At the beginning of the 19th century. The initiator of broad reforms in the sphere of state power and social relations was Emperor Alexander I (1801-1825). A characteristic feature of his reign was the struggle between two currents: liberal and conservative-protective, and the emperor maneuvering between them. After ascending the throne, Alexander abolished restrictions on the import and export of goods and books, trips abroad, confirmed the Charter of the nobility, restored relations with England, returned from exile and lifted disgrace from all officers and officials who suffered under Paul.
To discuss state issues in 1801, the Permanent Council was formed under the emperor - an advisory body of 12 people. At the same time, under Alexander I, a Secret Committee was formed - a circle of young friends of the tsar, which included P. Stroganov, N. Novosiltsev, V. Kochubey, A. Czartoryski. They discussed issues of reforming Russia, the abolition of serfdom, and the constitution.
In 1803, a decree “On free cultivators” was issued. In accordance with it, landowners could free serfs with land for a ransom. Decrees of 1804-1805 limited serfdom in the Baltic states. The sale of peasants without land was prohibited.
In 1803, a new regulation “On the structure of educational institutions” appeared. During Alexander's reign, 5 new universities were opened. The university charter of 1804 established the autonomy of universities.
The Manifesto of 1802 established 8 ministries instead of collegiums. In 1808-1812. preparation of projects for the reorganization of the state management system was concentrated in the Ministry of Internal Affairs and was carried out under the leadership of M.M. Speransky. In 1809, he presented a draft reform "Introduction to the Code of State Laws." The project provided for the separation of powers. The highest legislative body was declared to be the State Duma, which led the network of volost, district and provincial dumas. The highest executive power was vested in the emperor, under whom the State Council was established as an advisory body. The Senate became the highest judicial body.
In 1810, the State Council was established - a legislative advisory body. In 1810, the “General Establishment of Ministries” developed by Speransky was introduced, which determined the composition, limits of power and responsibility of ministries.
The hatred of courtiers and officials was caused by the decree prepared by Speransky in 1809, according to which all persons who had a court rank had to choose some kind of real service, i.e. the court rank turned into only an honorary title and lost the status of a position. Speransky also implemented a number of measures aimed at improving finances. In 1812, Speransky was dismissed from government service and exiled to Nizhny Novgorod, and then to Perm.
Russian foreign policy at the beginning of the 19th century. was determined primarily by the situation that was developing in Europe.
In 1805, Russia again joined the anti-French coalition. The Russian army and its allies were defeated at Austerlitz. In 1806, the battles of Pułtusk and Preussisch-Eylau took place. Battle of Friedland in 1807 ended this war and completed the defeat of the Russian army.
In the summer of 1807, Russia and France signed the Treaty of Tilsit and the treaty of alliance against England. This was the first meeting between Alexander I and Napoleon. Russia agreed to mediate in negotiations between France and Great Britain, and France assumed the role of mediator in concluding peace between Russia and Turkey. Russia pledged to withdraw its troops from Moldova and Wallachia and recognized the sovereignty of France over the Ionian Islands. The parties agreed to conduct joint actions in the war against any European power. It was agreed that if Great Britain did not accept Russian mediation or did not agree to make peace, Russia would have to break off diplomatic and trade relations with it. Napoleon, for his part, took upon himself the obligation to act on the side of Russia against Turkey.
Great Britain refused Alexander I's offer of mediation. Remaining faithful to the newly signed treaty, Russia declared war on England. France, in violation of its treaty obligations in the Balkans, secretly encouraged Turkey to take military action against Russia. The war with England was not in Russia's interests. The cessation of trade and political ties with it had a detrimental effect on the country's economy. The formation of the Duchy of Warsaw was a springboard for France on the Russian border.
In 1804, the Russian-Iranian war began over disputed territories. During the campaign of 1804-1806. Russia occupied the khanates north of the Araks River (Baku, Kuba, Ganja, Derbent, etc.) The transfer of these territories to Russia was enshrined in the Gulistan Peace Treaty of 1813.
During the Russian-Turkish War (1806-1812) in the Dardanelles and Athos naval battles in 1807, the Russian fleet defeated the Turkish squadron. In 1811, General M.I., newly appointed commander-in-chief. Kutuzov won a decisive victory at Rushchuk. In 1812, the Treaty of Bucharest was signed. Türkiye ceded Bessarabia to Russia, and an autonomous Serbian principality was created.
In 1808-1809 was the last Russian-Swedish war in the history of relations between these states. Its result was the signing of the Treaty of Friedrichsham, according to which all of Finland, together with the Åland Islands, became part of the Russian Empire as a grand duchy. The Russian-Swedish border was established along the Gulf of Bothnia and the Torneo and Muonio rivers.
Management of the Russian Empire. By the end of the 19th century. the autocracy, it seemed, stood firmly and indestructible. All the highest functions of power (legislative, executive and judicial) were concentrated in the hands of the emperor, but the implementation of each of them was carried out through a system of state institutions.
The highest legislative body, as before, remained the State Council, endowed with legislative advisory rights. It consisted of persons appointed by the king and ministers. For the most part, these were famous courtiers and dignitaries, many of whom were very advanced in age, which allowed the salon public to call them nothing more than State Soviet elders. The State Council had no legislative initiative. At its meetings, only bills introduced by the monarch, but developed by ministries, were discussed.
The main executive body was the Committee of Ministers. It was headed by a Chairman, whose functions were very limited. The Committee of Ministers included not only ministers, but also heads of departments and government administrations. Cases requiring the approval of various ministers were brought before the Committee. It was not a consolidated governing body coordinating the activities of individual departments. The committee was a meeting of administratively independent dignitaries. Each minister had the right to report directly to the emperor and was guided by his orders. The minister was appointed exclusively by the monarch.
The emperor was considered the head of the court and judicial administration, and all court proceedings were carried out in his name. The monarch’s competence did not extend to specific legal proceedings; he played the role of the highest and final arbiter.
The monarch exercised supervision over the court and administration through the Governing Senate, which ensured that the orders of the supreme power were carried out locally, and resolved complaints about the actions and orders of all authorities and persons up to and including ministers.
Administratively, Russia was divided into 78 provinces, 18 regions and the island of Sakhalin. There were administrative units that included several provinces - governorates-general, usually established on the outskirts. The governor was appointed by the king on the proposal of the Minister of Internal Affairs.
Since 1809, the Russian Empire also included Finland (the Grand Duchy of Finland), the head of which was the emperor and which had broad internal autonomy - its own government (Senate), customs, police, and currency.
As vassal entities, Russia also included two Central Asian states - the Khanate of Bukhara (emirate) and the Khanate of Khiva. They were completely politically dependent on Russia, but their rulers had autonomous rights in internal affairs.
The governor's power was extensive and extended to almost all areas of life in the province.
Public education and health care were part of the central government system.
Cities had self-government in the form of city councils and councils. They were entrusted with administrative and economic tasks - transport, lighting, heating, sewerage, water supply, improvement of pavements, sidewalks, embankments and bridges, as well as management of educational and charitable affairs, local trade, industry and credit.
The right to take part in city elections was determined by a property qualification. Only those who owned real estate in a given city had it (in large centers - worth at least 3 thousand rubles; in small cities this threshold was much lower).
Four cities (St. Petersburg, Odessa, Sevastopol, Kerch-Bnikale) were removed from the provinces and were governed by mayors directly subordinate to the central government.
The provinces were divided into counties and the regions into districts. The district was the lowest administrative unit, and further division had a special purpose: the volost - for peasant self-government, the districts of zemstvo chiefs, the districts of judicial investigators, etc.
By the end of the 19th century. Zemstvo self-government was introduced in 34 provinces of European Russia, and in the remaining areas government bodies were in charge of affairs. Zemstvo bodies were mainly engaged in economic affairs - the construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals, charitable institutions, statistics, handicraft industry, and the organization of land loans. To carry out their tasks, zemstvos had the right to establish special zemstvo fees.
The zemstvo administration consisted of provincial and district zemstvo assemblies and executive bodies - provincial and district zemstvo councils, which had their own permanent offices and departments.
Elections to zemstvos were held every three years at three electoral congresses - landowners, townspeople and peasants. The district zemstvo assemblies elected their representatives to the provincial zemstvo assembly, which formed the provincial zemstvo government. At the head of the district and provincial zemstvo councils were elected chairmen. They not only supervised the activities of these institutions, but also represented zemstvos in state governing bodies (provincial presences).
To the question Help! Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century. given by the author Insufficient salting the best answer is 1. Social movements in Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century.
