above examples, living objects served as bioindicators - birch, pine, juniper, epiphytic lichens, broad-toed crayfish.
The use of bioindicators is based on the reaction of any biological organism to a negative impact. At the same time, the set of reactions to the multiple, integral, negative impact of the environment is, as a rule, very limited. The organism either dies, or leaves (if it can) the given area, or ekes out a miserable existence, which can be determined visually or using various tests and a series of special observations (several manuals in this series are devoted to bioindication methods).

The selection and use of bioindicators is entirely in line with environmental science, and bioindication is an intensively developing method for studying the results of impacts. For example, various plants are widely used in air quality observations. In the forest, in each tier, it is possible to distinguish certain types of plants that react in their own way to the state of environmental pollution.
Thus, the integral approach is to use natural objects as indicators of environmental pollution.
At the same time, it is often completely unclear which specific substance was the cause of this or that effect, and it is impossible to draw conclusions about a direct relationship between the indicator species and the pollutant. The peculiarity of the integral approach lies precisely in the fact that this or that indicator object only signals to us that something is wrong in a given area. The use of bioindicators to characterize the state of pollution makes it possible to effectively (i.e., quickly and cheaply) determine the presence of a general, integral impact of pollution on the environment and form only preliminary ideas about the chemical nature of pollution. Unfortunately, it is impossible to accurately determine the chemical composition of pollutants using bioindication methods. In order to specifically determine which substance or group of substances has the most harmful effects, it is necessary to use other research methods. An accurate determination of the type of pollutant impact, its source and the extent of pollution and distribution is impossible without conducting long-term analytical studies in all natural environments.

Multi-medium
When conducting monitoring studies, it is important to cover all major natural environments: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere (mainly soil cover - pedosphere), as well as biota. To analyze the migrations of pollutants, determine the places of their localization and accumulation, and determine the limiting environment, it is necessary to carry out measurements in objects of the main natural environments.
It is especially important to determine the limiting environment, that is, the environment whose pollution determines the pollution of all other environments and natural objects. It is also very important to determine the migration paths of pollutants and the possibilities and coefficients of transition (translocation) of pollutants from one environment (or object) to another. This is what the science of geophysics does.

The main environments (objects) that must be covered when conducting a comprehensive study: air, soil (as part of the lithosphere), surface water and biota. Pollution of each of these environments is characterized by the results of pollutant analyzes in various objects within these environments, the choice of which is important for the results and conclusions obtained. To obtain information about the contamination of a certain object, it is necessary to take a sample for analysis. The basic principles that must be followed when selecting an object and sampling are described below.

Atmosphere.
The main object by which atmospheric pollution is characterized is the ground layer of air. Air samples for analysis are taken at a level of 1.5 - 2 m from the ground surface. Taking an air sample usually involves pumping it through filters, a sorbent (binder) or a measuring device. Special requirements apply to the sampling site. Firstly, the site must be open and more than 100 m from the forest. Measurements under the forest canopy usually give an underestimated result and are more representative of the density of the crowns than the level of air pollution. Air quality can be indirectly judged by precipitation pollution (mainly snow and rain). Precipitation is collected using large funnels, special sediment collectors, or simply basins, only at the moment of precipitation and at the point of air sampling. Sometimes dry deposition samples are used to characterize air pollution, i.e. solid dust particles constantly deposited on the underlying surface. Methodologically, this is a rather complex task, which, however, can be solved quite simply by the snow survey method.

Surface waters.
The main objects of research are small (local) rivers and lakes.
When sampling, special attention must be paid to the fact that water sampling should be carried out 15 - 30 cm below the water surface. This is due to the fact that the surface film is a boundary medium between air and water and the concentrations of most pollutants in it are 10-100 or more times higher than in the water column itself. Pollution of stagnant water bodies can be judged by bottom sediments. When collecting samples, it is important to consider the season in which sampling occurs. There are 4 main seasonal periods: winter and summer low water (minimum level) and spring and autumn floods (maximum level). During low water periods, water levels in reservoirs are minimal, because there is no supply of water with precipitation or the amount of precipitation is less than evaporation. During these periods, the role of underground and groundwater in nutrition is greatest. During periods of floods, the water level in reservoirs and watercourses rises, especially in the spring, during the flood period. During these periods, rain nutrition and nutrition due to snowmelt make up the maximum share. In this case, surface washout of soil particles and pollutants with them into rivers and lakes occurs. For small rivers and streams, rain floods are also distinguished, characterized by an increase in water level within several hours or days after rain, which plays a significant role in the flushing of pollutants from surrounding areas. The state of the water level in reservoirs is important to take into account due to the fact that by the period in which the concentration of pollutants in the water is higher, one can judge its source. If the concentration during the low-water period is higher than during the flood or practically does not change, then pollutants enter the watercourse with ground and underground waters, but if vice versa, with fallout from the atmosphere and washout from the underlying surface.

