The period of the reign of the Russian tsars. Old Russian princes

The Norman or Varangian theory, which reveals aspects of the formation of statehood in Rus', is based on one simple thesis - the calling of the Varangian prince Rurik by the Novgorodians to manage and protect a large territory of the Ilmen Slovenian tribal union. Thus, the answer to the question of what event is associated with the emergence of the dynasty is quite clear.

This thesis is present in the ancient one, written by Nestor. At the moment it is controversial, but one fact is still indisputable - Rurik became the founder of a whole dynasties of sovereigns who ruled not only in Kyiv, but also in other cities of the Russian land, including Moscow, and that is why the dynasty of rulers of Rus' was called Rurikovich.

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History of the dynasty: the beginning

The genealogy is quite complex, it is not so easy to understand it, but the beginning of the Rurik dynasty is very easy to trace.

Rurik

Rurik became the first prince in his dynasty. Its origin is a highly controversial issue. Some historians suggest that he was from a noble Varangian-Scandinavian family.

Rurik's ancestors came from the trading Hedeby (Scandinavia) and were related to Ragnar Lothbrok himself. Other historians, distinguishing between the concepts of “Norman” and “Varangian”, believe that Rurik was of Slavic origin, perhaps he was related to the Novgorod prince Gostomysl (it is believed that Gostomysl was his grandfather), and for a long time he lived with his family on the island of Rügen .

Most likely, he was a jarl, that is, he had a military squad and kept boats, engaging in trade and sea robbery. But precisely with his calling first to Staraya Ladoga, and then to Novgorod the beginning of the dynasty is connected.

Rurik was called to Novgorod in 862 (when he began to rule exactly, of course, is unknown; historians rely on data from the PVL). The chronicler claims that he came not alone, but with two brothers - Sinius and Truvor (traditional Varangian names or nicknames). Rurik settled in Staraya Ladoga, Sinius in Beloozero, and Truvor in Izborsk. I wonder what any other mentions there is no mention of brothers in PVL. The beginning of the dynasty is not associated with them.

Oleg and Igor

Rurik died in 879, leaving young son Igor(or Ingvar, according to the Scandinavian tradition). A warrior, and possibly a relative of Rurik, Oleg (Helg) was supposed to rule on behalf of his son until he came of age.

Attention! There is a version that Oleg ruled not just as a relative or confidant, but as an elected jarl, that is, he had all the political rights to power according to Scandinavian and Varangian laws. The fact that he transferred power to Igor could indeed mean that he was his close relative, perhaps a nephew, his sister’s son (according to Scandinavian tradition, an uncle is closer than his own father; boys in Scandinavian families were given to be raised by their maternal uncle).

How many years did Oleg reign?? He successfully ruled the young state until 912. It is he who is credited with the complete conquest of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” and the capture of Kyiv, then his place was taken by Igor (already as the ruler of Kiev), by that time married to a girl from Polotsk (according to one version) - Olga.

Olga and Svyatoslav

Igor's reign can't be called successful. He was killed by the Drevlyans in 945 during an attempt to take double tribute from their capital, Iskorosten. Since Igor’s only son, Svyatoslav, was still small, the throne in Kyiv, by a common decision of the boyars and squads, was taken by his widow Olga.

Svyatoslav ascended the Kiev throne in 957. He was a warrior prince and never stayed long in his capital rapidly growing state. During his lifetime, he divided the lands of Rus' between his three sons: Vladimir, Yaropolk and Oleg. He gave Novgorod the Great as his inheritance to Vladimir (illegitimate son). Oleg (the younger) was imprisoned in Iskorosten, and the elder Yaropolk was left in Kyiv.

Attention! Historians know the name of Vladimir’s mother; it is also known that she was a whitewashed servant, that is, she could not become the ruler’s wife. Perhaps Vladimir was the eldest son of Svyatoslav, his first-born. That is why he was recognized as the father. Yaropolk and Oleg were born from Svyatoslav's legal wife, possibly a Bulgarian princess, but they were younger than Vladimir in age. All this subsequently influenced the relations between the brothers and led to the first princely feud in Rus'.

Yaropolk and Vladimir

Svyatoslav died in 972 on the island of Khortitsa(Dnieper rapids). After his death, the Kiev throne was occupied by Yaropolk for several years. A war for power in the state began between him and his brother Vladimir, ending with the murder of Yaropolk and the victory of Vladimir, who ultimately became the next prince of Kyiv. Vladimir ruled from 980 to 1015. His main merit is baptism of Rus' and the Russian people into the Orthodox faith.

Yaroslav and his sons

An internecine war broke out between Vladimir’s sons immediately after his death, as a result of which one of Vladimir’s eldest sons from the Polotsk princess Ragneda, Yaroslav, took the throne.

Important! In 1015, the Kiev throne was occupied by Svyatopolk (later nicknamed the Accursed). He was not Vladimir’s own son. His father was Yaropolk, after whose death Vladimir took his wife as his wife and recognized the born child as his first-born.

Yaroslav reigned until 1054. After his death, the right of ladder came into force - the transfer of the Kyiv throne and the “junior” in seniority in the Rurikovich family.

The Kiev throne was occupied by Yaroslav's eldest son - Izyaslav, Chernigov (the next "seniority" throne) - Oleg, Pereyaslavsky - Yaroslav's youngest son Vsevolod.

For a long time, the sons of Yaroslav lived peacefully, observing the behests of their father, but, ultimately, the struggle for power entered an active phase and Rus' entered the era of Feudal fragmentation.

Pedigree of the Rurikovichs. The first Kyiv princes (table or Rurik dynasty diagram with dates, by generation)

Genealogy of the Rurikovichs of the period of feudal fragmentation

Tracing the dynastic line of the Rurikovich family during the period of Feudal fragmentation is incredibly difficult, since the ruling princely the genus has grown to its maximum. The main branches of the clan at the first stage of feudal fragmentation can be considered the Chernigov and Pereyaslav lines, as well as the Galician line, which needs to be discussed separately. The Galician princely house originates from the eldest son of Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir, who died during his father’s lifetime, and whose heirs received Galich as an inheritance.

It is important to note that all representatives of the clan sought to occupy the Kiev throne, since in this case they were considered the rulers of the entire state.

Galician heirs

Chernigov house

Pereyaslavsky house

With the Pereyaslav House, which was nominally considered the youngest, everything is much more complicated. It was the descendants of Vsevolod Yaroslavovich who gave rise to the Vladimir-Suzdal and Moscow Rurikovichs. The main representatives of this house were:

• Vladimir Vsevolodovich (Monomakh) - was the prince of Kyiv in 1113-1125 (VII generation);
• Mstislav (the Great) - the eldest son of Monomakh, was the prince of Kyiv in 1125-1132 (VIII generation);
• Yuri (Dolgoruky) - the youngest son of Monomakh, became the ruler of Kyiv several times, the last in 1155-1157 (VIII generation).

Mstislav Vladimirovich gave rise to the Volyn House of Rurikovich, and Yuri Vladimirovich gave rise to the Vladimir-Suzdal House.

Volyn House

Pedigree of the Rurikovichs: Vladimir-Suzdal House

The Vladimir-Suzdal house became the main one in Rus' after the death of Mstislav the Great. The princes who made first Suzdal and then Vladimir-on-Klyazma their capital, played a key role in the political history of the period of the Horde invasion.

Important! Daniil Galitsky and Alexander Nevsky are known not only as contemporaries, but also as rivals for the grand ducal label, and they also had a fundamentally different approach to faith - Alexander adhered to Orthodoxy, and Daniil accepted Catholicism in exchange for the opportunity to receive the title of King of Kyiv.

Pedigree of the Rurikovichs: Moscow House

In the final period of Feudal fragmentation, the House of Rurikovich numbered more than 2000 members (princes and younger princely families). Gradually, the leading position was taken by the Moscow House, which traces its pedigree to the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniil Alexandrovich.

Gradually, the Moscow house from grand ducal transformed into royal. Why did this happen? Including thanks to dynastic marriages, as well as the successful domestic and foreign policies of individual representatives of the House. The Moscow Rurikovichs did a gigantic job of “gathering” the lands around Moscow and overthrowing the Tatar-Mongol Yoke.

Moscow Ruriks (diagram with reign dates)

2nd century, list of events
Vladimir St. Equal to the Apostles (980-1015)
The internecine wars of Yaropolk, Oleg and Vladimir, the sons of Svyatoslav, who distributed his lands to them during his lifetime, ended with the death of Yaropolk and Oleg and the triumph of Vladimir. Vladimir took Red Rus' from the Poles and fought against the Bulgarians and Pechenegs. He did not spare his rich booty for his squad and for decorating numerous idols. Christianity, adopted by Olga, had already managed to penetrate into Kyiv, where a church of St. Ilya. Greek preachers managed to persuade the prince himself to accept Christianity. The baptism of Vladimir and his entourage, and then all the people of Kiev, took place in 988. The Greek emperors, Vasily and Constantine, married their sister Anna to Vladimir. Christianity was actively spread by the princely squad and priests in all areas of the principality. The people loved Vladimir for his gentle disposition and rare love for his neighbors. Vladimir built cities and churches, and schools at the churches for teaching literacy. It was under him that the construction of a monastery in Rus' began. In folk songs and bylinas, the affectionate prince, Vladimir the Red Sun, is often mentioned; the Russian Church calls him the Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince.
Svyatopolk (1015-1019)
During his lifetime, Saint Vladimir divided the lands to his sons: Svyatopolk, Izyaslav, Yaroslav, Mstislav, Svyatoslav, Boris and Gleb. After the death of Vladimir, Svyatopolk took possession of Kiev and decided to get rid of all his brothers, for which he ordered the murder of Boris, Gleb and Svyatoslav, but was soon expelled from Kyiv by Yaroslav of Novgorod. With the help of his father-in-law, the Polish king Boleslav the Brave, Svyatopolk captured Kiev for the second time, but had to flee from there again and took his own life along the way. In folk songs, as the killer of his brothers, he is nicknamed “the accursed one.”
Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054)
After the expulsion of the Holy Regiment and with the death of Mstislav of Tmutarakan, Prince Yaroslav became the sole ruler of the Russian land. Distinguished by his great intelligence, he skillfully ruled Russia: He took great care of the needs of the country, built cities (Yaroslav and Yuriev), erected churches (St. Sophia in Kyiv and Novgorod), established schools and promoted writing in Rus'. He is also responsible for publishing the first set of legal customs, known as “Russian truth”. To his sons: Izyaslav, Svyatoslav, Vsevolod, Igor, Vyacheslav, he gave the inheritance of the Russian land and advised them to live peacefully, amicably and in love among themselves, the people nicknamed Yaroslav “wise”.
Izyaslav (1054-1078)
Yaroslav's eldest son, Izyaslav I, after the death of his father took the Kiev throne, but after an unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians, the Kievans drove him out, and his brother Svyatoslav became the Grand Duke. After the death of the latter, Izyaslav returned to Kyiv again.
Svyatoslav (957-972)
The son of Igor and Olga, Svyatoslav, tempered himself in campaigns and wars and was distinguished by his stern character, honesty and directness. He went to the enemies with a warning: “I’m coming against you.” Svyatoslav annexed the Vyatichi, defeated the Khazars, took the Tmutarakan region and, despite the small squad, successfully fought on the Danube with the Bulgarians. After that, Svyatoslav went against the Greeks - by the way, he conquered Andrianople and threatened Constantinople, but the Greeks agreed to peace. “Don’t go to the city,” they said, “take whatever tribute you want.” On the way back, Svyatoslav did not take precautions and was killed by the Pechenegs at the rapids of the Dnieper.
General characteristics of the 2nd century
The brothers of the Grand Duke receive control over separate parts (allotments) of the state, of which the most significant are: the Kiev principality (the largest and strongest), the Chernigov principality, the Rostov-Suzdal principality, the Galician-Volyn principality, and the Novgorod principality. Despite this division, the Russian land is still considered united. Yaroslav the Wise expands its borders to the Rosi River (a tributary of the Dnieper). Under Saint Vladimir, Christianity spread in Rus', and with it enlightenment with a strong Byzantine influence. The Kiev Metropolitan, subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople, becomes the head of the Russian Church. Representatives of the church, mostly Greeks, brought with them not only a new religion, but also new state concepts (about the rights and responsibilities of the prince and subjects) and new enlightenment. The princes acted in accordance with the church. They built temples, encouraged monasteries, and started schools. Of the monasteries, the most famous is Kiev-Pechersk, founded by St. Anthony and built by St. Theodosius. At this time, the ancient Russian historian, who recorded events year by year, appeared, the chronicler monk Nestor and many other ancient Russian writers of that time, mainly preachers. There were no printed books yet, but everything was rewritten, and the rewriting itself was considered pleasing to God. Thus, the general way of life is established under Byzantine influence, although people's life is distracted from the direct path by the constant struggle between rulers-princes and the need to protect their native land from the attacks of neighbors. The most important features of this century: The beginning of the development of writing, but at the same time the struggle of the princes, the struggle with neighboring tribes, from which, in the words of “the words of Igor’s campaign,” “the Russian land will collapse.” Also an important feature was the beginning of the development of the idea of ​​love and peace, the idea of ​​Christianity, the beginning of educational ideas under the auspices of the church.