The first years of the reign of Alexander I were marked by a noticeable revival of public life. Current issues of the state's domestic and foreign policy were discussed in scientific and literary societies, in circles of students and teachers, in secular salons and in Masonic lodges. The focus of public attention was on the attitude towards the French Revolution, serfdom and autocracy.
The lifting of the ban on the activities of private printing houses, permission to import books from abroad, the adoption of a new censorship statute (1804) - all this had a significant impact on the further spread of the ideas of the European Enlightenment in Russia. Educational goals were set by I.P. Pnin, V.V. Popugaev, A.Kh. Vostokov, A.P. Kunitsyn, who created the Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts in St. Petersburg (1801-1825). Strongly influenced by Radishchev's views, they translated the works of Voltaire, Diderot, and Montesquieu, and published articles and literary works.
Supporters of various ideological trends began to group around new magazines. The “Bulletin of Europe”, published by N. M. Karamzin and then by V. A. Zhukovsky, was popular.
Most Russian educators considered it necessary to reform autocratic rule and abolish serfdom. However, they constituted only a small part of society and, moreover, remembering the horrors of the Jacobin terror, they hoped to achieve their goal peacefully, through education, moral education and the formation of civic consciousness.
The bulk of the nobility and officials were conservative. The views of the majority were reflected in N. M. Karamzin’s “Note on Ancient and New Russia” (1811). Recognizing the need for change, Karamzin opposed the plan for constitutional reforms, since Russia, where “the sovereign is the living law,” does not need a constitution, but fifty “smart and virtuous governors.”
The Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaigns of the Russian army played a huge role in the development of national identity. The country was experiencing a huge patriotic upsurge, hopes for sweeping changes revived among the people and society, everyone was waiting for changes for the better - and they did not receive it. The peasants were the first to be disappointed. Heroic participants in battles, saviors of the Fatherland, they hoped to gain freedom, but from the manifesto on the occasion of the victory over Napoleon (1814) they heard:
“Peasants, our faithful people, may they receive their reward from God.” A wave of peasant uprisings swept across the country, the number of which increased in the post-war period. In total, according to incomplete data, about 280 peasant unrest occurred over a quarter of a century, and approximately 2/3 of them occurred in 1813-1820. The movement on the Don (1818-1820) was especially long and fierce, in which more than 45 thousand peasants were involved. Constant unrest accompanied the introduction of military settlements. One of the largest was the uprising in Chuguev in the summer of 1819.
2. Russian foreign policy in 1801 - early 1812
After ascending the throne, Alexander I began to adhere to the tactic of refusing political and trade agreements concluded by his father. The foreign policy position he developed together with his “young friends” can be characterized as a “free hands” policy. Russia tried, while maintaining its position as a great power, to act as an arbiter in the Anglo-French conflict and, by achieving concessions related to the navigation of Russian ships in the Eastern Mediterranean, to reduce military tension on the continent.
Answer from twig[master]
1) The theory of official nationality - state ideology during the reign of Nicholas I, the author of which was S. S. Uvarov. It was based on conservative views on education, science, and literature. The basic principles were set out by Count Sergei Uvarov upon assuming the post of Minister of Public Education in his report to Nicholas I “On some general principles that can serve as a guide in the management of the Ministry of Public Education”
Later, this ideology became briefly called “Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationality.”
According to this theory, the Russian people are deeply religious and devoted to the throne, and the Orthodox faith and autocracy constitute the indispensable conditions for the existence of Russia. Nationality was understood as the need to adhere to one’s own traditions and reject foreign influence. The term was a kind of attempt to ideologically substantiate the government course of Nicholas I in the early 1830s. Within the framework of this theory, the head of the III department, Benkendorf, wrote that Russia’s past is amazing, the present is beautiful, and the future is beyond all imagination.
Westernism is a direction of Russian social and philosophical thought that developed in the 1830s - 1850s, whose representatives, unlike the Slavophiles and Pochvenniks, denied the idea of the originality and uniqueness of the historical destinies of Russia. The peculiarities of the cultural, everyday and socio-political structure of Russia were considered by Westerners mainly as a consequence of delays and lags in development. Westerners believed that there was only one path for human development, in which Russia was forced to catch up with the developed countries of Western Europe.
Westerners
In a less strict understanding, Westerners include everyone oriented toward Western European cultural and ideological values.
The most notable representatives of the Westernizing trend in Russian literature and philosophical thought are considered to be P. Ya. Chaadaev, T. N. Granovsky, V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogarev, N. Kh. Ketcher, V. P. Botkin, P. V. Annenkov, E. F. Korsh, K. D. Kavelin.
The Westerners were joined by such writers and publicists as N. A. Nekrasov, I. A. Goncharov, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev, A. F. Pisemsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Slavophilism is a literary and philosophical movement of social thought that took shape in the 40s of the 19th century, whose representatives affirm a special type of culture that arose on the spiritual soil of Orthodoxy, and also deny the thesis of Westerners that Peter the Great returned Russia to the fold of European countries and it must go through this path in political, economic and cultural development.
The trend arose in opposition to Westernism, whose supporters advocated Russia's orientation toward Western European cultural and ideological values.
2)
P.S. The Decembrists would have approached the first question
At the beginning of the 19th century. The borders of Russian possessions in North America and northern Europe were officially consolidated. The St. Petersburg Conventions of 1824 determined the boundaries with American () and English possessions. The Americans pledged not to settle north of 54°40′ N. w. on the coast, and the Russians to the south. The border of Russian and British possessions ran along the Pacific coast from 54° N. w. up to 60° N. w. at a distance of 10 miles from the ocean's edge, taking into account all the curves of the coast. The Russian-Norwegian border was established by the St. Petersburg Russian-Swedish Convention of 1826.
New wars with Turkey and Iran led to further expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire. According to the Akkerman Convention with Turkey in 1826, it secured Sukhum, Anaklia and Redoubt-Kale. In accordance with the Treaty of Adrianople of 1829, Russia received the mouth of the Danube and the Black Sea coast from the mouth of the Kuban to the post of St. Nicholas, including Anapa and Poti, as well as the Akhaltsikhe pashalyk. During these same years, Balkaria and Karachay joined Russia. In 1859-1864. Russia included Chechnya, mountainous Dagestan and mountain peoples (Adygs, etc.), who fought wars with Russia for their independence.
After the Russian-Persian War of 1826-1828. Russia received Eastern Armenia (Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates), which was recognized by the Turkmanchay Treaty of 1828.
Russia's defeat in the Crimean War with Turkey, which acted in alliance with Great Britain, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia, led to its loss of the mouth of the Danube and the southern part of Bessarabia, which was approved by the Peace of Paris in 1856. At the same time, the Black Sea was recognized as neutral. Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 ended with the annexation of Ardahan, Batum and Kars and the return of the Danube part of Bessarabia (without the mouths of the Danube).
The borders of the Russian Empire in the Far East were established, which had previously been largely uncertain and controversial. According to the Treaty of Shimoda with Japan in 1855, a Russian-Japanese maritime border was drawn in the area of the Kuril Islands along the Frieze Strait (between the islands of Urup and Iturup), and Sakhalin Island was recognized as undivided between Russia and Japan (in 1867 it was declared the joint possession of these countries). The differentiation of Russian and Japanese island possessions continued in 1875, when Russia, under the Treaty of St. Petersburg, ceded the Kuril Islands (north of the Frieze Strait) to Japan in exchange for recognition of Sakhalin as Russian possession. However, after the war with Japan of 1904-1905. According to the Treaty of Portsmouth, Russia was forced to cede to Japan the southern half of Sakhalin Island (from the 50th parallel).
Under the terms of the Aigun Treaty (1858) with China, Russia received territories along the left bank of the Amur from the Argun to the mouth, previously considered undivided, and Primorye (Ussuri Territory) was recognized as common possession. The Beijing Treaty of 1860 formalized the final annexation of Primorye to Russia. In 1871, Russia annexed the Ili region with the city of Gulja, which belonged to the Qing Empire, but after 10 years it was returned to China. At the same time, the border in the area of Lake Zaisan and the Black Irtysh was corrected in favor of Russia.
In 1867, the Tsarist government ceded all of its colonies to the United States for $7.2 million.