Lithosphere (pedosphere).
The main object characterizing the contamination of the underlying surface is the soil, especially its upper 5 centimeters. Therefore, in most studies, only this top layer is selected to characterize soil contamination.
When taking soil samples, it is important to identify autochthonous, that is, indigenous, ecosystems formed on elevated areas of the indigenous shore (plakor). Soil contamination in these areas indicates a typical state of contamination. As a rule, these are watershed indigenous forests and raised bogs. It is also necessary to conduct research on soils in accumulative landscapes located in depressions and absorbing pollution from vast areas.

Biota.
The concept of biota includes objects of flora and fauna that live in the study area.
Using these objects as an example, the content of pollutants that tend to accumulate in plants and animals is monitored, that is, substances whose content in biological objects is higher than in abiotic environments. This phenomenon is called bioaccumulation.
The root cause of bioaccumulation is that the entry of a pollutant into a living object occurs much more easily than its removal or decomposition. For example, the radioactive metal strontium (Sr 90) accumulates in the bone tissue of animals, since its properties are very similar to calcium, which is the basis of the mineral component of bones. The body confuses these compounds and includes strontium in the bones. Another example is organochlorine pesticides such as DDT. These substances are highly soluble in fats and poorly soluble in water (this property in chemistry is called lipophilicity). As a result, substances from the intestines do not enter the blood, but into the lymph. With the blood, toxic substances would be delivered to the liver and kidneys - the organs responsible for the decomposition and elimination of toxic substances from the body. Once in the lymph, these substances are distributed throughout the body and dissolved in fats. Thus, a supply of toxic substances is created in fats. Heavy metals, radionuclides, and toxic organic compounds (pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls) also accumulate in animals and plants. These compounds are present in animals and plants in ultra-low concentrations (less than 10 mg/kg), the determination of which requires the use of sophisticated analytical equipment.

Systematicity
We have already spoken in part about the need to take into account the relationships between environments and objects when sampling.
An ideal research system should be able to trace the path of pollutants from source to sink, and from the output point to the target. The monitoring system should work in such a way that, by studying the interactions between environments, it describes the pathways of the biochemical circulation of substances. For this purpose, a systematic approach is used to create transfer models.
On land, the main route for the spread and transfer of pollutants is the atmosphere. The intake of substances is associated with their concentration in the air and fallout from the atmosphere with precipitation and dry deposition. Removal occurs by rivers, streams and surface wash-off during snowmelt and rain. There may not be any transport outside the territory, and substances accumulate in so-called accumulative landscapes - low-lying swamps, depressions, ravines and lakes. To connect all the examined components into a single system, it is necessary to collect parameters of the main abiotic and biotic indicators of objects and ecosystems as a whole.

The main abiotic indicators are:

Climatic:
1) Air temperature and pressure - to bring the volume of pumped air during sampling to normal conditions, as well as to simulate the process of pollutant transfer.
2) Wind speed and direction - paths of pollutant transfer from the source, source identification, modeling of the transfer process, monitoring emissions from the enterprise (source).
3) Precipitation - calculation of pollutant fallout from the atmosphere. Hydrological: water level, flow speed and flow volume -
necessary to determine the time of sampling and calculate the volume of pollutants removed and determine the source (route of entry).

Soil: volumetric weight of soil, type and genetic horizons, mechanical composition. All this needs to be studied to determine the density of pollution and the biological capacity of soils. It is also important to take into account the aeration, drainage and water content of the soil. These indicators characterize the intensity of pollutant disinfection. For example, under anaerobic conditions (without access of oxygen, reduction reactions predominate in the soil) and under conditions of increased moisture (as evidenced by traces of gleying on the soil profile), most pesticides and other complex hydrocarbons (for example, polychlorinated biphenyls) are quite quickly decomposed or consumed by anaerobic microorganisms. Biotic parameters: Key parameters of ecosystems are collected to detect the effects of pollution and to calculate biogeochemical cycles and pollutant translocations in ecosystems. The main parameters are: productivity, litter, total biomass and phytomass. An important characteristic that is used when organizing long-term monitoring of the state of natural ecosystems is the rate of decomposition of litter. Special tests have been developed to monitor the rate of decomposition. At high levels of pollution, the rate of decomposition of litter decreases.

Multicomponent
Modern industry and agriculture use a huge amount of toxic compounds and elements and, accordingly, are powerful sources of environmental pollution. Many of them are xenobiotics, i.e. synthetic substances that are not characteristic of living nature. The cause of deterioration of the ecological situation and oppression of biota can be any of the substances. Until recently, control over the entire spectrum of pollutants was virtually impossible. Trends in the development of analytical methods and instruments have led to the fact that it is now quite possible to obtain information about ultra-low concentrations of almost all substances. However, these devices are too expensive for widespread implementation in practice, and this is not necessary. It is enough to identify the most dangerous or most informative substances and carry out careful monitoring of them. In this case, naturally, one has to put up with the available instrumental methods of analysis.