3rd century, list of events
Vsevolod - I (1078-1093)
Vsevolod I could be a useful ruler. This prince was pious, truthful, loved education very much and knew five languages, but the Polovtsian raids, famine, pestilence and turmoil in the country did not favor his principality. He held onto the throne only thanks to his son Vladimir, nicknamed Monomakh.
Svyatopolk - II (1093-1113)
The son of Izyaslav -I, Svyatopolk -II, who inherited the Kiev throne after Vsevolod -I, was characterized by spinelessness and was not able to pacify the civil strife of the princes over the possession of cities. At the congress in Lyubich Pereslavl in 1097, the princes kissed the cross “for each to own his father’s land,” but soon Prince David Igorevich blinded Prince Vasilko. The princes gathered again for a congress in the year 1100, and deprived David of Volhynia; at the suggestion of Vladimir Monomakh, they decided at the Dolob congress, in 1103, to undertake a joint campaign against the Polovtsians, the Russians defeated the Polovtsians on the Sal River (in 1111) and took a lot of cattle, sheep, horses, etc. The Polovtsian princes alone killed up to 20 people . The fame of this victory spread far among the Greeks, Hungarians and other Slavs. Russian land.
Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125)
Despite the seniority of the Svyatoslavichs, after the death of Svyatopolk II, Vladimir Monomakh was elected to the Kiev throne, who, according to the chronicle, “wanted good for the brethren and the whole Russian land.” He stood out for his great abilities, rare intelligence, courage and tirelessness. He was happy in his campaigns against the Polovtsians. He humbled the princes with his severity. The “teaching to children” he left behind is remarkable, in which he gives purely Christian moral teaching and a high example of the prince’s service to his homeland.
Mstislav - I (1125-1132)
Resembling his father Monomakh, Monomakh's son, Mstislav I, lived in harmony with his brothers in mind and character, inspiring respect and fear in the rebellious princes. Thus, he expelled the Polovtsian princes who disobeyed him to Greece, and instead of them, he installed his son to rule in the city of Polotsk.
Yaropolk (1132-1139)
Mstislav's brother, Yaropolk, son of Monomakh, decided to transfer the inheritance not to his brother Vyacheslav, but to his nephew. Thanks to the discord that arose from here, the Monomakhovichs lost the Kiev throne, which passed to the descendants of Oleg Svyatoslavovich - the Olegovichs.
Vsevolod - II (1139-1146)
Having achieved a great reign, Vsevolod wanted to consolidate the Kiev throne in his family and handed it over to his brother Igor Olegovich. But not recognized by the people of Kiev and tonsured a monk, Igor was soon killed.
Izyaslav - II (1146-1154)
The people of Kiev recognized Izyaslav II Mstislavovich, who vividly resembled his famous grandfather Monomakh with his intelligence, brilliant talents, courage and friendliness. With the accession of Izyaslav II to the grand-princely throne, the concept of seniority rooted in ancient Rus' was violated: In one family, a nephew could not be a grand duke during his uncle’s lifetime. A stubborn struggle begins between Yuri Vladimirovich, the prince of Rostov-Suzdal, and Izyaslav II. Izyaslav was expelled from Kyiv twice, but still retained the throne until his death.
Yuri Dolgoruky (1154-1157)
The death of Izyaslav II opens Yuri, later called Dolgoruky by the people, access to the Kyiv throne, on which he, three years later, dies as a Grand Duke.
Mstislav - II (1157-1169)
After long strife between the princes, Mstislav II Izyaslavovich was confirmed on the Kiev throne. He is expelled from there by Andrei Yuryevich, nicknamed Bogolyubsky. At the same time, Andrei ravaged Kyiv (1169).
Andrey Bogolyubsky (1169-1174)
Having accepted the title of grand duke, Andrei Yuryevich transferred the throne to Vladimir on the Klyazma, and from then on Kyiv began to lose its primacy position. The stern and strict Andrei wanted to be autocratic, i.e., to rule Russia without a council or squads. Andrei Bogolyubsky mercilessly pursued the disgruntled boyars, they plotted against Andrei's life and killed him.
General characteristics of the 3rd century
After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, the Russian land was divided between his sons according to their relative seniority and the comparative profitability of the regions: The older the prince was, the better and richer the region was given to him. When someone from the princely family died, the younger relatives who followed the deceased moved from volost to volost. This redistribution of land in the 12th century was replaced by appanages, when one princely line was established in a certain area. But the usual order of the princely possession was often disrupted by disastrous quarrels between the princes, all the more disastrous because at that time the Black Sea steppe was occupied by the Polovtsians instead of the Pechenegs. However, if not in the south, then Slavic colonization (mainly Novgorod) is rising in the east and northeast of Rus'. The region was still headed by the prince, who consulted with the boyars from the warriors. Legislative power belonged to the veche of townspeople. The veche in Novgorod was especially important and for a long time. The region was divided into districts (verei, graveyards), governed by persons appointed by the prince. The court was conducted by princely judges (tiuns) according to a collection of customary law, i.e., on the basis of folk customs of “Russian truth”. The church, which was in charge of family, religious and moral order, took a wide part in worldly affairs. The preachers Hilarion, Cyril, and Abbot Daniel visited the holy land and left a pious description of their pilgrimage.
Thus, in this century, under the influence of the church, religious faith, family life and moral foundations are developing, the colonization of Slavic tribes is taking place, the judiciary is being organized, for which the guide is the collection of laws "Russian Truth", but the fragmentation of the Russian land into destinies and the resulting discord and wars do not make it possible to establish a general state order, and entail a weakening of the people's forces and bring on the Tatar enslavers; only the preaching of humility, obedience and love supports and approves the people's bearing all the hardships of life.

4th century, list of events
Vsevolod - III (1176-1212)
After the struggle and strife that arose following the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky between the ancient (Rostov, Suzdal) and new (Vladimir, Pereslavl) cities of the Suzdal region, Andrei’s brother, Vsevolod III “Big Nest” (father of a large family), established himself in Vladimir. The prince was far-sighted and firm, having achieved a great degree of courage - although he did not live in Kyiv, he nevertheless bore the title of Grand Duke and was the first of the Russian princes to force him to swear allegiance to “himself and his children.”
Constantine - I (1212-1219)
The Grand Duke's throne was transferred by Vsevolod III not to his eldest son Constantine, with whom he was dissatisfied, but to his second son Yuri. In the feud that arose from this, Vsevolod’s third son, Yaroslav, also sided with Yuri, but Mstislav the Udaloy took the side of Constantine. Konstantin and Mstislav won (Battle of Lipetsk 1216) and Konstantin took the grand-ducal throne. After his death, the throne passed to Yuri.
Yuri - II (1219-1238)
Yuri waged successful wars with the Mordovians and the Volga Bulgarians. At the very extreme point of Russian possessions on the Volga, he built Nizhny Novgorod. During his reign, the Mongols appeared in the south-east of Europe from Central Asia in 1224 at Kalka (now within the borders of Yekaterinoslav). The Mongols inflicted a terrible defeat first on the Polovtsy, who roamed the southern Russian steppes, and then on the Russian princes who came to the aid of the Polovtsy. The Mongols placed the captured princes under the boards and sat down to feast on them. After the Battle of Kalka, the Mongols went to Central Asia and returned only 13 years later under the leadership of Batu, they ravaged the principalities of Ryazan and Suzdal, defeated a large army of the Grand Duke at the City River, and Yuri fell here, they destroyed southern Rus' for two years and Kyiv was destroyed. All Russian principalities had to recognize the heavy Tatar yoke over themselves, and the city of Sarai on the Volga River became the capital of the horde.
Yaroslav - II (1238-1252)
Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, Prince of Novgorod, by the grace of the Khan of the Golden Horde, sat on the grand-ducal throne. He actively took care of the restoration of Rus', devastated by the Mongols.
Alexander Nevsky (1252-1263)
Alexander Yaroslavovich was first the Prince of Novgorod. In 1240, he defeated the Swedes on the Neva and was nicknamed Nevsky for this victory: They say that Alexander Nevsky himself beat up many Swedes and “put a seal on the face of the leader Birger with his sharp spear.” Two years later, Alexander destroyed the German army in the “battle on the ice” : In addition, he successfully waged wars with Lithuania and Chud. Having received the khan's label for the grand reign, Alexander appeared as a “intercessor and intercessor” for the Russian land. Four times he went to the horde with a bow, taking the khans a lot of silver and gold. Alexander Nevsky was canonized, and Peter the Great transferred his relics to St. Petersburg to the Alexander Nevsky Lavra.
Daniel - I (1229-1264)
While Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky acted in the northeast of Rus', Daniil Romanovich reigned in the southwest of Rus'. Smart, brave and noble Daniil Romanovich Galitsky, after the invasion of the Tatars, again brought his possessions to a flourishing state. The crusade against the Tatars promised to him by the Pope did not take place, and Daniel had to humble himself before the Mongols in order to protect southwestern Rus' from the heavy yoke. After the end of his family, the Polish king Casimir III, in 1340, took possession of Galicia.
General characteristics of the 4th century
During this period, the importance of southwestern Rus' gradually decreased. Princely strife, heavy taxation of the lower classes of the population, the continuous attack on Rus' by the steppe nomads of the Polovtsians - all this drives the people from the Dnieper region, on the one hand, to the region of the river. Vistula, on the other hand - to the northeast, across the river. Ugra between the Oka and Volga rivers. Thanks to this, the Vladimir-Suzdal land in the northeast is strengthening, cities are being built, trade and industry are reviving, and the Great Russian nation is taking shape. Andrei Bogolyubsky puts forward the idea of ​​a strong one-man princely power. Vladimir on the Klyazma is gradually becoming the new political center of Rus'. The process of new development was delayed by the Tatar invasion. The Tatars, having devastated Rus', imposed another tribute on it (at first it was collected by the khan’s officials “Baskaks”, and then by the princes themselves). Fortunately, the Tatars were far away and did not interfere in the internal government of Rus' and did not embarrass the Orthodox Church. But still, the influence of the Tatar yoke was heavy: It was not for nothing that proverbs developed: “Angrier than an evil Tatar,” “an ill-fitting guest, worse than a Tatar,” etc. The Tatar yoke stopped the industry and trade of the people, slowed down the beginning of enlightenment, cut them off from relations with educated peoples, brought There is a lot of rough stuff in our lives (corporal punishment, seclusion of women, cunning and deception, oppression of the weak). Only faith and piety continue to support the Russian people in difficult times of the Tatars. Exhausted by material and spiritual needs, Russian people found solace in prayer in monasteries, churches, and parishes.

5th century, list of events
Yaroslav - III (1264-1272)
After the death of Alexander Nevsky, the dispute between Vasily and Yaroslav, Alexander's brothers, over the grand ducal throne was resolved by the khan in favor of Yaroslav, in addition, he had previously been invited by the Novgorodians to reign, but was unable to get along with them, he even called on the Tatars against them . The metropolitan reconciled the prince with the Novgorodians and the prince was again “brought to the cross” by them.
Vasily - I (1272-1276)
Vasily I, of Kostroma, having received the grand-ducal throne according to the old order, discovered his claims to Novgorod, where Dmitry, the son of Alexander Nevsky, was already reigning. He soon achieved his goal. The desire of each Grand Duke to take possession of Novgorod was explained by the desire to strengthen his own principality, weakened by division into appanages.
Dmitry - I (1276-1294)
The Grand Duchy of Dmitry I of Pereslavl proceeded almost entirely in the struggle with his brother Andrei Alexandrovich over the rights of the Grand Duke. Three times Dmitry escaped from his brother and the Tatar regiments accompanying him, but when he returned, thanks to his allies, he again established himself on the throne. After the third flight, he finally asked Andrei for peace and received his Pereslavl principality.
Andrew - II (1294-1304)
Pursuing the greatest possible expansion of his possessions at the expense of other principalities, Andrei Alexandrovich decided to take possession of Pereslavl, in which Prince Ivan Dmitrievich died childless. This is where civil strife arose between Tver and Moscow; this dispute continued even after Andrei’s death.
Saint Michael (1304-1319)
Mikhail Yaroslavovich of Tverskoy, having given more output (tribute) to the khan, received the label for the grand duke primarily before Yuri Danilovich, the Prince of Moscow. But while he was at war with Novgorod, Yuri, with the help of the treacherous Khan's ambassador Kavgady, managed to slander Mikhail in front of Khan Uzbek. The Uzbek summoned Mikhail to the horde, where he tortured him for a long time, and then handed him over to the hands of murderers. At the same time, Mikhail, in order not to bring misfortune to the heads of his neighbors, did not agree to take advantage of the opportunity to escape.
Yuri - III (1320-1326)
Having married the sister of Khan Konchak, in Orthodoxy Agafya, Yuri acquired great strength and help from the Tatars who were related to him. But soon, thanks to the claims of Prince Dmitry, the son of Mikhail, who was tortured by Khan, he had to report to the horde. Here, at the first meeting with Dmitry, Yuri was killed by him, in revenge for the death of his father and for a violation of morality (marriage to a Tatar). Content
Dmitry - II (1326)
Dmitry Mikhailovich, nicknamed "menacing eyes", for the murder of Yuri III, was executed by the khan for arbitrariness.
Alexander Tverskoy (1326-1338)
The brother of Dmitry II, executed in the horde, Alexander Mikhailovich, was confirmed as khan on the grand-ducal throne. He was distinguished by his kindness and was loved by the people, but he ruined himself by allowing the Tver people to kill the hated Khan's ambassador Shchelkan. The Khan sent 50,000 Tatar troops against Alexander. Alexander fled from the khan's wrath to Pskov, and from there to Lithuania. Ten years later, Alexander of Tver returned and was forgiven by the khan. Not getting along, however, with the Prince of Moscow Ivan Kalita, Alexander was slandered by him in front of the khan, the khan summoned him to the horde and executed him.
John I Kalita (1320-1341)
John I Danilovich, a cautious and cunning prince, nicknamed Kalita (money purse) for his frugality, devastated the Tver principality with the help of the Tatars, taking advantage of the opportunity of violence of the indignant Tver residents against the Tatars. He took upon himself the collection of tribute from all over Rus' for the Tatars and, greatly enriched by this, bought cities from appanage princes. In 1326, the metropolitanate from Vladimir, thanks to the efforts of Kalita, was transferred to Moscow, and here, according to Metropolitan Peter, the Assumption Cathedral was founded. Since then, Moscow, as the seat of the Metropolitan of All Rus', has acquired the significance of a Russian center.
Simeon the Proud (1341-1353)
To Simeon Ioannovich, who inherited the grand-ducal throne after John I, the Tatar Khan “gave all the Russian princes under his hand,” calling himself the prince of all Rus'. Simeon treated other Russian princes as his assistants; he died childless from a pestilence.
John - II (1353-1359)
According to the will of his brother Simeon the Proud, John II Ioannovich, a meek and peace-loving prince, followed in everything the advice of Metropolitan Alexei, who enjoyed great importance in the Horde. During this time, Moscow's relations with the Tatars improved significantly.
General characteristics of the 5th century
Thanks to many favorable conditions, the importance of Moscow is growing. The convenient geographical location between southwestern and northeastern Russia and protection from external enemies attracts more and more people here. Smart and practical Moscow princes take advantage of increasing income to expand their estates. It was of great significance that the Metropolitan moved to Moscow. The ecclesiastical significance of Moscow also strengthened its political role. Simultaneously with the gathering of northeastern Rus' near Moscow, the Lithuanian state was emerging in the southwest.
Thus, the suffering and misfortune of the people, the humiliation of princely power under the influence of the heavy oppression of the Tatar khans little by little awakens the consciousness of the need to unite power. The center of unification is revealed - Moscow. All that is needed is strength and energy for the unification to become stronger and to be able to overthrow the oppressor - the Tatars. Representatives of the church also play a significant role in this association, influencing both the princes and the people with their words.