From the middle of the 19th century. continued what began in the 18th century. advancement of Russian possessions into Central Asia. In 1846, the Kazakh Senior Zhuz (Great Horde) announced the voluntary acceptance of Russian citizenship, and in 1853 the Kokand fortress of Ak-Mosque was conquered. In 1860, the annexation of Semirechye was completed, and in 1864-1867. parts of the Kokand Khanate (Chimkent, Tashkent, Khojent, Zachirchik region) and the Bukhara Emirate (Ura-Tube, Jizzakh, Yany-Kurgan) were annexed. In 1868, the Bukhara emir recognized himself as a vassal of the Russian Tsar, and the Samarkand and Katta-Kurgan districts of the emirate and the Zeravshan region were annexed to Russia. In 1869, the coast of the Krasnovodsk Bay was annexed to Russia, and the following year the Mangyshlak Peninsula. According to the Gendemian Peace Treaty with the Khiva Khanate in 1873, the latter recognized vassal dependence on Russia, and the lands along the right bank of the Amu Darya became part of Russia. In 1875, the Khanate of Kokand became a vassal of Russia, and in 1876 it was included in the Russian Empire as the Fergana region. In 1881-1884. lands inhabited by Turkmens were annexed to Russia, and in 1885 the Eastern Pamirs were annexed. Agreements of 1887 and 1895 Russian and Afghan possessions were demarcated along the Amu Darya and the Pamirs. Thus, the formation of the border of the Russian Empire in Central Asia was completed.
In addition to the lands annexed to Russia as a result of wars and peace treaties, the country's territory increased due to newly discovered lands in the Arctic: Wrangel Island was discovered in 1867, in 1879-1881. - De Long Islands, in 1913 - Severnaya Zemlya Islands.
Pre-revolutionary changes in Russian territory culminated in the establishment of a protectorate over the Uriankhai region (Tuva) in 1914.
Geographical exploration, discovery and mapping
European part
Among the geographical discoveries in the European part of Russia, the discovery of the Donetsk Ridge and the Donetsk Coal Basin made by E.P. Kovalevsky in 1810-1816 should be mentioned. and in 1828
Despite some setbacks (in particular, the defeat in the Crimean War of 1853-1856 and the loss of territory as a result of the Russian-Japanese War of 1904-1905), the Russian Empire at the beginning of the First World War possessed vast territories and was the largest country in the world by area.
Academic expeditions of V. M. Severgin and A. I. Sherer in 1802-1804. to the north-west of Russia, Belarus, the Baltic states and Finland were devoted mainly to mineralogical research.
The period of geographical discoveries in the populated European part of Russia is over. In the 19th century expeditionary research and its scientific synthesis were mainly thematic. Of these, we can name the zoning (mainly agricultural) of European Russia into eight latitudinal stripes, proposed by E. F. Kankrin in 1834; botanical and geographical zoning of European Russia by R. E. Trautfetter (1851); studies of the natural conditions of the Baltic and Caspian Seas, the state of fishing and other industries there (1851-1857), carried out by K. M. Baer; N. A. Severtsov’s work (1855) on the fauna of the Voronezh province, in which he showed deep connections between the fauna and physical-geographical conditions, and also established patterns of distribution of forests and steppes in connection with the nature of the relief and soils; classical soil research by V.V. Dokuchaev in the chernozem zone, begun in 1877; a special expedition led by V.V. Dokuchaev, organized by the Forestry Department to comprehensively study the nature of the steppes and find ways to combat drought. In this expedition, a stationary research method was used for the first time.
Caucasus
The annexation of the Caucasus to Russia necessitated the study of new Russian lands, the knowledge of which was poor. In 1829, the Caucasian expedition of the Academy of Sciences, led by A. Ya. Kupfer and E. X. Lenz, explored the Rocky Range in the Greater Caucasus system and determined the exact heights of many mountain peaks of the Caucasus. In 1844-1865 The natural conditions of the Caucasus were studied by G.V. Abikh. He studied in detail the orography and geology of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, Dagestan, and the Colchis Lowland, and compiled the first general orographic diagram of the Caucasus.
Ural
Among the works that developed the geographical understanding of the Urals are the description of the Middle and Southern Urals, made in 1825-1836. A. Ya. Kupfer, E. K. Hoffman, G. P. Gelmersen; publication of “Natural History of the Orenburg Region” by E. A. Eversman (1840), which provides a comprehensive description of the nature of this territory with a well-founded natural division; expedition of the Russian Geographical Society to the Northern and Polar Urals (E.K. Goffman, V.G. Bragin), during which the peak of Konstantinov Kamen was discovered, the Pai-Khoi ridge was discovered and explored, an inventory was compiled, which served as the basis for drawing up a map of the explored part of the Urals . A notable event was the journey in 1829 of the outstanding German naturalist A. Humboldt to the Urals, Rudny Altai and the shores of the Caspian Sea.
Siberia
In the 19th century Research continued in Siberia, many areas of which were very poorly studied. In Altai in the 1st half of the century the sources of the river were discovered. Katun, Lake Teletskoye was explored (1825-1836, A. A. Bunge, F. V. Gebler), the Chulyshman and Abakan rivers (1840-1845, P. A. Chikhachev). During his travels, P. A. Chikhachev carried out physical, geographical and geological research.
In 1843-1844. A.F. Middendorf collected extensive material on orography, geology, climate, permafrost and the organic world of Eastern Siberia and the Far East; for the first time, information was obtained about the nature of Taimyr, the Aldan Highlands, and the Stanovoy Range. Based on the travel materials, A. F. Middendorf wrote in 1860-1878. published “Journey to the North and East of Siberia” - one of the best examples of systematic reports on the nature of the explored territories. This work provides characteristics of all the main natural components, as well as the population, shows the relief features of Central Siberia, the uniqueness of its climate, presents the results of the first scientific study of permafrost, and gives the zoogeographic division of Siberia.
In 1853-1855. R. K. Maak and A. K. Sondgagen studied the orography, geology and life of the population of the Central Yakut Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, the Vilyui Plateau, and surveyed the Vilyui River.
In 1855-1862. The Siberian expedition of the Russian Geographical Society carried out topographic surveys, astronomical determinations, geological and other studies in the south of Eastern Siberia and the Amur region.
A large amount of research was carried out in the second half of the century in the mountains of southern Eastern Siberia. In 1858, geographical research in the Sayan Mountains was carried out by L. E. Schwartz. During them, topographer Kryzhin carried out a topographic survey. In 1863-1866. Research in Eastern Siberia and the Far East was carried out by P. A. Kropotkin, who paid special attention to the relief and geological structure. He explored the Oka, Amur, Ussuri rivers, the Sayan ridges, and discovered the Patom Highlands. The Khamar-Daban ridge, the coast of Lake Baikal, the Angara region, the Selenga basin, the Eastern Sayan were explored by A. L. Chekanovsky (1869-1875), I. D. Chersky (1872-1882). In addition, A. L. Chekanovsky explored the basins of the Lower Tunguska and Olenyok rivers, and I. D. Chersky explored the upper reaches of the Lower Tunguska. A geographical, geological and botanical survey of the Eastern Sayan was carried out during the Sayan expedition by N.P. Bobyr, L.A. Yachevsky, and Ya.P. Prein. The study of the Sayan mountain system in 1903 was continued by V.L. Popov. In 1910, he also carried out a geographical study of the border strip between Russia and China from Altai to Kyakhta.
In 1891-1892 During his last expedition, I. D. Chersky explored the Momsky ridge, the Nerskoye Plateau, and discovered three high mountain ranges behind the Verkhoyansk ridge: Tas-Kystabyt, Ulakhan-Chistai and Tomuskhai.
Far East
Research continued on Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and the adjacent seas. In 1805, I. F. Kruzenshtern explored the eastern and northern shores of Sakhalin and the northern Kuril Islands, and in 1811, V. M. Golovnin made an inventory of the middle and southern parts of the Kuril ridge. In 1849, G.I. Nevelskoy confirmed and proved the navigability of the Amur mouth for large ships. In 1850-1853 G.I. Nevelsky and others continued their studies of the Tatar Strait, Sakhalin, and adjacent parts of the mainland. In 1860-1867 Sakhalin was explored by F.B. Schmidt, P.P. Glen, G.W. Shebunin. In 1852-1853 N. K Boshnyak explored and described the basins of the Amgun and Tym rivers, lakes Everon and Chukchagirskoe, the Bureinsky ridge, and Khadzhi Bay (Sovetskaya Gavan).
In 1842-1845. A.F. Middendorf and V.V. Vaganov explored the Shantar Islands.