The GSMOS program identifies the main, most dangerous (priority) pollutants and the most important environments for their control (Table 1). The higher the priority class, the higher their danger to the biosphere and the more thorough the control.
Data on the main priority pollutants are necessary and sufficient to carry out a comprehensive characterization of the territory’s pollution. Many of them are indicative of a whole class of pollutants. Conventionally, pollutants can be divided into 3 types based on their behavior in the natural environment:

1. Substances that are not prone to accumulation in natural environments and to transition from one environment to another (translocation). As a rule, these are gaseous compounds.
The priority observation medium is air.
2. Substances that are partially prone to accumulation, mainly in abiotic environments, as well as migrating in various environments. Such substances include nitrates and other fertilizers, some pesticides, petroleum products, etc.
The priority environment is natural waters and soil.
3. Substances that accumulate in living and inanimate nature and are included in the biogeochemical cycles of ecosystems. This group includes the most dangerous substances for animals and humans - pesticides, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), heavy metals.

The priority environment is soils and biota.
The type (or level) of a surveillance program indicates the extent of the pollutant's distribution.
The impact (local) level indicates that the pollutant is dangerous only close to the source (large city, factory, etc.). At a considerable distance, pollution levels are not dangerous.
The regional level means that in certain regions, over a sufficiently large area, dangerous levels of pollution can be created.
At a basic or global level, pollution has reached planetary proportions.
Table 1. Classification of priority pollutants

Note: I - impact, R - regional, B - basic (global).

Where to start with a comprehensive characterization of pollution?

When starting to create a system of local monitoring of environmental pollution, you should:
1) Clearly define the study area.
2) After this, it is necessary to determine near and distant sources of pollution. This work is called an inventory of pollution sources. To carry it out, it is necessary to identify current and other possible sources of pollution and substances that these sources may emit in the territory of your residence and/or research, as well as estimate the volume of emissions of pollutants emitted (the power of the sources). Sources are divided into point and area. Point, or organized, sources are localized on the ground, i.e. have a specific release point, for example, in the form of a pipe. These can be industrial enterprises, houses with stove heating, boiler houses, landfills.

Area, or unorganized, sources do not have a specific pipe - pollutants are emitted over a certain area. These are roads and railways, farmland on which fertilizers and pesticides are used, forest land that can be treated with insecticides and defoliants.
There are local sources, i.e. located in the study area or within 10-20 km from it and regional, located 50-200 km. In this case, you should try to evaluate the sources and identify the most powerful ones that determine the level of pollution in your area.

For example, the zone of influence of a regional point source, the Monchegorsk mining plant Severonikel, extends over an area of ​​more than 100 km. In an area up to 20 km from the plant, acid precipitation has burned out all vegetation except for the most resistant mosses, and contamination of soils and, accordingly, mushrooms and berries with heavy metals spreads within a radius of 50 km from the plant.
In such cases, smaller sources of heavy metals and sulfur compounds have virtually no effect on the overall pollution picture, because completely suppressed by a more powerful source. The measurement results will thus be determined by meteorological factors of pollutant transfer and the intensity of emissions from the plant.

It is also important to pay attention to the ways in which pollutants spread. Substances from a source into the environment may be released into the atmosphere or discharged into a watercourse or sewer. Inventorying sources is painstaking and difficult work. However, a successfully completed inventory of sources promises half the success of your endeavor. You can obtain the necessary information about the sources and power of emissions from local environmental committees. Each industrial facility that releases the products of its activities into the environment has an environmental passport and is required to conduct an inventory of pollution sources on its territory. 3) At the third stage, using knowledge and bioindication techniques, one should try to detect effects. 4) The fourth stage includes a comprehensive examination of all environments based on the measuring instruments you have. Here, at first, simple tablet studies will be of great benefit, for example, snow surveying and analysis of snow samples for the content and composition of solid particles and the concentration of hydrogen ions (pH). After the survey, you can already judge the degree of industrial and agricultural pollution in your area and identify the most significant sources of pollution.

5) After this, you can begin under-the-flare observations and organize monitoring of the activities of a specific enterprise that makes the maximum contribution to the pollution of your area. The essence of under-flare observations is that information collection points (points) are established in the direction of the prevailing winds at an equal distance from the source. At the same time, it is good to combine various research methods - chemical, biological (for example, bioindication), geographical, etc. On the windward side, at some distance from the source, it is also necessary to establish an observation point that will play the role of a control point, but only if it is not located on the windward side of another equally powerful source. By comparing the results obtained from downwind points located at different distances from the source between each other and with the control point, one can clearly show the influence of a given enterprise on the state of the environment and determine the zone of its influence.

Of course, with limited observations, you cannot reconstruct biogeochemical cycles. This task can only be accomplished by large scientific teams, but you will already be able to judge the level of pollution and the sources that make the maximum contribution to the pollution of the natural environment in your area. The ultimate goal of conducting a comprehensive survey of the territory is to assess the state of pollution in your area. The assessment includes comparing the levels of pollution in your area with other areas, the usual, background level of pollution for selected pollutants and determining the strength of the impact and compliance of the quality of the environment with accepted maximum permissible standards. Unfortunately, environmental standards have not been fully developed and often it is necessary to use only sanitary and hygienic standards given in the list of additional literature. You can find background levels in local SES, environmental committees and in Roshydromet yearbooks.

References:
"Program for a comprehensive study of pollution of terrestrial ecosystems (Introduction to the problem of monitoring the natural environment)" Yu.A. Buivolov, A.S. Bogolyubov, M.: Ecosystem, 1997.