6th century, list of events
Dmitry - III Donskoy (1363-1389)
When John II died, his son Dmitry was still young, so the khan gave the great reign to Dmitry Konstantinovich of Suzdal (1359-1363). But the Moscow boyars, who benefited from the strengthening of the Moscow prince, achieved a great reign for Dmitry Ioannovich. Dmitry Konstantinovich submitted to force, and other princes of northeastern Rus' also submitted to Dmitry Ioannovich. Meanwhile, Rus''s attitude towards the Tatars changed significantly. Civil strife in the horde allowed Dmitry not to pay tribute to the Tatars at all. Khan Mamai decided to remind Rus' of the times of Batu and, in alliance with Jagiell, the Prince of Lithuania, moved a huge army to Russian soil. Prince Dmitry and the princes subject to Moscow went to meet Mamaia, having previously received a blessing from St. Sergius at the Trinity Monastery. The battle of Dmitry with Mamai on the Kulikovo field, near the Don River, on September 8, 1380, ended with the triumph of the Russians, although, according to the chronicle, thanks to the losses, “the entire Russian land was completely depleted of governors and all kinds of army.” The need for unity to repel the enemy has now become especially recognized in Rus'. Dmitry, nicknamed Donskoy for the Battle of Kulikovo, did not stop caring about strengthening Moscow until the end of his days.
Vasily - I (1389-1425)
Sharing the reign with his father, Vasily I ascended the throne as an experienced prince and, following the example of his predecessors, actively expanded the boundaries of the Moscow principality: He acquired Nizhny Novgorod and other cities. In 1395, Rus' was in danger of an invasion by Timur, the formidable Tatar khan. Meanwhile, Vasily did not pay tribute to the Tatars, but collected it into the grand ducal treasury. In 1408, the Tatar Murza Edigei attacked Moscow, but after receiving a ransom of 3,000 rubles, he lifted the siege from it. In the same year, after long disputes between Vasily I and the Lithuanian prince Vytautas, both cautious and cunning, the Ugra River was designated as the extreme border of Lithuanian possessions on the Russian side.
Vasily - II the Dark (1425-1462)
Yuri Dmitrievich Galitsky took advantage of Vasily II's youth, declaring his claims to seniority. But at the trial in the horde, the khan leaned in favor of Vasily, thanks to the efforts of the smart Moscow boyar Ivan Vsevolozhsky. The boyar hoped to marry his daughter to Vasily, but was disappointed in his hopes: Offended, he left Moscow to Yuri Dmitrievich and assisted him in taking over the grand-ducal throne, on which Yuri died in 1434, when Yuri’s son Vasily decided to inherit his father’s power, then all the princes rebelled against him. Vasily II took him prisoner and blinded him: Then Dmitry Shemyaka, brother of Vasily Kosoy, captured Vasily II by cunning, blinded him and took the Moscow throne. Soon, however, Shemyaka had to give the throne to Vasily II. During the reign of Vasily II, the Greek metropolitan Isidore accepted the Florentine Union (1439), for this Vasily II put Isidore in custody, and the Ryazan Bishop John was installed as metropolitan. Thus, from now on, Russian metropolitans are appointed by a council of Russian bishops. During the last years of the Grand Duchy, the internal structure of the Grand Duchy was the subject of the main concerns of Vasily II.
General characteristics of the 6th century
The process of uniting Rus' around Moscow continued. Rivalry with Lithuania begins as a result of the desire of Moscow and Lithuania to unite the entire Russian nation under their rule. The chances of both were more or less the same until the Lithuanian prince Jagiello married the Polish queen Jadwiga and thus began Polish influence in Rus'. This strengthening of Lithuania forced many to reach out to Moscow as an all-Russian center. With the gradual rise of Moscow, the great princes of Moscow sought to destroy the rule of the Tatar khans, which was facilitated by the fall from the Golden Horde of two khanates - the Crimean and Kazan. And so, the desire for unification grows stronger, favorable circumstances emerge: On the one hand, the rise of Moscow, on the other, the weakening of the Tatars, the disintegration of their formidable power. The attempts of the princes to overthrow the yoke are beginning to gain more chances of success, and a new road is shining before Russia.

7th century, list of events
John - III (1462-1505)
Accepted by his father as a co-ruler, John III Vasilyevich ascended the grand-ducal throne as the full owner of Rus'. He first severely punished the Novgorodians who had decided to become Lithuanian subjects, and in 1478, “for a new offense,” he finally subjugated them. At this time, the Novgorodians lost their veche and self-government, and the Novgorod mayor Maria and the veche bell were sent to John’s camp. In 1485, after the final conquest of other appanages more or less dependent on the Moscow principality, John finally annexed the Tver principality to Moscow. By this time, the Tatars were divided into three independent hordes: Golden, Kazan and Crimean. They were at enmity with each other and were no longer afraid of the Russians. Having secured himself from the Kazan Tatars and entered into an alliance with the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, John III in 1480 tore up the Khan's basma, ordered the Khan's ambassadors to be taken to execution, and then overthrew the Tatar yoke without bloodshed. John also emerged victorious in the fight against Lithuania; Alexander of Lithuania ceded the northern region to John. Having been widowed back in 1467, John III entered into marriage with Sophia Palaeologus, the last Byzantine princess, and combined the coat of arms of the Moscow principality, depicting St. George the Victorious, with the double-headed eagle of the Byzantine Empire. From then on, John surrounded himself with splendor and luxury, entered into relations with Western Europe, and showed more independence in relation to the boyars. He cared a lot about the external decoration of the capital, erected cathedrals in Moscow: Assumption, Archangel, Annunciation, built a stone palace, the Faceted Chamber and several towers of the Moscow Kremlin. In 1497, John published a collection of laws called “Code of Laws”. Since the time of John III, the right to mint coins belongs only to the Grand Duke of Moscow.
Vasily - III (1505-1533)
The son of John III from his marriage to Sophia, Palaeologus Vasily III, was distinguished by his pride and inaccessibility, punishing the descendants of appanage princes and boyars under his control who dared to contradict him. He is "the last collector of the Russian land." Having annexed the last appanages (Pskov, the northern principality), he completely destroyed the appanage system. He fought twice with Lithuania, following the teachings of the Lithuanian nobleman Mikhail Glinsky, who entered his service, and finally, in 1514, he took Smolensk from the Lithuanians. The war with Kazan and Crimea was difficult for Vasily, but ended with the punishment of Kazan: Trade was diverted from there to the Makaryevsk fair, which was later moved to Nizhny. Vasily divorced his wife Solomonia and married Princess Elena Glinskaya, which further aroused the boyars who were dissatisfied with him against him. From this marriage Vasily had a son, John.
Elena Glinskaya (1533-1538)
Appointed ruler of the state by Vasily III, the mother of three-year-old John Elena Glinskaya immediately took drastic measures against the boyars who were dissatisfied with her. She made peace with Lithuania and decided to fight the Crimean Tatars, who boldly attacked Russian possessions, but in the midst of preparations for a desperate struggle she died suddenly.
John - IV the Terrible (1538-1584)
Left at the age of 8 in the hands of the boyars, the intelligent and talented Ivan Vasilyevich grew up amid the struggle of parties over the rule of the state, among violence, secret murders and incessant exile. Having himself often suffered oppression from the boyars, he learned to hate them, and the cruelty, riotousness and rudeness that surrounded him contributed to the hardening of his heart. In 1547, John was crowned king and was the first of the Russian sovereigns to take the title of “Tsar of Moscow and All Rus'.” John's marriage to Anastasia Romanova, thanks to the latter's excellent spiritual qualities, had a beneficial effect on him. At the same time, the unrest and disasters that began in the capital and the terrible fires had a strong effect on the impressionable John. He brought honest and kind advisers Sylvester and Adashev closer to him and took up internal affairs. The Tsar convened the electors in 1550 for the first Zemsky Sobor, which approved the first Tsar's Code of Law, and the following year a conciliar decree for the clergy was issued, called Stoglav. In 1552, Ivan conquered Kazan, which dominated the entire Volga region, and in 1556 the kingdom of Astrakhan was annexed to the Moscow state. The desire to establish himself on the shores of the Baltic Sea forced John to start the Livonian War, which brought him into conflict with Poland and Sweden. The war started quite successfully, but ended with the most unfavorable truce for John with Poland and Sweden: John not only did not establish himself on the shores of the Baltic, but also lost the coast of the Gulf of Finland, after the removal of Sylvester and Adashev who fell out of favor and with the death of the meek Queen Anastasia, in character John there was a significant change for the worse, but the flight of Prince Andrei Kurbsky to Poland aroused John's suspicion of the loyalty of all his boyars. The sad era of "searches", disgrace and executions began. John left Moscow, went with his entourage to the Alexandrovskaya Sloboda and here surrounded himself with guardsmen, whom John contrasted with the rest of the land, the zemshchina. The guardsmen greatly abused their extensive rights. At this time, the holy Metropolitan Philip died, denouncing the king of lawlessness. In 1570, John defeated Novgorod, which was reported to have entered into secret agreements with Poland. In 1582, the Don Cossacks under the command of Ermak conquered the vast Siberian kingdom to the Moscow state. Three years before his death, John, in a fit of anger, hit his son John on the head with a rod, and his son died from this blow. John IV received the popular nickname of the Terrible.
General characteristics of the 7th century
“Collecting” Rus' is already becoming a conscious and persistent task of the Moscow princes. The last destinies are falling.
The state borders coincide with the ethnographic borders of the Great Russian people. Politics from local, Moscow, turns into national Great Russian. In accordance with this, the importance of the prince also increases: He takes the title of sovereign, and soon the king of all Rus' and autocrat. The eldest son receives all the advantages over the younger ones. The struggle that arose between the tsar and the boyars (its reasons are especially clearly revealed in the correspondence of Tsar Ivan the Terrible with the boyar Andrei Kurbsky) ends in favor of the tsar. The hereditary nobility - the boyars - are being pushed aside by the distinguished people - the nobles. In the middle of the 16th century, book printing began in Rus'. The first book to be published was “Acts and Epistles of the Apostles” (1564). After the overthrow of the Tatar yoke, we again come face to face with Western Europe. Its influence penetrates to us through southwestern Rus', which was already drawn into Polish education (culture), especially after the Union of Lublin in 1569. In the 16th century, the Russian Church was freed from subordination to the Greek Church. Metropolitans are installed in Rus' by local bishops at the direction of the grand dukes. The clergy and church continue to act in accordance with the princes. The latter are greatly supported by the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and Joseph-Volokolamsky Monastery. Thus, the dawn of a new life lights up: The development of educational influence begins, although internal turmoil, as a legacy passed from appanage princes to the emerging upper class of boyars, interferes with the correct development of both state and national life. The civil strife of the princes ended - the civil strife (disputes, localism, envy) of the boyars began.