In the 50-60s. XIX century The coastal parts of Primorye were explored: in 1853 -1855. I. S. Unkovsky discovered the bays of Posyet and Olga; in 1860-1867 V. Babkin surveyed the northern shore of the Sea of Japan and Peter the Great Bay. The Lower Amur and the northern part of Sikhote-Alin were explored in 1850-1853. G. I. Nevelsky, N. K. Boshnyak, D. I. Orlov and others; in 1860-1867 - A. Budishchev. In 1858, M. Venyukov explored the Ussuri River. In 1863-1866. the Amur and Ussuri rivers were studied by P.A. Kropotkin. In 1867-1869 N. M. Przhevalsky made a major trip to the Ussuri region. He conducted comprehensive studies of the nature of the Ussuri and Suchan river basins and crossed the Sikhote-Alin ridge.
middle Asia
As certain parts of Kazakhstan and Central Asia joined the Russian Empire, and sometimes even preceding it, Russian geographers, biologists and other scientists explored and studied their nature. In 1820-1836. the organic world of Mugodzhar, General Syrt and the Ustyurt plateau was studied by E. A. Eversman. In 1825-1836 carried out a description of the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea, the Mangystau and Bolshoi Balkhan ridges, the Krasnovodsk plateau G. S. Karelin and I. Blaramberg. In 1837-1842. A.I. Shrenk studied Eastern Kazakhstan.
In 1840-1845 The Balkhash-Alakol basin was discovered (A.I. Shrenk, T.F. Nifantiev). From 1852 to 1863 T.F. Nifantiev carried out the first surveys of lakes Balkhash, Issyk-Kul, Zaisan. In 1848-1849 A.I. Butakov carried out the first survey of the Aral Sea, a number of islands and Chernyshev Bay were discovered.
Valuable scientific results, especially in the field of biogeography, were brought by the 1857 expedition of I. G. Borschov and N. A. Severtsov to Mugodzhary, the Emba River basin and the Big Barsuki sands. In 1865, I. G. Borshchov continued research on the vegetation and natural conditions of the Aral-Caspian region. He considered steppes and deserts as natural geographical complexes and analyzed the mutual relationships between relief, moisture, soils and vegetation.
Since the 1840s exploration of the highlands of Central Asia began. In 1840-1845. A.A. Leman and Ya.P. Yakovlev discovered the Turkestan and Zeravshan ranges. In 1856-1857 P.P. Semenov laid the foundation for the scientific study of the Tien Shan. The heyday of research in the mountains of Central Asia occurred during the period of the expeditionary leadership of P. P. Semenov (Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky). In 1860-1867 N.A. Severtsov explored the Kirghiz and Karatau ridges, discovered the Karzhantau, Pskem and Kakshaal-Too ridges in the Tien Shan, in 1868-1871. A.P. Fedchenko explored the Tien Shan, Kukhistan, Alai and Trans-Alai ranges. N.A. Severtsov, A.I. Scassi discovered the Rushansky ridge and the Fedchenko glacier (1877-1879). The research carried out made it possible to identify the Pamirs as a separate mountain system.
Research in the desert regions of Central Asia was carried out by N. A. Severtsov (1866-1868) and A. P. Fedchenko in 1868-1871. (Kyzylkum desert), V. A. Obruchev in 1886-1888. (Karakum desert and ancient Uzboy valley).
Comprehensive studies of the Aral Sea in 1899-1902. conducted by L. S. Berg.
North and Arctic
At the beginning of the 19th century. The discovery of the New Siberian Islands ended. In 1800-1806. Y. Sannikov made an inventory of the islands of Stolbovoy, Faddeevsky, and New Siberia. In 1808, Belkov discovered an island, which received the name of its discoverer - Belkovsky. In 1809-1811 The expedition of M. M. Gedenstrom visited the New Siberian Islands. In 1815, M. Lyakhov discovered the islands of Vasilievsky and Semyonovsky. In 1821-1823 P.F. Anjou and P.I. Ilyin carried out instrumental research, culminating in the compilation of an accurate map of the New Siberian Islands, explored and described the islands of Semenovsky, Vasilyevsky, Stolbovoy, the coast between the mouths of the Indigirka and Olenyok rivers, and discovered the East Siberian polynya.
In 1820-1824. F.P. Wrangel, in very difficult natural conditions, traveled through the north of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean, explored and described the coast from the mouth of the Indigirka to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay (Chukchi Peninsula), and predicted the existence of Wrangel Island.
Research was carried out in Russian possessions in North America: in 1816, O. E. Kotzebue discovered a large bay in the Chukchi Sea off the western coast of Alaska, named after him. In 1818-1819 The eastern coast of the Bering Sea was explored by P.G. Korsakovsky and P.A. Ustyugov, the delta of the largest river in Alaska, the Yukon, was discovered. In 1835-1838. The lower and middle reaches of the Yukon were studied by A. Glazunov and V.I. Malakhov, and in 1842-1843. - Russian naval officer L. A. Zagoskin. He also described the interior regions of Alaska. In 1829-1835 The coast of Alaska was explored by F.P. Wrangel and D.F. Zarembo. In 1838 A.F. Kashevarov described the northwestern coast of Alaska, and P.F. Kolmakov discovered the Innoko River and the Kuskokwim (Kuskokwim) ridge. In 1835-1841. D.F. Zarembo and P. Mitkov completed the discovery of the Alexander Archipelago.
The Novaya Zemlya archipelago was intensively explored. In 1821-1824. F.P. Litke on the brig “Novaya Zemlya” explored, described and compiled a map of the western coast of Novaya Zemlya. Attempts to inventory and map the eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya were unsuccessful. In 1832-1833 The first inventory of the entire eastern coast of the South Island of Novaya Zemlya was made by P.K. Pakhtusov. In 1834-1835 P.K. Pakhtusov and in 1837-1838. A.K. Tsivolka and S.A. Moiseev described the eastern coast of the North Island up to 74.5° N. sh., the Matochkin Shar Strait is described in detail, Pakhtusov Island is discovered. A description of the northern part of Novaya Zemlya was made only in 1907-1911. V. A. Rusanov. Expeditions led by I. N. Ivanov in 1826-1829. managed to compile an inventory of the southwestern part of the Kara Sea from Cape Kanin Nos to the mouth of the Ob. The research carried out made it possible to begin the study of vegetation, fauna and the geological structure of Novaya Zemlya (K. M. Baer, 1837). In 1834-1839, especially during a major expedition in 1837, A.I. Shrenk explored the Czech Bay, the coast of the Kara Sea, the Timan Ridge, Vaygach Island, the Pai-Khoi ridge, and the polar Urals. Explorations of this area in 1840-1845. continued A.A. Keyserling, who surveyed the Pechora River, explored the Timan Ridge and the Pechora Lowland. He conducted comprehensive studies of the nature of the Taimyr Peninsula, the Putorana Plateau, and the North Siberian Lowland in 1842-1845. A. F. Middendorf. In 1847-1850 The Russian Geographical Society organized an expedition to the Northern and Polar Urals, during which the Pai-Khoi ridge was thoroughly explored.
In 1867, Wrangel Island was discovered, an inventory of the southern coast of which was made by the captain of the American whaling ship T. Long. In 1881, the American researcher R. Berry described the eastern, western and most of the northern coast of the island, and the interior of the island was explored for the first time.
In 1901, the Russian icebreaker Ermak, under the command of S. O. Makarov, visited Franz Josef Land. In 1913-1914 A Russian expedition led by G. Ya. Sedov wintered on the archipelago. At the same time, a group of participants from G.L. Brusilov’s expedition in distress on the ship “St. Anna”, headed by navigator V.I. Albanov. Despite the difficult conditions, when all energy was aimed at preserving life, V.I. Albanov proved that Petermann Land and King Oscar Land, which appeared on the map of J. Payer, do not exist.
In 1878-1879 During two navigations, a Russian-Swedish expedition led by the Swedish scientist N.A.E. Nordenskiöld on the small sailing-steam vessel “Vega” for the first time traversed the Northern Sea Route from west to east. This proved the possibility of navigation along the entire Eurasian Arctic coast.
In 1913, the Hydrographic Expedition of the Arctic Ocean under the leadership of B. A. Vilkitsky on the icebreaking steamships “Taimyr” and “Vaigach”, exploring the possibilities of passing the Northern Sea Route north of Taimyr, encountered solid ice and, following along their edge to the north, discovered islands called the Land of Emperor Nicholas II (now Severnaya Zemlya), approximately mapping its eastern, and the following year - southern shores, as well as the island of Tsarevich Alexei (now Maly Taimyr). The western and northern shores of Severnaya Zemlya remained completely unknown.