8th century, list of events
Fyodor Ioannovich (1584-1598)
The second son of John IV, Fyodor, was distinguished by his illness and weak mental abilities, which is why the government of the state soon passed into the hands of the tsar’s brother-in-law, the intelligent and far-sighted boyar Boris Godunov. Having removed all his opponents by disgrace and exile, Godunov surrounded himself with devoted people and became the sovereign ruler of the state. He maintains relations with Western states, builds cities and fortifications on the borders of Rus' and established an Arkhangelsk harbor on the White Sea. According to his thoughts, an independent all-Russian patriarchate was approved and the peasants were finally attached to the land. In 1591, Tsarevich Dmitry, the brother of the childless Tsar Fedor and his heir, was killed, and six years later Fedor himself died.
Boris Godunov (1598-1605)
After the abdication of the throne of Tsarina Irina, the wife of Tsar Fyodor and Godunov’s sister, Boris’s adherents, at the insistence of Patriarch Job, convened a Zemsky Sobor, which elected Boris Godunov. The tsar's suspicion and fear of intrigues on the part of the boyars caused disgrace and exile, and the boyar Fyodor Nikitich Romanov was cut under the name of the monk Philaret, and his young son Mikhail was exiled to Beloozero. The boyars became embittered against Boris, and the popular disasters that befell the Muscovite kingdom - a three-year crop failure and pestilence - prompted the people to blame Tsar Boris for everything. The tsar tried to help the starving, added income from government buildings (the bell tower of Ivan the Great), distributed alms, but the people still grumbled, willingly believing rumors about the appearance of the legitimate Tsar Dmitry. In the midst of preparations for the fight against False Dmitry, Godunov died suddenly, bequeathing his throne to his son Fedor.
False Dmitry (1605-1606)
Grigory Otrepiev, as they say, a fugitive monk supported by the Poles, declared himself Tsarevich Dmitry, who allegedly escaped from the murderers in Uglich. With several thousand people he entered Russia. The army sent to the meeting went over to the side of False Dmitry, who was recognized by them as king, and Fyodor Godunov was killed. False Dmitry was a very developed man, distinguished by his intelligence and good nature, he was diligently engaged in state affairs, but he aroused the displeasure of the people and clergy with his disrespect for old Russian customs. The boyars, having spread a rumor about the impostor tsar, led by Vasily Shuisky, formed a conspiracy and killed False Dmitry.
Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610)
The old, indecisive and inexperienced Vasily Shuisky was elected tsar by the boyars and townspeople, and his power was limited. Thanks to rumors that arose about the rescue of the murdered False Dmitry, new unrest began in Russia, which was intensified by the rebellion of the slave Ivan Bolotnikov and the appearance of False Dmitry II, the “Tushino thief” in Tushino. The Polish king went to war against Moscow, and his commanders scattered the Russian troops. Then Tsar Vasily was “reduced” from the throne and forcibly tonsured a monk. A troubled time of interregnum has begun in Russia.
Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645)
Thanks to the letters sent out by the Trinity Lavra calling for the defense of the fatherland and Orthodoxy, a large militia under the leadership of Prince Dmitry Pozharsky, with the active participation of the Nizhny Novgorod zemstvo elder Kozma Minin Sukhoruky, headed towards Moscow and, after much effort, liberated the capital from the Poles and rebels. On February 21, 1613, the Great Zemstvo Duma elected Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov as king; after much begging, he ascended the throne and began to pacify internal and external enemies. Mikhail concluded the Stolbov Treaty with Sweden, and the Deulino Treaty (1618) with Poland. According to this last treaty, after a long captivity, Filaret, the tsar's parent, was returned to Russia and was immediately elevated to the rank of patriarch. Filaret became co-ruler and reliable adviser to his son. At the end of the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich, Russia had already significantly recovered from the horrors of the Time of Troubles and began to enter into friendly relations with Western states.
Alexey Mikhailovich (1645-1676)
Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was one of the best people of ancient Rus'. He not only performed fasts and church rituals, but also had a church feeling. He was of a gentle and “much quiet” character; having offended someone in a short anger, he could not calm down for a long time and sought reconciliation. The tsar's closest advisers in the early years were his uncle b. I. Morozov, in the 50s Patriarch Nikon, in the end boyar A. S. Matveev. Taxes that were unbearable for the people, the injustice of officials, echoes of the old unrest, caused a number of popular riots in different cities (Moscow, Solvychegodsk, Ustyug, Novgorod, Pskov, the riot of Razin, Bryukhovetsky, etc.) and at different times. The voluntary annexation of Little Russia to the Moscow state caused two wars between Russia and Poland. Russia was able to endure these heavy blows only thanks to the concentration of power, unity, correctness and continuity in orders. Of the internal orders under Alexander Mikhailovich, the most significant are: the Council Code of 1649 and, as an addition to it, the new trade charter and new decree articles on robbery and murder cases and on estates. New central institutions were founded: Orders of secret affairs, grain, reitar, accounting affairs, Little Russian, monastery. Heavy classes are permanently assigned to the place of residence. In the church, Patriarch Nikon undertook the necessary reform - the correction of liturgical books, which, however, caused a schism, i.e., a falling away from the Russian Church. Russian colonialists became famous in Siberia: A. Bulygin, O. Stepanov, E. Khabarov, and others. New cities appeared: Nerchinsk, Irkutsk, Selenginsk. The best people in Moscow were already creating the need for science and transformation. These are the persons as boyars: A.L. Ordyn-Nashchekin, A.S. Matveev, Prince V. Golitsin. After the death of Tsar Alexei, from his first marriage to Maria Milaslavskaya there were children, two sons: Fyodor and John and several daughters; from his second marriage to Natalya Naryshkina, a son Peter was born in 1672.
General characteristics of the 8th century
Most of this period is occupied by "turmoil in the Moscow state." The impetus and pretext was the end of the dynasty, the real reason was the selfishness and injustice of the boyars, the ignorance of the people, who had lost the habit of respecting the honor and property of their neighbors during the Tatar yoke, the Cossacks and other “walking” people, and finally the Poles. Strong national and religious ties saved Rus', but having driven out the Poles, the Russians did not completely stop the unrest; its echoes can be seen in the riots of the time of Alexei Mikhailovich. The supreme power of the 16th-17th centuries became so strong that it did not need protection. The rights of the service class are strengthened and developed; it has taken a huge amount of land into its hands. Peasants are attached to the land for economic interests. The representative of the Russian Church, in accordance with the new order, receives the title of patriarch. The government and the patriarch are busy correcting liturgical books, into which many errors have crept in due to the ignorance and illiteracy of copyists and sometimes translators. This correction was completed under Patriarch Nikon. Many did not accept the correction and fell away from the Orthodox Church.

9th century, list of events
Fyodor Alekseevich (1676-1682)
Under Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, the so-called Little Russian question ended: Eastern Little Russia and Zaporozhye remained with Moscow, and the western part went to Turkey. Under him, localism was abolished - the custom of Moscow boyars to consider the service of their ancestors when taking a place in the military and civil service, in court ceremonies and at the royal table. At the insistence of the tsar, Nikon and Matveev were returned from exile. Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich died childless.
Ivan Alekseevich (1682-1689)
Thanks to the Streltsy revolt, Ivan Alekseevich, frail and weak-minded, was recognized as tsar along with the unanimously elected Peter Alekseevich, but Tsarevich Ivan did not take any part in state affairs; he died in 1696. Russia was ruled by Princess Sofia at this time.
Sophia - ruler (1682-1689)
By all accounts, Sofia Alekseevna was “of great intelligence and the most tender insight, a maiden filled with more masculine intelligence.” She stopped the unrest of the schismatics, curbed the rebellious archers, concluded an “eternal peace” with the Poles that was beneficial for Russia and the Treaty of Nerchinsk with China, and undertook campaigns against the Crimean Tatars. Sophia fell victim to her lust for power. Peter penetrated her plans and imprisoned her in the Novodevichy Convent, where she died in 1704.
Peter the Great (1682-1725)
Tsar Peter the Great Alekseevich is one of the geniuses. His mental strength was extraordinary: a quick, highly embracing mind, an iron will and continuous work. Until the age of 10, Peter goes through an ancient Russian, almost church school; from the age of 10, he becomes a witness to the bloody events of the Streltsy rebellion: The intrigues of Sophia the ruler drive him out of the Kremlin palace: He leads an extremely active life, among war games, classes in mathematical and technical sciences, and trips around palace villages. Peter completes his education abroad. He saw a lot, learned a lot and developed extraordinary intelligence and efficiency. He demanded the same from others. Giving all of himself to the service of Russia, Peter believed “in its great future.” He patronized foreigners not for their own sake, but for the sake of the development of sciences, arts, factories and trade in the country. Even before his trip abroad, Peter took the Azov fortress from the Turks. In 1700, in alliance with Denmark and Poland, Peter began the Northern War against Sweden. The first military actions of the Russians against the Swedes, who fought under the command of their young but gifted king Charles XII, were unsuccessful and ended in a major defeat of the Russian troops near Narva: But soon, thanks to Peter’s tireless preparation of new regiments to fight the enemy, the Swedes began to suffer from the Russians defeats. Peter took the Swedish fortress of Noteburg, an ancient nut, in Ingria, renamed it Shlisselburg and in 1703 founded the new capital of St. Petersburg on the banks of the Neva, and founded the fortress of Kronstadt on the island of Kotlin. By founding St. Petersburg, Peter created a strong fortress that provided Russia with access to the Baltic Sea, a convenient port to which many trade routes from the Russian north and center were drawn together, and finally, a new capital that facilitated our relations with Western Europe. Meanwhile, Charles XII, having conquered Poland and using the help of the traitor Mazepa, the Little Russian hetman, quickly moved to Little Russia and here in 1709 besieged the city of Poltava. The Poltava battle ended in complete triumph for Peter, Charles XII fled to Turkey and caused the Prut campaign, which was unsuccessful for Russia. Russia had to give up Azov, but the ongoing northern war was happy and ended with the Peace of Nystad, according to which Sweden renounced Livonia, Estonia, Ingria and part of Finland with the city of Vyborg. Peter was given the title of Emperor of All Russia. Of Peter's internal transformations, the most remarkable are: The abolition of the patriarchate in 1700 and the transfer of control of all church affairs into the hands of the "locum tenens of the patriarchal throne", and from 1721 of the Holy Synod, the establishment of a governing senate; in 1711, instead of the former boyar duma, a collegium instead “orders” for each individual branch of government, the transformation of estates, the division of the state into 12 provinces and the establishment of court courts in the most important cities, the organization of special schools and colleges and the creation of a regular army. Everywhere, directly involved in everything, the sovereign transformer cared about the development of Russian trade and industry, about ending the seclusion of women, about softening the morals of society, about improving the life of the lower strata of the people and had a remarkable ability to choose his associates, among whom are famous: Menshikov, Sheremetyev, Dolgoruky , the Golitsyn brothers, Kurakin, Matveev, Shafirov, Yaguzhinsky and foreigners - Osterman, Bruce, Minikh and others. Peter's son from his divorced wife Lopukhina, Tsarevich Alexei, for his obvious disgust at his father's transformations, was put on trial by Peter. The Tsarevich was sentenced to death, but the Tsarevich died before the sentence was carried out. From Peter’s second marriage to Ekaterina Alekseevna, two daughters were born: Anna and Elizaveta. Peter died from a cold while rescuing drowning soldiers during a great flood and was named the Great by posterity.
Catherine - I (1725-1727)
Peter the Great did not leave a will. The throne passed to his wife Catherine, not without struggle between different parties. Catherine I opened the Academy of Sciences in 1726, sent Bering on a trip around the world and, at the request of Menshikov and her other supporters, established the Supreme Privy Council. Menshikov seized government power and persuaded the Empress to appoint Tsarevich Peter Alekseevich, the son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, as heir , and allow him, upon reaching adulthood, to marry Menshikov’s daughter, Princess Maria. During the minority of Tsarevich Peter, Menshikov was appointed ruler of the state.
Peter - II (1727-1730)
Peter II was not king for long and, moreover, all the time under the influence of others. The greedy and autocratic Menshikov fell, but the long-armed ones emerged. To strengthen their influence, they tried in every possible way to distract the emperor from his business with fun and amusements, and decided to marry him to Princess E. A. Dolgoruky. This intention was prevented by Peter's early death from smallpox.
Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740)
The Supreme Privy Council decided to limit autocracy and chose the daughter of Tsar John Alekseevich, the Dowager Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, but she was crowned an autocratic empress. The Supreme Privy Council was destroyed and replaced by an equal cabinet. The Russian nobles gave way to the Courlander Biron and the Germans Minich and Ostern. The administration was cruel and disastrous for Russia: At the slightest displeasure, “word and deed” were heard, and those who grumbled were tortured, executed or exiled. In 1733, Russia intervened in the affairs of Poland, and this war cost great sacrifices: the regions conquered under Peter I were returned to Persia. Of the internal orders of Anna Ioannovna, the most worthy of attention are: Limiting the service life of nobles to 25 years, eliminating the law on single inheritance, establishing a cadet corps in St. Petersburg, increasing the guards of the Izmailovo and cavalry regiments. Before her death, Anna Ioannovna appointed the infant Ivan Antonovich, the son of her niece Anna Leopoldovna, as heir to the throne, and confirmed Biron as regent of the state. Biron was soon overthrown, however, and Anna Leopoldovna, who was completely incapable of governing the state, was declared ruler.
Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761)
Many were dissatisfied with Anna Leopoldovna's reign. The Guard carried out a coup and proclaimed the daughter of Peter the Great, Princess Elizabeth, as empress. In order to strengthen the throne, Anna Petrovna’s son, Pyotr Fedorovich, was appointed her heir. Under Elizabeth, Russia fought two wars: the Swedish and the so-called Seven Years' War. The war with Sweden ended in peace in Åbo in 1743, according to which part of Finland up to the Kymen River was annexed to Russia. Taking part in the seven-year war (Austria and France with Prussia), Elizaveta Petrovna, in the person of her commanders, greatly constrained the King of Prussia, Frederick II, but the death of the empress served to stop further military actions against Prussia. Of the internal events of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, the most important is the destruction of the cabinet. The Empress returned the Senate to its former significance. She also restored the former magistrate. In 1744, a decree was issued abolishing the death penalty for criminal offenses. She divided Russia into five recruiting districts and established an order in recruitment. The establishment of the first loan banks in Russia for nobles and merchants in 1754, the opening in 1755, according to Lomonosov's plan, of the first university in Moscow and the founding of the first theater in 1756 were beneficial. The Empress's zealous associates in implementing reasonable reforms were Counts Peter and Ivan Shuvalov.
Peter - III (1761-1762)
Good-natured, but incapable of governing the vast Russian state, Peter III aroused all layers of Russian society against himself with his attraction to everything German, to the detriment of Russian interests. He reformed the troops according to the Prussian model, and he made a lot of concessions to Frederick II. The decrees of Peter III on the freedom of the nobility and on the destruction of the secret office were not sufficiently specific. Her attitude towards the empress pushed her towards a coup; on June 28, 1762, Peter III abdicated the throne and soon died alone, abandoned by everyone.
General characteristics of the 9th century
The most important issue in the foreign policy of the Moscow state during this time was the attitude towards Poland, which had captured southwestern Rus'. The annexation of Little Russia to Moscow, which took place back in 1654, and Moscow’s general support of the Russian people and the Orthodox faith in the southwest, caused a series of wars with Poland. The time of Peter the Great, being a continuation of the foreign and domestic policies of the state of the 17th century, was marked by special energy in carrying out the reforms planned by life. In education, Russia is subject to Western European influence. Writers assimilate the Western European literary form and are active assistants to the government in protecting and disseminating education (Fedor Prokopovich, Stefan Yavorsky, Pososhkov, Tatishchev, Kantemir, Lomonosov, Sumarokov).