Russian Geographical Society
The Russian Geographical Society (RGS), founded in 1845, (since 1850 - the Imperial Russian Geographical Society - IRGO) has great merit in the development of domestic cartography.
In 1881, the American polar explorer J. DeLong discovered the islands of Jeannette, Henrietta and Bennett northeast of the island of New Siberia. This group of islands was named after its discoverer. In 1885-1886 A study of the Arctic coast between the Lena and Kolyma rivers and the New Siberian Islands was carried out by A. A. Bunge and E. V. Toll.
Already at the beginning of 1852, it published its first twenty-five-verst (1:1,050,000) map of the Northern Urals and the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge, compiled based on materials from the Ural Expedition of the Russian Geographical Society of 1847-1850. For the first time, the Northern Urals and the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge were depicted with great accuracy and detail.
The Geographical Society also published 40-verst maps of the river areas of the Amur, the southern part of the Lena and Yenisei and about. Sakhalin on 7 sheets (1891).
Sixteen large expeditions of the IRGO, led by N. M. Przhevalsky, G. N. Potanin, M. V. Pevtsov, G. E. Grumm-Grzhimailo, V. I. Roborovsky, P. K. Kozlov and V. A. Obruchev, made a great contribution to the filming of Central Asia. During these expeditions, 95,473 km were covered and filmed (of which over 30,000 km were accounted for by N. M. Przhevalsky), 363 astronomical points were determined and the altitudes of 3,533 points were measured. The position of the main mountain ranges and river systems, as well as lake basins of Central Asia, was clarified. All this significantly contributed to the creation of a modern physical map of Central Asia.
The heyday of the expeditionary activities of the IRGO occurred in 1873-1914, when the head of the society was Grand Duke Constantine, and P.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky was the vice-chairman. During this period, expeditions were organized to Central Asia, Eastern Siberia and other regions of the country; two polar stations were created. Since the mid-1880s. The expeditionary activities of the society are increasingly specialized in certain fields - glaciology, limnology, geophysics, biogeography, etc.
IRGO made a great contribution to the study of the country's topography. To process the leveling and produce a hypsometric map, the IRGO hypsometric commission was created. In 1874, IRGO carried out, under the leadership of A. A. Tillo, the Aral-Caspian leveling: from Karatamak (on the northwestern shore of the Aral Sea) through Ustyurt to the Dead Kultuk Bay of the Caspian Sea, and in 1875 and 1877. Siberian leveling: from the village of Zverinogolovskaya in the Orenburg region to Lake Baikal. The materials of the hypsometric commission were used by A. A. Tillo to compile the “Hypsometric map of European Russia” on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1: 2,520,000), published by the Ministry of Railways in 1889. More than 50 thousand high-altitude maps were used for its compilation marks obtained as a result of leveling. The map revolutionized ideas about the structure of the relief of this territory. It presented in a new way the orography of the European part of the country, which has not changed in its main features to this day; the Central Russian and Volga uplands were depicted for the first time. In 1894, the Forestry Department under the leadership of A. A. Tillo with the participation of S. N. Nikitin and D. N. Anuchin organized an expedition to study the sources of the main rivers of European Russia, which provided extensive material on relief and hydrography (in particular, lakes).
The Military Topographical Service carried out, with the active participation of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, a large number of pioneering reconnaissance surveys in the Far East, Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia, during which maps were drawn up of many territories that had previously been “blank spots” on the map.
Mapping the territory in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Topographic and geodetic works
In 1801-1804. “His Majesty’s Own Map Depot” released the first state multi-sheet (107 sheets) map at a scale of 1:840,000, covering almost all of European Russia and called the “Cental-sheet Map”. Its content was based mainly on materials from the General Survey.
In 1798-1804. The Russian General Staff, under the leadership of Major General F. F. Steinhel (Steingel), with the extensive use of Swedish-Finnish topographic officers, carried out a large-scale topographic survey of the so-called Old Finland, i.e., the areas annexed to Russia along the Nystadt (1721) and Abosky (1743) to the world. The survey materials, preserved in the form of a handwritten four-volume atlas, were widely used in the compilation of various maps at the beginning of the 19th century.
After 1809, the topographic services of Russia and Finland were united. At the same time, the Russian army received a ready-made educational institution for training professional topographers - a military school founded in 1779 in the village of Gappaniemi. On the basis of this school, on March 16, 1812, the Gappanyem Topographical Corps was established, which became the first special military topographic and geodetic educational institution in the Russian Empire.
In 1815, the ranks of the Russian army were replenished with topographical officers of the General Quartermaster of the Polish Army.
Since 1819, topographic surveys began in Russia on a scale of 1:21,000, based on triangulation and carried out mainly using scales. In 1844 they were replaced by surveys at a scale of 1:42,000.
On January 28, 1822, the Corps of Military Topographers was established at the General Headquarters of the Russian Army and the Military Topographic Depot. State topographic mapping became one of the main tasks of military topographers. The remarkable Russian surveyor and cartographer F. F. Schubert was appointed the first director of the Corps of Military Topographers.
In 1816-1852. In Russia, the largest triangulation work of that time was carried out, stretching 25°20′ along the meridian (together with the Scandinavian triangulation).
Under the leadership of F. F. Schubert and K. I. Tenner, intensive instrumental and semi-instrumental (route) surveys began, mainly in the western and northwestern provinces of European Russia. Based on materials from these surveys in the 20-30s. XIX century semitopographic (semi-topographic) maps of the provinces were compiled and engraved on a scale of 4-5 versts per inch.
The military topographic depot began in 1821 to compile a survey topographic map of European Russia on a scale of 10 versts per inch (1:420,000), which was extremely necessary not only for the military, but also for all civilian departments. The special ten-verst map of European Russia is known in the literature as the Schubert Map. Work on creating the map continued intermittently until 1839. It was published on 59 sheets and three flaps (or half-sheets).
A large amount of work was carried out by the Corps of Military Topographers in different parts of the country. In 1826-1829 Detailed maps on a scale of 1:210,000 were compiled for the Baku province, the Talysh Khanate, the Karabakh province, the plan of Tiflis, etc.
In 1828-1832. a survey of Moldavia and Wallachia was carried out, which became a model of work of its time, as it was based on a sufficient number of astronomical points. All maps were compiled into a 1:16,000 atlas. The total survey area reached 100 thousand square meters. verst.
Since the 30s Geodetic and boundary work began to be carried out on. Geodetic points carried out in 1836-1838. triangulations became the basis for creating accurate topographic maps of Crimea. Geodetic networks developed in Smolensk, Moscow, Mogilev, Tver, Novgorod provinces and other areas.
In 1833, the head of the KVT, General F. F. Schubert, organized an unprecedented chronometric expedition in the Baltic Sea. As a result of the expedition, the longitudes of 18 points were determined, which, together with 22 points related to them trigonometrically, provided a reliable basis for surveying the coast and soundings of the Baltic Sea.
From 1857 to 1862 under the leadership and funds of the IRGO, work was carried out at the Military Topographical Depot to compile and publish on 12 sheets a general map of European Russia and the Caucasus region on a scale of 40 versts per inch (1: 1,680,000) with an explanatory note. On the advice of V. Ya. Struve, the map for the first time in Russia was created in the Gaussian projection, and Pulkovsky was taken as the prime meridian on it. In 1868, the map was published, and later it was reprinted several times.
In subsequent years, a five-verst map on 55 sheets, a twenty-verst map and an orographic forty-verst map of the Caucasus were published.
Among the best cartographic works of the IRGO is the “Map of the Aral Sea and the Khiva Khanate with their surroundings” compiled by Ya. V. Khanykov (1850). The map was published in French by the Paris Geographical Society and, on the proposal of A. Humboldt, was awarded the Prussian Order of the Red Eagle, 2nd degree.
The Caucasian military topographic department, under the leadership of General I. I. Stebnitsky, conducted reconnaissance in Central Asia along the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea.
In 1867, a Cartographic Establishment was opened at the Military Topographical Department of the General Staff. Together with the private cartographic establishment of A. A. Ilyin, opened in 1859, they were the direct predecessors of modern domestic cartographic factories.
A special place among the various products of the Caucasian WTO was occupied by relief maps. The large relief map was completed in 1868, and was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1869. This map is made for horizontal distances on a scale of 1:420,000, and for vertical distances - 1:84,000.