10th century, list of events
Catherine - II (1762-1796)
The reign of Catherine II is one of the most remarkable after Peter the Great. By nature, Catherine had great intelligence and character. Self-education and observation expanded her horizons. With the help of skillfully chosen associates, the Empress created a brilliant period in Russian history. During her reign there were two wars with Turkey. In the first, Rumyantsev Zadunaisky and Orlov Chesmensky especially distinguished themselves. Thanks to their victories, Russia acquired the shores of the Sea of ​​Azov, and Türkiye recognized the independence of Crimea. At Potemkin's insistence, Crimea was occupied by the Russians. Cities began to emerge in Novorossiya. The Russian Black Sea Fleet appears. Türkiye declares a second war. They became famous in it: Suvorov, the capture of the Izmail fortress and the victories at Fokshanakh and Rymnik. Türkiye recognized all the northern shores of the Black Sea as Russian possessions. At the very beginning of her reign, Catherine had to intervene in Polish affairs. Unrest in the Polish state and the oppression of dissidents (non-Catholics) was the cause of the Polish partitions. Under the first section, Russia received most of Livonia and Belarus up to the Dvina, Druch and Dnieper, under the second section the rest of Belarus, Ukraine, Podolia and the eastern part of Polesie and Volyn, under the third section - Lithuania. The wars with Sweden and Persia were fruitless. Popular disasters include the appearance of the plague in Moscow in 1771 and the Pugachev rebellion in 1773-1775. The empress was occupied with more than one external struggle. Her internal transformations are also very remarkable. First of all, Catherine promotes the development of classes. She gives letters of grant to the nobility, prenatal status. In connection with the class reforms, a “commission to draft a new code” was convened, something like a Zemsky Sobor. Catherine herself wrote an “instruction” for the leadership of this commission, but the goal was not achieved at all and the commission was soon dissolved. Regarding the provinces, the empress adhered to a policy of centralization. The establishment of the provinces in 1775 divided Russia into 50 provinces, with increased power of governors. In economic terms, the following are important: the transfer of church property to the management of the board of savings, the establishment of a state bank, the introduction of a tax farming system. Catherine II’s numerous concerns about public health were the medical board, smallpox vaccination and education. Cadet corps (engineering and artillery), the Smolny Institute for girls, orphanages in Moscow were established in St. Petersburg, a general charter for public schools was developed, and a Russian academy was opened for the scientific processing of the Russian language. Catherine II, gifted with literary talent, patronized literature and herself took an active part in it. In her comedies, fairy tales and other articles, she served the cause of education no less than with her laws. During her reign, besides Lomonosov, the most famous writers were Derzhavin, Fonvizin and Novikov.
Paul - I (1796-1801)
Emperor Paul I did not approve of the transformations of his sovereign mother and in many ways deviated from her plans and views on governing the state. Upon ascending the throne, he wanted to deal exclusively with state affairs and stop preparations for war with France. He was soon forced to come to the aid of European states in the fight against France. He called Suvorov out of disgrace and sent him to “save the kings.” The Russians inflicted a series of defeats on the French and made an unprecedented crossing of the Alps (Devil's Bridge), but the allies prevented the matter from being completed and Paul I recalled his troops to Russia. Of the internal transformations of Emperor Paul I, the following are remarkable: “Institutions on the imperial family”, on the order of succession to the throne, significant relief for serfs (3-day corvee), the establishment of new women's institutions and the opening of a university in Dorpat.
Alexander - I the Blessed (1801-1825)
Raised by his grandmother, Empress Catherine II, and having received a thorough education, Alexander I Pavlovich, upon ascending the throne, declared that he would rule “according to the laws and the heart” of Catherine II, and follow her wise intentions. The first years of the reign of the young emperor were filled with the most rosy hopes. A number of liberation measures of various kinds caused delight in society. But increasingly complicated foreign relations diverted attention from internal tasks. Alexander I was forced to fight Napoleon at first in an alliance with Austria, and the Russians were defeated at Austerlitz: Then in an alliance with Prussia. After the defeat of the Russians at Friedland, Alexander concluded the Peace of Tilzin. Russia accepted Napoleon's continental system, i.e., it pledged not to trade with England. The burden of this system for Russia and Napoleon’s violation of his promises led to a rupture and the war of 1812. Napoleon, at the head of a huge army, invaded Russia: The Russians began to retreat into the country: Such tactics were followed by the commanders Barclay de Tolly and Kutuzov (council in Fili). A bloody battle took place on the Borodino field, but to no avail. Napoleon occupied Moscow, but it was burned by the inhabitants: The French experienced cold and hunger: Then Napoleon moved south: Along the way he was defeated at Maloyaroslavets: His army still suffered from a lack of provisions and severe frosts: When crossing the Berezina River they were almost destroyed the very remnants of the great army. On December 25, 1812, Russia celebrated the liberation of the Russian land from the invasion of the “twelve languages.” Continuing the fight against Napoleon outside Russia in an alliance with Prussia, Austria and Sweden, Alexander I in 1814, after a series of brilliant victories at Kulm, Leipzig and Fer-Champenoise, solemnly entered Paris. In 1815, at the “Congress of Vienna”, the Duchy of Warsaw annexed Russia and a “holy alliance” was concluded between Russia, Prussia and Austria. Of the reforms of Emperor Alexander I, the following are especially remarkable: The establishment of the State Council (1800), ministries (1802) and the Committee of Ministers, the founding of Kazan, Kharkov and St. Petersburg universities, as well as pedagogical institutes and gymnasiums. Tsarskoye Selo lyceums and corps, taking measures to establish a peasant class, in order to facilitate their significant life. The most significant associates of the emperor were: At the beginning of Novosiltsev, Stroganov, Kochubey, then Speransky and at the end of the reign of Arakcheev. At the end of his reign, the emperor's mood was one of fatigue and disappointment. The ardent dreams of youth remained unfulfilled. The reason for this lay in the vagueness of the dreams themselves, the inability to find practical means for their implementation, and partly in the lack of employees. Alexander I trusted Arakcheev, but Arakcheev aroused displeasure among the people with his military settlements. Emperor Alexander I died childless.
Nicholas (1825-1855)
As a result of the abdication of Konstantin Pavlovich, the brother of Emperor Alexander I, his younger brother Emperor Nicholas I ascended the throne. In the war with Persia, in 1828, he acquired the khanates of Erivan and Nakhichevan under the Turkmanchay Peace and received a large indemnity. Turkey's war over Greece, which it oppressed, after a series of Russian victories over the Turks, ended with the Peace of Andrianople, which recognized the independence of Greece, defined the Prut and Danube rivers as the borders of Russia and ensured the possibility of the safe existence of Serbia. The Polish uprising, after a series of battles, was suppressed in 1832, the constitution in Poland was destroyed. In 1839, the Uniates reunited with the Orthodox Church. As a result of a new break with Turkey, which was aided by England, France and Sardinia, Emperor Nicholas I had to endure a stubborn struggle with his strongest enemy. They concentrated in Sevastopol, heroically defended by Russian troops. In 1853, the entire Turkish fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Sinop. During the defense of Sevastopol, Emperor Nicholas I suddenly fell ill and died. The fruitful work of Emperor Nicholas I on the internal structure of Russia was marked by: The publication in 1830 of the “complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire”, 45 volumes (this work was led by Speransky and was generously awarded by the emperor, he was elevated to the rank of count and received the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called ). By taking measures to improve the life of peasants, by founding the Kyiv University of St. Vladimir, technological and pedagogical institutes, a military academy, a law school and cadet corps, and by constructing the Nikolaev and Tsarsko-Selo railways. During the reign of Emperor Nicholas I, great writers of the Russian land showed themselves: Karamzin, Zhukovsky, both of whom actually belonged to the previous reign, Krylov, Griboedov, Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Belinsky. Content
General characteristics of the 10th century
State life is becoming more complicated. In foreign policy, questions are resolved: Polish, Turkish or Eastern. Having gone through several stages from the most favorable in 1829-1833 to the Sevastopol disaster, the Eastern question became a pan-European one. Russia is being drawn into European politics (the fight against Napoleon, the fight against the European revolution). Internally, the central and regional administration is being reformed. The country's productive forces are developing, education is acquiring a national character, especially in the field of art.

11th century, list of events
Alexander - II Liberator (1855-1881)
Alexander II ended the difficult eastern war with the Parisian peace on conditions that were very painful for Russia. Russia ceded to Turkey the mouth of the Danube, part of Bessarabia, Kars and pledged not to establish a fleet in the Black Sea. According to the Aigun Treaty with China in 1858, Russia acquired the vast Amur region, and in 1860 the Ussuri region. In 1864, the Caucasus was finally annexed to Russia, and the leader of the Caucasian highlanders, Shamil, was captured and sent to Russia. In 1863, the Polish rebellion was pacified, the need to protect the eastern border of Russia from the raids of nomads caused our conquest in Central Asia (Turkestan, Khiva). Thanks to some changes in Western Europe, Russia freed itself in 1871 from the harsh conditions of the Paris Treaty: Our right to have a navy on the Black Sea was restored. In 1877, the violence of the Turks against the Orthodox subjects of the Sultan in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the unequal struggle of the Slavic principalities of Serbia and Montenegro with Turkey prompted Emperor Alexander II to take upon himself the defense of the oppressed Christians. The war was waged with varying success against a powerful enemy, and the capture of Kars in 1877 and Plevna with the capture of the Turkish commander-in-chief Ottoman Pasha were especially remarkable. This war revealed the courage and tirelessness of the Russian troops (winter crossing through the Balkans). It ended in 1878. The Treaty of San Stefano, which ensured the independence of Serbia and Montenegro and established the Principality of Bulgaria. The Treaty of San Stefano was slightly modified at the Berlin Congress that same year. The emperor's reign was marked by a number of “great reforms” that significantly moved Russian life forward. Of these transformations, the most important: the liberation of the peasants in 1861 and the publication of the “regulations on the structure of the peasants”, the granting of a public, fair, speedy, merciful and dear court to subjects in 1864, zemstvo and city self-government, the publication in 1874 of the charter on military conscription, mandatory for all classes of the state, the establishment of Novorossiysk universities in Odessa and Warsaw, the founding of philological institutes in St. Petersburg and Nizhyn “there used to be a legal lyceum here” and teachers’ seminaries and institutes, the opening of women’s gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums, and the improvement of communications. Alexander II died on March 1, 1881 at the hands of assassins. The name “liberator” remains in his descendants.
Emperor Alexander - III (1881-1894)
Experienced in state affairs, already upon his accession to the throne, Emperor Alexander III showed a lot of firmness and self-control in governing the state. Emperor Alexander III cared a lot about the needs of the peasant class: He gave it new power in the person of “zemstvo chiefs,” established parochial schools, and in the interests of improving the national economy, the Ministry of Agriculture was established. The construction of new railways, of which the most remarkable are the Siberian and Central Asian, contributed to the rise of Russian trade and industry. Energetically concerned about strengthening Russia's military position and for this purpose strengthening the Russian border both from land and from sea, the emperor adhered to a wise policy of non-interference in European affairs. In 1892, Emperor Alexander III entered into friendly relations with France, which was marked for the first time by the arrival of the French squadron in Kronstadt. The Emperor, after a serious illness, died in Livadia on October 20, 1894. The voice of the people gave him the nickname "king-peacemaker."
Sovereign Emperor Nikolai Alexandrovich
The now safely reigning Emperor Nikolai Alexandrovich, the eldest son of the deceased Emperor Alexander III, with his peace-loving policies and cordial responsiveness, immediately attracted the hearts of both his loyal subjects and the people of the whole world. Remaining faithful to the state traditions of his sovereign father, Emperor Nikolai Alexandrovich, in constant concern for the people's welfare, expressed his love not only for his subjects, but also for humanity in general, in a number of manifestos. In this case, the imperial manifesto of August 12, 1898, with its proposal to the powers for general disarmament, is remarkable. A conference of representatives of the powers, convened in The Hague to discuss this proposal, developed a number of measures aimed at preventing a bloody clash of peoples.
General characteristics of the 11th century
The grandiose movement of Russia to the east, the protection of peace to the west and south, “great reforms”, the widespread development of education. Russian literature and art in general, imbued with a high humane feeling and bright faith in the future of the Russian people, are the subject of our pride and European surprise. Goncharov, Turgenev, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, our artists are no less famous in Europe than here.

4. Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev (04/17/1894-09/11/1971)

Soviet statesman and party leader. First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR from 1958 to 1964. Hero of the Soviet Union, Three times Hero of Socialist Labor. The first laureate of the Shevchenko Prize, reign 09/07/1. (Moscow).

Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev was born in 1894 in the village of Kalinovka, Kursk province, into the family of miner Sergei Nikanorovich Khrushchev and Ksenia Ivanovna Khrushcheva. In 1908, having moved with his family to the Uspensky mine near Yuzovka, Khrushchev became an apprentice mechanic at a factory, then worked as a mechanic at a mine and, as a miner, was not taken to the front in 1914. In the early 1920s, he worked in the mines and studied at the workers' department of the Donetsk Industrial Institute. Later he was engaged in economic and party work in Donbass and Kyiv. Since January 1931, he was at party work in Moscow, during which time he was the first secretary of the Moscow regional and city party committees - MK and MGK VKP (b). In January 1938, he was appointed first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine. In the same year he became a candidate, and in 1939 - a member of the Politburo.

During World War II, Khrushchev served as a political commissar of the highest rank (a member of the military councils of a number of fronts) and in 1943 received the rank of lieutenant general; led the partisan movement behind the front line. In the first post-war years he headed the government in Ukraine. In December 1947, Khrushchev again headed the Communist Party of Ukraine, becoming the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Ukraine; He held this post until he moved to Moscow in December 1949, where he became the first secretary of the Moscow Party Committee and secretary of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks. Khrushchev initiated the consolidation of collective farms (kolkhozes). After Stalin's death, when the Chairman of the Council of Ministers left the post of Secretary of the Central Committee, Khrushchev became the “master” of the party apparatus, although until September 1953 he did not have the title of First Secretary. Between March and June 1953 he attempted to seize power. In order to eliminate Beria, Khrushchev entered into an alliance with Malenkov. In September 1953, he took the post of First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. In June 1953, a struggle for power began between Malenkov and Khrushchev, in which Khrushchev won. At the beginning of 1954, he announced the start of a grandiose program for the development of virgin lands in order to increase grain production, and in October of the same year he headed the Soviet delegation in Beijing.

The most striking event in Khrushchev's career was the 20th Congress of the CPSU, held in 1956. At a closed meeting, Khrushchev condemned Stalin, accusing him of mass extermination of people and erroneous policies that almost ended with the liquidation of the USSR in the war with Nazi Germany. The result of this report was unrest in the Eastern bloc countries - Poland (October 1956) and Hungary (October and November 1956). In June 1957, the Presidium (formerly Politburo) of the CPSU Central Committee organized a conspiracy to remove Khrushchev from the post of First Secretary of the Party. After his return from Finland, he was invited to a meeting of the Presidium, which, by seven votes to four, demanded his resignation. Khrushchev convened a Plenum of the Central Committee, which overturned the decision of the Presidium and dismissed the “anti-party group” of Molotov, Malenkov and Kaganovich. He strengthened the Presidium with his supporters, and in March 1958 he took the post of Chairman of the Council of Ministers, taking into his own hands all the main levers of power. In September 1960, Khrushchev visited the United States as head of the Soviet delegation to the UN General Assembly. During the assembly, he managed to hold large-scale negotiations with the heads of government of a number of countries. His report to the Assembly called for general disarmament, the immediate elimination of colonialism and the admission of China to the UN. Throughout the summer of 1961, Soviet foreign policy became increasingly harsh, and in September the USSR ended a three-year moratorium on nuclear weapons testing with a series of explosions. On October 14, 1964, by the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, Khrushchev was relieved of his duties as First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee and member of the Presidium of the CPSU Central Committee. He was succeeded by becoming the First Secretary of the Communist Party, and becoming the Chairman of the Council of Ministers. After 1964, Khrushchev, while retaining his seat on the Central Committee, was essentially in retirement. Khrushchev died in Moscow on September 11, 1971.

Nicholas II (1894 - 1917) Due to the stampede that occurred during his coronation, many people died. Thus, the name “Bloody” was attached to the kindest philanthropist Nikolai. In 1898, Nicholas II, caring for world peace, issued a manifesto calling on all countries in the world to completely disarm. After this, a special commission met in The Hague to develop a number of measures that could further prevent bloody clashes between countries and peoples. But the peace-loving emperor had to fight. First in the First World War, then the Bolshevik coup broke out, as a result of which the monarch was overthrown, and then he and his family were shot in Yekaterinburg. The Orthodox Church canonized Nikolai Romanov and his entire family as saints.

Rurik (862-879)

The Novgorod prince, nicknamed Varangian, as he was called to reign over the Novgorodians from across the Varangian Sea. is the founder of the Rurik dynasty. He was married to a woman named Efanda, with whom he had a son named Igor. He also raised Askold’s daughter and stepson. After his two brothers died, he became the sole ruler of the country. He gave all the surrounding villages and suburbs to the management of his confidants, where they had the right to independently conduct justice. Around this time, Askold and Dir, two brothers who were in no way related to Rurik by family ties, occupied the city of Kyiv and began to rule the glades.

Oleg (879 - 912)

Prince of Kyiv, nicknamed the Prophetic. Being a relative of Prince Rurik, he was the guardian of his son Igor. According to legend, he died after being bitten in the leg by a snake. Prince Oleg became famous for his intelligence and military valor. With a huge army at that time, the prince went along the Dnieper. On the way, he conquered Smolensk, then Lyubech, and then took Kyiv, making it the capital. Askold and Dir were killed, and Oleg showed the little son of Rurik, Igor, to the glades as their prince. He went on a military campaign to Greece and with a brilliant victory secured the Russians preferential rights to free trade in Constantinople.

Igor (912 - 945)

Following the example of Prince Oleg, Igor Rurikovich conquered all the neighboring tribes and forced them to pay tribute, successfully repelled the raids of the Pechenegs and also undertook a campaign in Greece, which, however, was not as successful as the campaign of Prince Oleg. As a result, Igor was killed by neighboring conquered tribes of the Drevlyans for his irrepressible greed in extortions.

Olga (945 - 957)

Olga was the wife of Prince Igor. She, according to the customs of that time, very cruelly took revenge on the Drevlyans for the murder of her husband, and also conquered the main city of the Drevlyans - Korosten. Olga was distinguished by very good leadership abilities, as well as a brilliant, sharp mind. Already at the end of her life, she converted to Christianity in Constantinople, for which she was subsequently canonized and named Equal to the Apostles.

Svyatoslav Igorevich (after 964 - spring 972)

The son of Prince Igor and Princess Olga, who, after the death of her husband, took the reins of power into her own hands while her son grew up, learning the intricacies of the art of war. He managed to defeat the army of the Bulgarian king in 967, which greatly alarmed the Byzantine emperor John, who, in cahoots with the Pechenegs, persuaded them to attack Kyiv. In 970, together with the Bulgarians and Hungarians, after the death of Princess Olga, Svyatoslav went on a campaign against Byzantium. The forces were not equal, and Svyatoslav was forced to sign a peace treaty with the empire. After his return to Kyiv, he was brutally killed by the Pechenegs, and then Svyatoslav’s skull was decorated with gold and made into a bowl for pies.

Yaropolk Svyatoslavovich (972 - 978 or 980)

After the death of his father, Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich, made an attempt to unite Rus' under his rule, defeating his brothers: Oleg Drevlyansky and Vladimir of Novgorod, forcing them to leave the country, and then annexed their lands to the Principality of Kyiv. He managed to conclude a new agreement with the Byzantine Empire, and also attract the horde of the Pecheneg Khan Ildea into his service. Tried to establish diplomatic relations with Rome. Under him, as the Joachim manuscript testifies, Christians were given a lot of freedom in Rus', which caused the displeasure of the pagans. Vladimir of Novgorod immediately took advantage of this displeasure and, having agreed with the Varangians, recaptured Novgorod, then Polotsk, and then besieged Kyiv. Yaropolk was forced to flee to Roden. He tried to make peace with his brother, for which he went to Kyiv, where he was a Varangian. Chronicles characterize this prince as a peace-loving and meek ruler.

Vladimir Svyatoslavovich (978 or 980 - 1015)

Vladimir was the youngest son of Prince Svyatoslav. He was the Prince of Novgorod from 968. Became Prince of Kyiv in 980. He was distinguished by a very warlike disposition, which allowed him to conquer the Radimichi, Vyatichi and Yatvingians. Vladimir also waged wars with the Pechenegs, with Volga Bulgaria, with the Byzantine Empire and Poland. It was during the reign of Prince Vladimir in Rus' that defensive structures were built on the boundaries of the rivers: Desna, Trubezh, Osetra, Sula and others. Vladimir also did not forget about his capital city. It was under him that Kyiv was rebuilt with stone buildings. But Vladimir Svyatoslavovich became famous and remained in history thanks to the fact that in 988 - 989. made Christianity the state religion of Kievan Rus, which immediately strengthened the country’s authority in the international arena. Under him, the state of Kievan Rus entered its period of greatest prosperity. Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich became an epic character, in which he is referred to as “Vladimir the Red Sun.” Canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church, named Prince Equal to the Apostles.

Svyatopolk Vladimirovich (1015 - 1019)

During his lifetime, Vladimir Svyatoslavovich divided his lands between his sons: Svyatopolk, Izyaslav, Yaroslav, Mstislav, Svyatoslav, Boris and Gleb. After Prince Vladimir died, Svyatopolk Vladimirovich occupied Kyiv and decided to get rid of his rival brothers. He gave the order to kill Gleb, Boris and Svyatoslav. However, this did not help him establish himself on the throne. Soon he himself was expelled from Kyiv by Prince Yaroslav of Novgorod. Then Svyatopolk turned for help to his father-in-law, King Boleslav of Poland. With the support of the Polish king, Svyatopolk again captured Kiev, but soon circumstances developed such that he was again forced to flee the capital. On the way, Prince Svyatopolk committed suicide. This prince was popularly nicknamed the Damned because he took the lives of his brothers.

Yaroslav Vladimirovich the Wise (1019 - 1054)

Yaroslav Vladimirovich, after the death of Mstislav of Tmutarakansky and after the expulsion of the Holy Regiment, became the sole ruler of the Russian land. Yaroslav was distinguished by a sharp mind, for which, in fact, he received his nickname - the Wise. He tried to take care of the needs of his people, built the cities of Yaroslavl and Yuryev. He also built churches (St. Sophia in Kyiv and Novgorod), understanding the importance of spreading and establishing the new faith. It was he who published the first set of laws in Rus' called “Russian Truth”. He divided the plots of the Russian land between his sons: Izyaslav, Svyatoslav, Vsevolod, Igor and Vyacheslav, bequeathing them to live in peace among themselves.

Izyaslav Yaroslavich the First (1054 - 1078)

Izyaslav was the eldest son of Yaroslav the Wise. After the death of his father, the throne of Kievan Rus passed to him. But after his campaign against the Polovtsians, which ended in failure, the Kievans themselves drove him away. Then his brother Svyatoslav became the Grand Duke. Only after the death of Svyatoslav did Izyaslav return to the capital city of Kyiv. Vsevolod the First (1078 - 1093) It is likely that Prince Vsevolod could well have been a useful ruler, thanks to his peaceful disposition, piety and truthfulness. Being himself an educated man, knowing five languages, he actively contributed to enlightenment in his principality. But, alas. Constant, incessant raids of the Polovtsians, pestilence, and famine did not favor the rule of this prince. He remained on the throne thanks to the efforts of his son Vladimir, who would later be called Monomakh.

Svyatopolk the Second (1093 - 1113)

Svyatopolk was the son of Izyaslav the First. It was he who inherited the Kyiv throne after Vsevolod the First. This prince was distinguished by a rare lack of spine, which is why he was unable to calm the internecine friction between the princes for power in the cities. In 1097, a congress of princes took place in the city of Lyubich, at which each ruler, kissing the cross, pledged to own only his father’s land. But this fragile peace treaty was not allowed to come to fruition. Prince Davyd Igorevich blinded Prince Vasilko. Then the princes, at a new congress (1100), deprived Prince David of the right to own Volyn. Then, in 1103, the princes unanimously accepted Vladimir Monomakh’s proposal for a joint campaign against the Polovtsians, which was done. The campaign ended in Russian victory in 1111.

Vladimir Monomakh (1113 - 1125)

Despite the right of seniority of the Svyatoslavichs, when Prince Svyatopolk the Second died, Vladimir Monomakh, who wanted the unification of the Russian land, was elected Prince of Kyiv. Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh was brave, tireless and stood out from the rest with his remarkable mental abilities. He managed to humble the princes with meekness, and he fought successfully with the Polovtsians. Vladimir Monoma is a vivid example of the prince’s service not to his personal ambitions, but to his people, which he bequeathed to his children.

Mstislav the First (1125 - 1132)

The son of Vladimir Monomakh, Mstislav the First, was very similar to his legendary father, demonstrating the same remarkable qualities of a ruler. All the disobedient princes showed him respect, fearing to anger the Grand Duke and share the fate of the Polovtsian princes, whom Mstislav expelled to Greece for disobedience, and in their place he sent his son to reign.

Yaropolk (1132 - 1139)

Yaropolk was the son of Vladimir Monomakh and, accordingly, the brother of Mstislav the First. During his reign, he came up with the idea of ​​​​transferring the throne not to his brother Vyacheslav, but to his nephew, which caused turmoil in the country. It was because of these strife that the Monomakhovichs lost the throne of Kiev, which was occupied by the descendants of Oleg Svyatoslavovich, that is, the Olegovichs.

Vsevolod the Second (1139 - 1146)

Having become the Grand Duke, Vsevolod the Second wanted to secure the throne of Kiev for his family. For this reason, he handed over the throne to Igor Olegovich, his brother. But Igor was not accepted by the people as a prince. He was forced to take monastic vows, but even the monastic robe did not protect him from the wrath of the people. Igor was killed.