The Caucasian military topographic department under the leadership of I. I. Stebnitsky compiled a 20-verst map of the Trans-Caspian region based on astronomical, geodetic and topographical work.
Work was also carried out on topographic and geodetic preparation of the territories of the Far East. Thus, in 1860, the position of eight points was determined near the western coast of the Sea of Japan, and in 1863, 22 points were determined in Peter the Great Bay.
The expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire was reflected in many maps and atlases published at this time. Such in particular is the “General Map of the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland annexed to it” from the “Geographical Atlas of the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland” by V. P. Pyadyshev (St. Petersburg, 1834).
Since 1845, one of the main tasks of the Russian military topographical service has been the creation of a Military Topographical Map of Western Russia on a scale of 3 versts per inch. By 1863, 435 sheets of military topographical maps had been published, and by 1917 - 517 sheets. On this map, the relief was conveyed by strokes.
In 1848-1866. under the leadership of Lieutenant General A.I. Mende, surveys were carried out aimed at creating topographic boundary maps, atlases and descriptions for all provinces of European Russia. During this period, work was carried out on an area of about 345,000 square meters. verst. Tver, Ryazan, Tambov and Vladimir provinces were mapped on a scale of one verst per inch (1:42,000), Yaroslavl - two versts per inch (1:84,000), Simbirsk and Nizhny Novgorod - three versts per inch (1:126,000) and Penza province - on a scale of eight versts per inch (1:336,000). Based on the results of the surveys, IRGO published multicolor topographic boundary atlases of the Tver and Ryazan provinces (1853-1860) on a scale of 2 versts per inch (1:84,000) and a map of the Tver province on a scale of 8 versts per inch (1:336,000).
The Mende filming had an undoubted influence on the further improvement of state mapping methods. In 1872, the Military Topographical Department of the General Staff began work on updating the three-verst map, which actually led to the creation of a new standard Russian topographic map on a scale of 2 versts in an inch (1:84,000), which was a most detailed source of information about the area, used in troops and the national economy until the 30s. XX century A two-verst military topographic map was published for the Kingdom of Poland, parts of the Crimea and the Caucasus, as well as the Baltic states and areas around Moscow and St. Petersburg. This was one of the first Russian topographic maps on which the relief was depicted as contour lines.
In 1869-1885. A detailed topographic survey of Finland was carried out, which was the beginning of the creation of a state topographic map on a scale of one mile per inch - the highest achievement of pre-revolutionary military topography in Russia. Single-versus maps covered the territory of Poland, the Baltic states, southern Finland, Crimea, the Caucasus and parts of southern Russia north of Novocherkassk.
By the 60s. XIX century The Special Map of European Russia by F. F. Schubert on a scale of 10 versts per inch is very outdated. In 1865, the editorial commission appointed captain of the General Staff I. A. Strelbitsky as the responsible executor of the project for drawing up a Special Map of European Russia and its editor, under whose leadership the final development of symbols and all instructional documents that determined the methods of compilation, preparation for publication and publication was carried out new cartographic work. In 1872, the compilation of all 152 sheets of the map was completed. The ten verstka was reprinted many times and partially supplemented; in 1903 it consisted of 167 sheets. This map was widely used not only for military purposes, but also for scientific, practical and cultural purposes.
By the end of the century, the work of the Corps of Military Topographers continued to create new maps for sparsely populated areas, including the Far East and Manchuria. During this time, several reconnaissance detachments covered more than 12 thousand miles, performing route and visual surveys. Based on their results, topographic maps were later compiled on a scale of 2, 3, 5 and 20 versts per inch.
In 1907, a special commission was created at the General Staff to develop a plan for future topographic and geodetic work in European and Asian Russia, chaired by the head of the KVT, General N. D. Artamonov. It was decided to develop the new 1st class triangulation according to a specific program proposed by General I. I. Pomerantsev. KVT began implementing the program in 1910. By 1914, the bulk of the work was completed.
By the beginning of the First World War, a large volume of large-scale topographic surveys had been completed in the entire territory of Poland, in the south of Russia (triangle Chisinau, Galati, Odessa), in the Petrograd and Vyborg provinces partially; on a verst scale in Livonia, Petrograd, Minsk provinces, and partly in Transcaucasia, on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea and in Crimea; on a two-verst scale - in the north-west of Russia, east of the survey sites on the half- and verst-scale.
The results of topographic surveys of previous and pre-war years made it possible to compile and publish a large volume of topographic and special military maps: half-verst map of the Western border area (1:21,000); verst map of the Western border space, Crimea and Transcaucasia (1:42,000); military topographic two-verst map (1:84,000), three-verst map (1:126,000) with relief expressed by strokes; semi-topographic 10-verst map of European Russia (1:420,000); military road 25-verst map of European Russia (1:1,050,000); 40-verst Strategic Map of Central Europe (1:1,680,000); maps of the Caucasus and neighboring foreign countries.
In addition to the listed maps, the Military Topographical Department of the Main Directorate of the General Staff (GUGSH) prepared maps of Turkestan, Central Asia and adjacent states, Western Siberia, the Far East, as well as maps of all of Asian Russia.
Over the 96 years of its existence (1822-1918), the corps of military topographers completed an enormous amount of astronomical, geodetic and cartographic work: identified geodetic points - 63,736; astronomical points (by latitude and longitude) - 3900; 46 thousand km of leveling passages were laid; Instrumental topographic surveys were carried out on a geodetic basis on various scales over an area of 7,425,319 km2, and semi-instrumental and visual surveys were carried out over an area of 506,247 km2. In 1917, the Russian Army supplied 6,739 types of maps of different scales.
In general, by 1917, a huge amount of field survey material had been obtained, a number of remarkable cartographic works had been created, but the coverage of the territory of Russia with topographic survey was uneven, and a significant part of the territory remained unexplored in topographic terms.
Exploration and mapping of seas and oceans
Russia's achievements in studying and mapping the World Ocean have been significant. One of the important incentives for these studies in the 19th century, as before, was the need to ensure the functioning of Russian overseas possessions in Alaska. To supply these colonies, round-the-world expeditions were regularly equipped, which, starting from the first voyage in 1803-1806. on the ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the leadership of I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.V. Lisyansky, they made many remarkable geographical discoveries and significantly increased the cartographic knowledge of the World Ocean.
In addition to the hydrographic work carried out almost annually off the coast of Russian America by officers of the Russian Navy, participants in round-the-world expeditions, employees of the Russian-American Company, among whom were such brilliant hydrographers and scientists as F. P. Wrangel, A. K. Etolin and M . D. Tebenkov, continuously expanded knowledge about the northern part of the Pacific Ocean and improved navigation maps of these areas. Particularly great was the contribution of M.D. Tebenkov, who compiled the most detailed “Atlas of the Northwestern coast of America from the Bering Strait to Cape Corrientes and the Aleutian Islands with the addition of some places on the Northeastern coast of Asia,” published by the St. Petersburg Maritime Academy in 1852.
In parallel with the study of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Russian hydrographers actively explored the coasts of the Arctic Ocean, thus contributing to the finalization of geographical ideas about the polar regions of Eurasia and laying the foundations for the subsequent development of the Northern Sea Route. Thus, most of the coasts and islands of the Barents and Kara Seas were described and mapped in the 20-30s. XIX century expeditions of F.P. Litke, P.K. Pakhtusov, K.M. Baer and A.K. Tsivolka, who laid the foundations for the physical-geographical study of these seas and the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. To solve the problem of developing transport links between European Pomerania and Western Siberia, expeditions were equipped for a hydrographic inventory of the coast from Kanin Nos to the mouth of the Ob River, the most effective of which were the Pechora expedition of I. N. Ivanov (1824) and the hydrographic inventory of I. N. Ivanov and I. A. Berezhnykh (1826-1828). The maps they compiled had a solid astronomical and geodetic basis. Research of sea coasts and islands in northern Siberia at the beginning of the 19th century. were largely stimulated by the discoveries by Russian industrialists of islands in the Novosibirsk archipelago, as well as the search for mysterious northern lands (“Sannikov Land”), islands north of the mouth of the Kolyma (“Andreev Land”), etc. In 1808-1810. During the expedition led by M. M. Gedenshtrom and P. Pshenitsyn, which explored the islands of New Siberia, Faddeevsky, Kotelny and the strait between the latter, a map of the Novosibirsk archipelago as a whole, as well as the mainland sea coasts between the mouths of the Yana and Kolyma rivers, was created for the first time. For the first time, a detailed geographical description of the islands has been completed. In the 20s the Yanskaya (1820-1824) expedition under the leadership of P.F. Anzhu and the Kolyma expedition (1821-1824) under the leadership of F.P. Wrangel were sent to the same areas. These expeditions carried out the work program of M. M. Gedenstrom’s expedition on an expanded scale. They were supposed to survey the coastline from the Lena River to the Bering Strait. The main merit of the expedition was the compilation of a more accurate map of the entire continental coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Olenyok River to Kolyuchinskaya Bay, as well as maps of the group of Novosibirsk, Lyakhovsky and Bear Islands. In the eastern part of the Wrangel map, according to local residents, an island was marked with the inscription “Mountains can be seen from Cape Yakan in the summer.” This island was also depicted on maps in the atlases of I. F. Krusenstern (1826) and G. A. Sarychev (1826). In 1867, it was discovered by the American navigator T. Long and, in commemoration of the merits of the remarkable Russian polar explorer, was named after Wrangel. The results of the expeditions of P. F. Anjou and F. P. Wrangel were summarized in 26 handwritten maps and plans, as well as in scientific reports and works.
The research carried out in the middle of the 19th century had not only scientific, but also enormous geopolitical significance for Russia. G.I. Nevelsky and his followers carried out intensive marine expeditionary research in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan. Although the island position of Sakhalin was known to Russian cartographers from the very beginning of the 18th century, which was reflected in their works, the problem of accessibility of the Amur mouth for sea vessels from the south and north was finally and positively resolved only by G. I. Nevelsky. This discovery decisively changed the attitude of the Russian authorities towards the Amur and Primorye regions, showing the enormous potential capabilities of these rich areas, provided, as the research of G.I. Nevelskoy proved, with end-to-end water communications leading to the Pacific Ocean. These studies themselves were carried out by travelers, sometimes at their own peril and risk, in confrontation with official government circles. The remarkable expeditions of G.I. Nevelsky paved the way for the return of the Amur region to Russia under the terms of the Aigun Treaty with China (signed on May 28, 1858) and the annexation of Primorye to the Empire (under the terms of the Beijing Treaty between Russia and China, concluded on November 2 (14), 1860 .). The results of geographical research in the Amur and Primorye, as well as changes in borders in the Far East in accordance with the treaties between Russia and China, were cartographically declared on maps of the Amur and Primorye compiled and published as soon as possible.
Russian hydrographers in the 19th century. continued active work in the European seas. After the annexation of Crimea (1783) and the creation of the Russian navy in the Black Sea, detailed hydrographic surveys of the Azov and Black Seas began. Already in 1799, a navigational atlas was compiled by I.N. Billings to the northern coast, in 1807 - I.M. Budishchev’s atlas to the western part of the Black Sea, and in 1817 - “General map of the Black and Azov Seas”. In 1825-1836 under the leadership of E.P. Manganari, based on triangulation, a topographic survey of the entire northern and western coast of the Black Sea was carried out, which made it possible to publish the “Atlas of the Black Sea” in 1841.
In the 19th century Intensified study of the Caspian Sea continued. In 1826, based on the materials of detailed hydrographic work of 1809-1817, carried out by the expedition of the Admiralty Boards under the leadership of A.E. Kolodkin, the “Complete Atlas of the Caspian Sea” was published, which fully met the requirements of shipping of that time.
In subsequent years, the atlas maps were refined by the expeditions of G. G. Basargin (1823-1825) on the west coast, N. N. Muravyov-Karsky (1819-1821), G. S. Karelin (1832, 1834, 1836) and others - on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea. In 1847, I.I. Zherebtsov described the Kara-Bogaz-Gol Bay. In 1856, a new hydrographic expedition was sent to the Caspian Sea under the leadership of N.A. Ivashintsova, who carried out systematic surveying and description for 15 years, drawing up several plans and 26 maps that covered almost the entire coast of the Caspian Sea.
In the 19th century Intensive work continued to improve maps of the Baltic and White Seas. An outstanding achievement of Russian hydrography was the “Atlas of the Whole Baltic Sea...” compiled by G. A. Sarychev (1812). In 1834-1854. Based on the materials of the chronometric expedition of F. F. Schubert, maps were compiled and published for the entire Russian coast of the Baltic Sea.
Significant changes to the maps of the White Sea and the northern coast of the Kola Peninsula were made by the hydrographic works of F. P. Litke (1821-1824) and M. F. Reinecke (1826-1833). Based on the materials of the work of the Reinecke expedition, the “Atlas of the White Sea...” was published in 1833, the maps of which were used by sailors until the beginning of the 20th century, and the “Hydrographic Description of the Northern Coast of Russia,” which supplemented this atlas, can be considered as an example of a geographical description of the coasts. The Imperial Academy of Sciences awarded this work to M. F. Reinecke in 1851 with the full Demidov Prize.
Thematic mapping
Active development of basic (topographic and hydrographic) cartography in the 19th century. created the basis necessary for the development of special (thematic) mapping. Its intensive development dates back to the 19th and early 20th centuries.
In 1832, the Main Directorate of Communications published the Hydrographic Atlas of the Russian Empire. It included general maps at scales of 20 and 10 versts per inch, detailed maps at a scale of 2 versts per inch and plans at a scale of 100 fathoms per inch and larger. Hundreds of plans and maps were drawn up, helping to increase the cartographic knowledge of the territories along the routes of the corresponding roads.
Significant cartographic works in the 19th and early 20th centuries. carried out by the Ministry of State Property formed in 1837, in which in 1838 the Corps of Civil Topographers was established, which carried out mapping of poorly studied and unexplored lands.
An important achievement of Russian cartography was the “Marx Great World Desk Atlas” published in 1905 (2nd edition, 1909), which contained over 200 maps and an index of 130 thousand geographical names.
Mapping nature
Geological mapping
In the 19th century Intensive cartographic study of Russia's mineral resources and their exploitation continued, and special geognostic (geological) mapping was being developed. At the beginning of the 19th century. Many maps of mountain districts, plans of factories, salt and oil fields, gold mines, quarries, and mineral springs were created. The history of exploration and development of mineral resources in the Altai and Nerchinsk mountain districts is reflected in particular detail in the maps.
Numerous maps of mineral deposits, plans of land plots and forest holdings, factories, mines and mines were compiled. An example of a collection of valuable handwritten geological maps is the atlas “Map of Salt Mines”, compiled in the Mining Department. The collection's maps date mainly from the 20s and 30s. XIX century Many of the maps in this atlas are much broader in content than ordinary maps of salt mines, and are, in fact, early examples of geological (petrographic) maps. Thus, among the maps of G. Vansovich of 1825 there is a Petrographic map of the Bialystok region, Grodno and part of the Vilna province. The “Map of Pskov and part of the Novgorod province: with indications of rock-stone and salt springs discovered in 1824...” also has rich geological content.
An extremely rare example of an early hydrogeological map is the “Topographic Map of the Crimean Peninsula...” indicating the depth and quality of water in villages, compiled by A. N. Kozlovsky in 1842 on a cartographic basis of 1817. In addition, the map provides information about the areas of the territories having different water supplies, as well as a table of the number of villages by county that need watering.
In 1840-1843. English geologist R. I. Murchison, together with A. A. Keyserling and N. I. Koksharov, conducted research that for the first time gave a scientific picture of the geological structure of European Russia.
In the 50s XIX century The first geological maps begin to be published in Russia. One of the earliest is “Geognostic map of the St. Petersburg province” (S. S. Kutorga, 1852). The results of intensive geological research were expressed in the “Geological Map of European Russia” (A.P. Karpinsky, 1893).
The main task of the Geological Committee was to create a 10-verst (1:420,000) geological map of European Russia, in connection with which a systematic study of the relief and geological structure of the territory began, in which such prominent geologists as I.V. Mushketov, A. P. Pavlov and others. By 1917, only 20 sheets of this map were published out of the planned 170. Since the 1870s. Geological mapping of some areas of Asian Russia began.
In 1895, the “Atlas of Terrestrial Magnetism” was published, compiled by A. A. Tillo.
Forest mapping
One of the earliest handwritten maps of forests is “Map for viewing the state of forests and the timber industry in [European] Russia,” compiled in 1840-1841, as established, by M. A. Tsvetkov. The Ministry of State Property carried out major work on mapping state forests, the forest industry and forest-consuming industries, as well as improving forest accounting and forest cartography. Materials for it were collected through requests through local departments of state property, as well as other departments. Two maps were drawn up in their final form in 1842; the first of them is a map of forests, the other was one of the early examples of soil-climatic maps, which indicated climatic bands and dominant soils in European Russia. A soil-climate map has not yet been discovered.