Izyaslav the Second (1146 - 1154)

Izyaslav the Second fell in love with the people of Kiev to a greater extent because with his intelligence, disposition, friendliness and courage he very much reminded them of Vladimir Monomakh, the grandfather of Izyaslav the Second. After Izyaslav ascended the Kiev throne, the concept of seniority, accepted for centuries, was violated in Rus', that is, for example, while his uncle was alive, his nephew could not be the Grand Duke. A stubborn struggle began between Izyaslav II and Rostov Prince Yuri Vladimirovich. Izyaslav was driven out of Kyiv twice during his life, but this prince still managed to retain the throne until his death.

Yuri Dolgoruky (1154 - 1157)

It was the death of Izyaslav the Second that paved the way to the throne of Kyiv Yuri, whom the people later nicknamed Dolgoruky. Yuri became the Grand Duke, but he did not reign for long, only three years later, after which he died.

Mstislav the Second (1157 - 1169)

After the death of Yuri Dolgoruky, as usual, internecine strife began between the princes for the Kiev throne, as a result of which Mstislav the Second Izyaslavovich became the Grand Duke. Mstislav was expelled from the Kyiv throne by Prince Andrei Yuryevich, nicknamed Bogolyubsky. Before the expulsion of Prince Mstislav, Bogolyubsky literally ruined Kyiv.

Andrey Bogolyubsky (1169 - 1174)

The first thing Andrei Bogolyubsky did when he became Grand Duke was to move the capital from Kyiv to Vladimir. He ruled Russia autocratically, without squads or councils, persecuted everyone who was dissatisfied with this state of affairs, but in the end he was killed by them as a result of a conspiracy.

Vsevolod the Third (1176 - 1212)

The death of Andrei Bogolyubsky caused strife between ancient cities (Suzdal, Rostov) and new ones (Pereslavl, Vladimir). As a result of these confrontations, Andrei Bogolyubsky’s brother Vsevolod the Third, nicknamed the Big Nest, became king in Vladimir. Despite the fact that this prince did not rule and did not live in Kyiv, nevertheless, he was called the Grand Duke and was the first to force an oath of allegiance not only to himself, but also to his children.

Constantine the First (1212 - 1219)

The title of Grand Duke Vsevolod the Third, contrary to expectations, was transferred not to his eldest son Constantine, but to Yuri, as a result of which strife arose. The father’s decision to approve Yuri as Grand Duke was also supported by Vsevolod the Big Nest’s third son, Yaroslav. And Konstantin was supported in his claims to the throne by Mstislav Udaloy. Together they won the Battle of Lipetsk (1216) and Constantine nevertheless became the Grand Duke. Only after his death did the throne pass to Yuri.

Yuri the Second (1219 - 1238)

Yuri successfully fought with the Volga Bulgarians and Mordovians. On the Volga, on the very border of Russian possessions, Prince Yuri built Nizhny Novgorod. It was during his reign that the Mongol-Tatars appeared in Rus', who in 1224, at the Battle of Kalka, defeated first the Polovtsians, and then the troops of the Russian princes who came to support the Polovtsians. After this battle, the Mongols left, but thirteen years later they returned under the leadership of Batu Khan. Hordes of Mongols devastated the Suzdal and Ryazan principalities, and also defeated the army of Grand Duke Yuri II in the Battle of the City. Yuri died in this battle. Two years after his death, hordes of Mongols plundered the south of Rus' and Kyiv, after which all Russian princes were forced to admit that from now on they and their lands were under the rule of the Tatar yoke. The Mongols on the Volga made the city of Sarai the capital of the horde.

Yaroslav II (1238 - 1252)

The Khan of the Golden Horde appointed Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich of Novgorod as Grand Duke. During his reign, this prince was engaged in restoring Rus', devastated by the Mongol army.

Alexander Nevsky (1252 - 1263)

Being at first the Prince of Novgorod, Alexander Yaroslavovich defeated the Swedes on the Neva River in 1240, for which, in fact, he was named Nevsky. Then, two years later, he defeated the Germans in the famous Battle of the Ice. Among other things, Alexander fought very successfully against Chud and Lithuania. From the Horde he received a label for the Great Reign and became a great intercessor for the entire Russian people, as he traveled to the Golden Horde four times with rich gifts and bows. was subsequently canonized.

Yaroslav the Third (1264 - 1272)

After Alexander Nevsky died, his two brothers began to fight for the title of Grand Duke: Vasily and Yaroslav, but the Khan of the Golden Horde decided to give the label to reign to Yaroslav. However, Yaroslav failed to get along with the Novgorodians; he treacherously called even the Tatars against his own people. The Metropolitan reconciled Prince Yaroslav III with the people, after which the prince again swore an oath on the cross to rule honestly and fairly.

Vasily the First (1272 - 1276)

Vasily the First was the prince of Kostroma, but laid claim to the throne of Novgorod, where the son of Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry, reigned. And soon Vasily the First achieved his goal, thereby strengthening his principality, previously weakened by division into appanages.

Dmitry the First (1276 - 1294)

The entire reign of Dmitry the First took place in a continuous struggle for the rights of the grand duke with his brother Andrei Alexandrovich. Andrei Alexandrovich was supported by Tatar regiments, from which Dmitry managed to escape three times. After his third escape, Dmitry nevertheless decided to ask Andrei for peace and, thus, received the right to reign in Pereslavl.

Andrew the Second (1294 - 1304)

Andrew the Second pursued a policy of expanding his principality through the armed seizure of other principalities. In particular, he laid claim to the principality in Pereslavl, which led to civil strife with Tver and Moscow, which, even after the death of Andrei II, was not stopped.

Saint Michael (1304 - 1319)

The Tver prince Mikhail Yaroslavovich, having paid a large tribute to the khan, received from the Horde a label for the grand reign, bypassing the Moscow prince Yuri Danilovich. But then, while Mikhail was waging war with Novgorod, Yuri, conspiring with the Horde ambassador Kavgady, slandered Mikhail in front of the khan. As a result, the khan summoned Mikhail to the Horde, where he was brutally killed.

Yuri the Third (1320 - 1326)

Yuri the Third married the khan's daughter Konchaka, who in Orthodoxy took the name Agafya. It was for her premature death that Yuri insidiously accused Mikhail Yaroslavovich Tverskoy, for which he suffered an unjust and cruel death at the hands of the Horde Khan. So Yuri received a label to reign, but the son of the murdered Mikhail, Dmitry, also laid claim to the throne. As a result, Dmitry killed Yuri at the first meeting, avenging his father's death.

Dmitry the Second (1326)

For the murder of Yuri the Third, he was sentenced to death by the Horde Khan for arbitrariness.

Alexander Tverskoy (1326 - 1338)

The brother of Dmitry II - Alexander - received from the khan a label for the Grand Duke's throne. Prince Alexander of Tverskoy was distinguished by justice and kindness, but he literally ruined himself by allowing the Tver people to kill Shchelkan, the Khan’s ambassador, hated by everyone. Khan sent a 50,000-strong army against Alexander. The prince was forced to flee first to Pskov and then to Lithuania. Only 10 years later, Alexander received the khan’s forgiveness and was able to return, but at the same time, he did not get along with the Prince of Moscow - Ivan Kalita - after which Kalita slandered Alexander Tverskoy in front of the khan. Khan urgently summoned A. Tverskoy to his Horde, where he executed him.

John the First Kalita (1320 - 1341)

John Danilovich, nicknamed “Kalita” (Kalita - wallet) for his stinginess, was very careful and cunning. With the support of the Tatars, he devastated the Tver Principality. It was he who took upon himself the responsibility of accepting tribute for the Tatars from all over Rus', which also contributed to his personal enrichment. With this money, John bought entire cities from appanage princes. Through the efforts of Kalita, the metropolis was also transferred from Vladimir to Moscow in 1326. He founded the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. Since the time of John Kalita, Moscow has become the permanent residence of the Metropolitan of All Rus' and becomes the Russian center.

Simeon the Proud (1341 - 1353)

The Khan gave Simeon Ioannovich not only the label for the Grand Duchy, but also ordered all the other princes to obey only him, so Simeon began to call himself the Prince of All Rus'. The prince died without leaving an heir from a pestilence.

John the Second (1353 - 1359)

Brother of Simeon the Proud. He had a meek and peace-loving disposition, he obeyed the advice of Metropolitan Alexei in all matters, and Metropolitan Alexei, in turn, enjoyed great respect in the Horde. During the reign of this prince, relations between the Tatars and Moscow improved significantly.

Dmitry the Third Donskoy (1363 - 1389)

After the death of John the Second, his son Dmitry was still small, so the khan gave the label for the grand reign to the Suzdal prince Dmitry Konstantinovich (1359 - 1363). However, the Moscow boyars benefited from the policy of strengthening the Moscow prince, and they managed to achieve grand reign for Dmitry Ioannovich. The Suzdal prince was forced to submit and, together with the rest of the princes of northeastern Rus', swore allegiance to Dmitry Ioannovich. The relationship between Rus' and the Tatars also changed. Due to civil strife within the horde itself, Dmitry and the rest of the princes took the opportunity not to pay the already familiar quitrent. Then Khan Mamai entered into an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Jagiell and moved with a large army to Rus'. Dmitry and other princes met Mamai’s army on the Kulikovo field (next to the Don River) and at the cost of huge losses on September 8, 1380, Rus' defeated the army of Mamai and Jagiell. For this victory they nicknamed Dmitry Ioannovich Donskoy. Until the end of his life, he cared about strengthening Moscow.

Vasily the First (1389 - 1425)

Vasily ascended the princely throne, already having experience of rule, since during his father’s life he shared the reign with him. Expanded the Moscow Principality. Refused to pay tribute to the Tatars. In 1395, Khan Timur threatened Rus' with invasion, but it was not he who attacked Moscow, but Edigei, the Tatar Murza (1408). But he lifted the siege from Moscow, receiving a ransom of 3,000 rubles. Under Vasily the First, the Ugra River was designated as the border with the Lithuanian principality.

Vasily the Second (Dark) (1425 - 1462)

Yuri Dmitrievich Galitsky decided to take advantage of Prince Vasily’s minority and declared his rights to the grand ducal throne, but the khan decided the dispute in favor of the young Vasily II, which was greatly facilitated by the Moscow boyar Vasily Vsevolozhsky, hoping in the future to marry his daughter to Vasily, but these expectations were not destined to come true . Then he left Moscow and assisted Yuri Dmitrievich, and he soon took possession of the throne, on which he died in 1434. His son Vasily Kosoy began to lay claim to the throne, but all the princes of Rus' rebelled against this. Vasily the Second captured Vasily Kosoy and blinded him. Then Vasily Kosoy’s brother Dmitry Shemyaka captured Vasily the Second and also blinded him, after which he took the throne of Moscow. But soon he was forced to give the throne to Vasily the Second. Under Vasily the Second, all metropolitans in Rus' began to be recruited from Russians, and not from Greeks, as before. The reason for this was the acceptance of the Florentine Union in 1439 by Metropolitan Isidore, who was from the Greeks. For this, Vasily the Second gave the order to take Metropolitan Isidore into custody and appointed Ryazan Bishop John in his place.

John the Third (1462 -1505)

Under him, the core of the state apparatus and, as a consequence, the state of Rus' began to form. He annexed Yaroslavl, Perm, Vyatka, Tver, and Novgorod to the Moscow principality. In 1480, he overthrew the Tatar-Mongol yoke (Standing on the Ugra). In 1497, the Code of Laws was compiled. John the Third launched a large construction project in Moscow and strengthened the international position of Rus'. It was under him that the title “Prince of All Rus'” was born.

Vasily the Third (1505 - 1533)

“The last collector of Russian lands” Vasily the Third was the son of John the Third and Sophia Paleologus. He was distinguished by a very unapproachable and proud disposition. Having annexed Pskov, he destroyed the appanage system. He fought with Lithuania twice on the advice of Mikhail Glinsky, a Lithuanian nobleman whom he kept in his service. In 1514, he finally took Smolensk from the Lithuanians. He fought with Crimea and Kazan. In the end, he managed to punish Kazan. He recalled all trade from the city, ordering from now on to trade at the Makaryevskaya Fair, which was then moved to Nizhny Novgorod. Vasily the Third, wishing to marry Elena Glinskaya, divorced his wife Solomonia, which further turned the boyars against themselves. From his marriage to Elena, Vasily the Third had a son, John.

Elena Glinskaya (1533 - 1538)

She was appointed to rule by Vasily the Third himself until their son John came of age. Elena Glinskaya, as soon as she ascended the throne, dealt very harshly with all the rebellious and dissatisfied boyars, after which she made peace with Lithuania. Then she decided to repel the Crimean Tatars, who were boldly attacking Russian lands, however, these plans were not allowed to come true, since Elena died suddenly.

John the Fourth (Grozny) (1538 - 1584)

John the Fourth, Prince of All Rus', became the first Russian Tsar in 1547. Since the late forties, he ruled the country with the participation of the Elected Rada. During his reign, the convening of all Zemsky Sobors began. In 1550, a new Code of Law was drawn up, and reforms of the court and administration were carried out (Zemskaya and Gubnaya reforms). conquered the Kazan Khanate in 1552, and the Astrakhan Khanate in 1556. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced to strengthen the autocracy. Under John the Fourth, trade relations with England were established in 1553, and the first printing house in Moscow was opened. From 1558 to 1583, the Livonian War for access to the Baltic Sea continued. In 1581, the annexation of Siberia began. The entire internal policy of the country under Tsar John was accompanied by disgraces and executions, for which the people called him the Terrible. The enslavement of peasants increased significantly.

Fyodor Ioannovich (1584 - 1598)

He was the second son of John the Fourth. He was very sickly and weak, and lacked mental acuity. That is why very quickly the actual control of the state passed into the hands of the boyar Boris Godunov, the tsar’s brother-in-law. Boris Godunov, surrounding himself with exclusively devoted people, became a sovereign ruler. He built cities, strengthened relations with the countries of Western Europe, and built the Arkhangelsk harbor on the White Sea. By order and instigation of Godunov, an all-Russian independent patriarchate was approved, and the peasants were finally attached to the land. It was he who in 1591 ordered the murder of Tsarevich Dmitry, who was the brother of the childless Tsar Feodor and was his direct heir. 6 years after this murder, Tsar Fedor himself died.

Boris Godunov (1598 - 1605)

The sister of Boris Godunov and the wife of the late Tsar Fyodor abdicated the throne. Patriarch Job recommended that Godunov’s supporters convene a Zemsky Sobor, at which Boris was elected tsar. Godunov, having become king, was afraid of conspiracies on the part of the boyars and, in general, was distinguished by excessive suspicion, which naturally caused disgrace and exile. At the same time, boyar Fyodor Nikitich Romanov was forced to take monastic vows, and he became the monk Filaret, and his young son Mikhail was sent into exile to Beloozero. But it was not only the boyars who were angry with Boris Godunov. A three-year crop failure and the ensuing pestilence that struck the Muscovite kingdom forced the people to see this as the fault of Tsar B. Godunov. The king tried as best he could to ease the lot of the starving people. He increased the earnings of people working on government buildings (for example, during the construction of the bell tower of Ivan the Great), generously distributed alms, but people still grumbled and willingly believed rumors that the legitimate Tsar Dmitry had not been killed at all and would soon take the throne. In the midst of preparations for the fight against False Dmitry, Boris Godunov suddenly died, and at the same time managed to bequeath the throne to his son Fedor.

False Dmitry (1605 - 1606)

The fugitive monk Grigory Otrepiev, who was supported by the Poles, declared himself Tsar Dmitry, who miraculously managed to escape from the murderers in Uglich. He entered Russia with several thousand people. An army came out to meet him, but it also went over to the side of False Dmitry, recognizing him as the rightful king, after which Fyodor Godunov was killed. False Dmitry was a very good-natured man, but with a sharp mind; he diligently dealt with all state affairs, but caused the displeasure of the clergy and boyars because, in their opinion, he did not sufficiently respect the old Russian customs, and completely neglected many. Together with Vasily Shuisky, the boyars entered into a conspiracy against False Dmitry, spread a rumor that he was an impostor, and then, without hesitation, they killed the fake tsar.

Vasily Shuisky (1606 - 1610)

The boyars and townspeople elected the old and inexperienced Shuisky as king, while limiting his power. In Russia, rumors about the salvation of False Dmitry again arose, in connection with which new unrest began in the state, intensified by the rebellion of a serf named Ivan Bolotnikov and the appearance of False Dmitry II in Tushino (“Tushino thief”). Poland went to war against Moscow and defeated Russian troops. After this, Tsar Vasily was forcibly tonsured a monk, and a troubled time of interregnum came to Russia, lasting three years.

Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 - 1645)

The letters of the Trinity Lavra, sent throughout Russia and calling for the defense of the Orthodox faith and the fatherland, did their job: Prince Dmitry Pozharsky, with the participation of the Zemstvo head of Nizhny Novgorod Kozma Minin (Sukhorokiy), gathered a large militia and moved towards Moscow in order to clear the capital of rebels and Poles, which was done after painful efforts. On February 21, 1613, the Great Zemstvo Duma met, at which Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov was elected Tsar, who, after much denial, nevertheless ascended the throne, where the first thing he did was to pacify both external and internal enemies.

He concluded the so-called pillar agreement with the Kingdom of Sweden, and in 1618 he signed the Treaty of Deulin with Poland, according to which Filaret, who was the Tsar’s parent, was returned to Russia after a long captivity. Upon his return, he was immediately elevated to the rank of patriarch. Patriarch Filaret was an adviser to his son and a reliable co-ruler. Thanks to them, by the end of the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich, Russia began to enter into friendly relations with various Western states, having practically recovered from the horror of the Time of Troubles.

Alexey Mikhailovich (Quiet) (1645 - 1676)

Tsar Alexei is considered one of the best people of ancient Russia. He had a meek, humble disposition and was very pious. He absolutely could not stand quarrels, and if they happened, he suffered greatly and tried in every possible way to reconcile with his enemy. In the first years of his reign, his closest adviser was his uncle, boyar Morozov. In the fifties, Patriarch Nikon became his advisor, who decided to unite Rus' with the rest of the Orthodox world and ordered everyone from now on to be baptized in the Greek manner - with three fingers, which created a split among the Orthodox in Rus'. (The most famous schismatics are the Old Believers, who do not want to deviate from the true faith and be baptized with a “cookie”, as the Patriarch - Boyarina Morozova and Archpriest Avvakum ordered).

During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, riots broke out every now and then in different cities, which were suppressed, and the decision of Little Russia to voluntarily join the Moscow state provoked two wars with Poland. But the state survived thanks to the unity and concentration of power. After the death of his first wife, Maria Miloslavskaya, in whose marriage the tsar had two sons (Fedor and John) and many daughters, he married a second time to the girl Natalya Naryshkina, who bore him a son, Peter.

Fedor Alekseevich (1676 - 1682)

During the reign of this tsar, the issue of Little Russia was finally resolved: its western part went to Turkey, and the East and Zaporozhye to Moscow. Patriarch Nikon was returned from exile. They also abolished localism - the ancient boyar custom of taking into account the service of their ancestors when occupying government and military positions. Tsar Fedor died without leaving an heir.

Ivan Alekseevich (1682 - 1689)

Ivan Alekseevich, together with his brother Pyotr Alekseevich, was elected tsar thanks to the Streltsy revolt. But Tsarevich Alexei, suffering from dementia, did not take any part in state affairs. He died in 1689 during the reign of Princess Sophia.

Sophia (1682 - 1689)

Sophia remained in history as a ruler of extraordinary intelligence and possessed all the necessary qualities of a real queen. She managed to calm the unrest of the schismatics, curb the archers, conclude an “eternal peace” with Poland, very beneficial for Russia, as well as the Treaty of Nerchinsk with distant China. The princess undertook campaigns against the Crimean Tatars, but fell victim to her own lust for power. Tsarevich Peter, however, having guessed her plans, imprisoned his half-sister in the Novodevichy Convent, where Sophia died in 1704.

Peter the Great (1682 - 1725)

The greatest tsar, and since 1721 the first Russian emperor, statesman, cultural and military figure. He carried out revolutionary reforms in the country: collegiums, the Senate, bodies of political investigation and state control were created. He made divisions in Russia into provinces, and also subordinated the church to the state. Built a new capital - St. Petersburg. Peter's main dream was to eliminate Russia's backwardness in development compared to European countries. Taking advantage of Western experience, he tirelessly created manufactories, factories, and shipyards.

To facilitate trade and for access to the Baltic Sea, he won the Northern War against Sweden, which lasted 21 years, thereby “cutting through” a “window to Europe.” Built a huge fleet for Russia. Thanks to his efforts, the Academy of Sciences was opened in Russia and the civil alphabet was adopted. All reforms were carried out using the most brutal methods and caused multiple uprisings in the country (Streletskoye in 1698, Astrakhan from 1705 to 1706, Bulavinsky from 1707 to 1709), which, however, were also mercilessly suppressed.

Catherine the First (1725 - 1727)

Peter the Great died without leaving a will. So, the throne passed to his wife Catherine. Catherine became famous for equipping Bering on a trip around the world, and also established the Supreme Privy Council at the instigation of the friend and comrade-in-arms of her late husband Peter the Great, Prince Menshikov. Thus, Menshikov concentrated virtually all state power in his hands. He persuaded Catherine to appoint as heir to the throne the son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, to whom his father, Peter the Great, had sentenced Peter Alekseevich to death for his aversion to reforms, and also to agree to his marriage with Menshikov’s daughter Maria. Before Peter Alekseevich came of age, Prince Menshikov was appointed ruler of Russia.

Peter the Second (1727 - 1730)

Peter the Second did not rule for long. Having barely gotten rid of the imperious Menshikov, he immediately fell under the influence of the Dolgorukys, who, by distracting the emperors with entertainment from state affairs in every possible way, actually ruled the country. They wished to marry the emperor to Princess E. A. Dolgoruky, but Peter Alekseevich suddenly died of smallpox and the wedding did not take place.

Anna Ioannovna (1730 - 1740)

The Supreme Privy Council decided to somewhat limit the autocracy, so they chose Anna Ioannovna, the Dowager Duchess of Courland, daughter of Ivan Alekseevich, as empress. But she was crowned on the Russian throne as an autocratic empress and, first of all, having assumed her rights, she destroyed the Supreme Privy Council. She replaced it with the Cabinet and instead of the Russian nobles, she distributed positions to the Germans Ostern and Minich, as well as the Courlander Biron. The cruel and unjust rule was subsequently called “Bironism.”

Russia's intervention in the internal affairs of Poland in 1733 cost the country dearly: the lands conquered by Peter the Great had to be returned to Persia. Before her death, the empress appointed the son of her niece Anna Leopoldovna as her heir, and appointed Biron as regent for the baby. However, Biron was soon overthrown, and Anna Leopoldovna became the empress, whose reign cannot be called long and glorious. The guards staged a coup and proclaimed Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, daughter of Peter the Great.

Elizaveta Petrovna (1741 - 1761)

Elizabeth destroyed the Cabinet established by Anna Ioannovna and returned the Senate. Issued a decree abolishing the death penalty in 1744. She established the first loan banks in Russia in 1954, which became a great boon for merchants and nobles. At Lomonosov's request, she opened the first university in Moscow and in 1756 opened the first theater. During her reign, Russia fought two wars: with Sweden and the so-called “seven years”, in which Prussia, Austria and France took part. Thanks to the peace concluded with Sweden, part of Finland was ceded to Russia. The “Seven Years” War was brought to an end by the death of Empress Elizabeth.

Peter the Third (1761 - 1762)

He was absolutely unsuited to governing the state, but he was of a complacent disposition. But this young emperor managed to turn absolutely all layers of Russian society against himself, since, to the detriment of Russian interests, he showed a craving for everything German. Peter the Third, not only made a lot of concessions in relation to the Prussian Emperor Frederick the Second, but also reformed the army according to the same Prussian model, dear to his heart. He issued decrees on the destruction of the secret chancellery and the free nobility, which, however, were not distinguished by certainty. As a result of the coup, because of his attitude towards the empress, he quickly signed an abdication of the throne and soon died.

Catherine the Second (1762 - 1796)

Her reign was one of the greatest after the reign of Peter the Great. Empress Catherine ruled harshly, suppressed Pugachev's peasant uprising, won two Turkish wars, which resulted in recognition of the independence of Crimea by Turkey, and the shore of the Sea of ​​Azov was ceded to Russia. Russia acquired the Black Sea Fleet, and active construction of cities began in Novorossiya. Catherine the Second established the colleges of education and medicine. Cadet corps were opened, and the Smolny Institute was opened to train girls. Catherine the Second, herself possessing literary abilities, patronized literature.

Paul the First (1796 - 1801)

He did not support the changes that his mother, Empress Catherine, started in the state system. Among the achievements of his reign, one should note a very significant improvement in the life of serfs (only a three-day corvee was introduced), the opening of a university in Dorpat, as well as the emergence of new women's institutions.

Alexander the First (Blessed) (1801 - 1825)

The grandson of Catherine the Second, upon ascending the throne, vowed to rule the country “according to the law and heart” of his crowned grandmother, who, in fact, was involved in his upbringing. At the very beginning, he took a number of different liberation measures aimed at different sections of society, which aroused the undoubted respect and love of people. But external political problems distracted Alexander from internal reforms. Russia, in alliance with Austria, was forced to fight against Napoleon; Russian troops were defeated at Austerlitz.

Napoleon forced Russia to abandon trade with England. As a result, in 1812, Napoleon nevertheless, violating the treaty with Russia, went to war against the country. And in the same year, 1812, Russian troops defeated Napoleon’s army. Alexander the First established the State Council in 1800, ministries and the cabinet of ministers. He opened universities in St. Petersburg, Kazan and Kharkov, as well as many institutes and gymnasiums, and the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. Made the life of the peasants much easier.

Nicholas the First (1825 - 1855)

He continued the policy of improving peasant life. Founded the Institute of St. Vladimir in Kyiv. Published a 45-volume complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Under Nicholas the First in 1839, the Uniates were reunited with Orthodoxy. This reunification was a consequence of the suppression of the uprising in Poland and the complete destruction of the Polish constitution. There was a war with the Turks, who oppressed Greece, and as a result of Russia's victory, Greece gained independence. After the rupture of relations with Turkey, which was sided with England, Sardinia and France, Russia had to join a new struggle.

The emperor died suddenly during the defense of Sevastopol. During the reign of Nicholas the First, the Nikolaevskaya and Tsarskoye Selo railways were built, great Russian writers and poets lived and worked: Lermontov, Pushkin, Krylov, Griboedov, Belinsky, Zhukovsky, Gogol, Karamzin.

Alexander II (Liberator) (1855 - 1881)

Alexander II had to end the Turkish war. The Paris Peace Treaty was concluded on very unfavorable terms for Russia. In 1858, according to an agreement with China, Russia acquired the Amur region, and later Usuriysk. In 1864, the Caucasus finally became part of Russia. The most important state transformation of Alexander II was the decision to free the peasants. He died at the hands of an assassin in 1881.