Work to compile a map of the forests of European Russia revealed the unsatisfactory state of the organization and mapping of forest resources and prompted the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of State Property to create a special commission to improve forest mapping and forest accounting. As a result of the work of this commission, detailed instructions and symbols for drawing up forest plans and maps were created, approved by Tsar Nicholas I. The Ministry of State Property paid special attention to the organization of work on the study and mapping of state-owned lands in Siberia, which acquired a particularly wide scope after the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861, one of the consequences of which was the intensive development of the resettlement movement.
Soil mapping
In 1838, a systematic study of soils began in Russia. A large number of handwritten soil maps were compiled primarily from inquiries. A prominent economic geographer and climatologist, Academician K. S. Veselovsky, compiled and published the first consolidated “Soil Map of European Russia” in 1855, which shows eight soil types: chernozem, clay, sand, loam and sandy loam, silt, solonetzes, tundra , swamps. The works of K. S. Veselovsky on climatology and soils of Russia were the starting point for the works on soil cartography of the famous Russian geographer and soil scientist V. V. Dokuchaev, who proposed a truly scientific classification for soils based on the genetic principle, and introduced their comprehensive study taking into account factors soil formation. His book “Cartography of Russian Soils,” published by the Department of Agriculture and Rural Industry in 1879 as an explanatory text for the “Soil Map of European Russia,” laid the foundations of modern soil science and soil cartography. Since 1882, V.V. Dokuchaev and his followers (N.M. Sibirtsev, K.D. Glinka, S.S. Neustruev, L.I. Prasolov, etc.) conducted soil, and in fact complex physiographic studies in more than 20 provinces. One of the results of these works were soil maps of the provinces (on a 10-verst scale) and more detailed maps of individual counties. Under the leadership of V.V. Dokuchaev, N.M. Sibirtsev, G.I. Tanfilyev and A.R. Ferkhmin compiled and published the “Soil Map of European Russia” at a scale of 1:2,520,000 in 1901.
Socio-economic mapping
Farm mapping
The development of capitalism in industry and agriculture necessitated a more in-depth study of the national economy. For this purpose, in the middle of the 19th century. overview economic maps and atlases begin to be published. The first economic maps of individual provinces (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Yaroslavl, etc.) are being created. The first economic map published in Russia was “Map of the industry of European Russia showing factories, factories and industries, administrative places for the manufacturing part, the main fairs, water and land communications, ports, lighthouses, customs houses, the main piers, quarantines, etc., 1842” .
A significant cartographic work is the “Economic-statistical atlas of European Russia from 16 maps,” compiled and published in 1851 by the Ministry of State Property, which went through four editions - 1851, 1852, 1857 and 1869. This was the first economic atlas in our country dedicated to agriculture. It included the first thematic maps (soil, climate, agricultural). The atlas and its text part make an attempt to summarize the main features and directions of development of agriculture in Russia in the 50s. XIX century
Of undoubted interest is the handwritten “Statistical Atlas” compiled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs under the leadership of N.A. Milyutin in 1850. The Atlas consists of 35 maps and cartograms reflecting a wide variety of socio-economic parameters. It was apparently compiled in parallel with the “Economic Statistical Atlas” of 1851 and provides a lot of new information in comparison with it.
A major achievement of domestic cartography was the publication in 1872 of the “Map of the most important sectors of productivity of European Russia” compiled by the Central Statistical Committee (about 1:2,500,000). The publication of this work was facilitated by the improvement in the organization of statistics in Russia, associated with the formation in 1863 of the Central Statistical Committee, headed by the famous Russian geographer, vice-chairman of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. Materials collected over the eight years of the existence of the Central Statistical Committee, as well as various sources from other departments, made it possible to create a map that comprehensively and reliably characterizes the economy of post-reform Russia. The map was an excellent reference tool and valuable material for scientific research. Distinguished by the completeness of its content, expressiveness and originality of mapping methods, it is a remarkable monument to the history of Russian cartography and a historical source that has not lost its significance to the present day.
The first capital atlas of industry was “Statistical Atlas of the Main Sectors of the Factory Industry of European Russia” by D. A. Timiryazev (1869-1873). At the same time, maps of the mining industry (Ural, Nerchinsk district, etc.), maps of the location of the sugar industry, agriculture, etc., transport and economic maps of cargo flows along railways and waterways were published.
One of the best works of Russian socio-economic cartography of the early 20th century. is the “Commercial and Industrial Map of European Russia” by V.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shan scale 1:1 680 000 (1911). This map presented a synthesis of the economic characteristics of many centers and regions.
It is worth mentioning one more outstanding cartographic work created by the Department of Agriculture of the Main Directorate of Agriculture and Land Management before the First World War. This is an atlas album “Agricultural Industry in Russia” (1914), representing a set of statistical maps of the country’s agriculture. This album is interesting as an experience of a kind of “cartographic propaganda” of the potential opportunities of agriculture in Russia to attract new capital investments from abroad.
Population mapping
P. I. Keppen organized the systematic collection of statistical data on the number, national composition and ethnographic characteristics of the population of Russia. The result of P. I. Keppen’s work was the “Ethnographic Map of European Russia” on a scale of 75 versts per inch (1:3,150,000), which went through three editions (1851, 1853 and 1855). In 1875, a new large ethnographic map of European Russia was published on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1:2,520,000), compiled by the famous Russian ethnographer, Lieutenant General A.F. Rittikh. At the Paris International Geographical Exhibition the map received a 1st class medal. Ethnographic maps of the Caucasus region on a scale of 1:1,080,000 (A.F. Rittich, 1875), Asian Russia (M.I. Venyukov), the Kingdom of Poland (1871), Transcaucasia (1895), etc. were published.
Among other thematic cartographic works, one should mention the first map of population density of European Russia, compiled by N. A. Milyutin (1851), “General map of the entire Russian Empire with an indication of the degree of population” by A. Rakint, scale 1:21,000,000 (1866), which included Alaska.
Comprehensive research and mapping
In 1850-1853 The police department released atlases of St. Petersburg (compiled by N.I. Tsylov) and Moscow (compiled by A. Khotev).
In 1897, G.I. Tanfilyev, a student of V.V. Dokuchaev, published a zoning of European Russia, which was first called physiographic. Tanfilyev’s scheme clearly reflected zonality, and also outlined some significant intrazonal differences in natural conditions.
In 1899, the world's first National Atlas of Finland, which was part of the Russian Empire, but had the status of an autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland, was published. In 1910, the second edition of this atlas appeared.
The highest achievement of pre-revolutionary thematic cartography was the major “Atlas of Asian Russia”, published in 1914 by the Resettlement Administration, accompanied by an extensive and richly illustrated text in three volumes. The atlas reflects the economic situation and conditions for agricultural development of the territory for the needs of the Resettlement Administration. It is interesting to note that this publication for the first time included a detailed overview of the history of cartography in Asian Russia, written by a young naval officer, later a famous historian of cartography, L. S. Bagrov. The contents of the maps and the accompanying text of the atlas reflect the results of the great work of various organizations and individual Russian scientists. For the first time, the Atlas provides an extensive set of economic maps for Asian Russia. Its central section consists of maps on which, with backgrounds of different colors, the general picture of land ownership and land use is shown, which displays the results of ten years of activity of the Resettlement Administration in settling the resettled people.
There is a special map dedicated to the distribution of the population of Asian Russia by religion. Three maps are dedicated to cities, which show their population, budget growth and debt. Cartograms for agriculture show the share of different crops in field cultivation and the relative number of the main types of livestock. Mineral deposits are marked on a separate map. Special maps of the atlas are dedicated to communication routes, postal institutions and telegraph lines, which, of course, were of extreme importance for sparsely populated Asian Russia.
So, at the beginning of the First World War, Russia came with cartography that provided the needs of defense, national economy, science and education of the country, at a level that fully corresponded to its role as a great Eurasian power of its time. At the beginning of the First World War, the Russian Empire possessed vast territories, displayed, in particular, on the general map of the state published by the cartographic establishment of A. A. Ilyin in 1915.
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Lecture 11 The Russian Empire at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. : search for ways to modernize Russian society (90s-1914)
Plan 1. Leading trends in world development at the turn of the 19th – 20th centuries. 2. Political and socio-economic processes in the Russian Empire at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. 3. Revolutionary upheavals of 1905 -1907. and the June Third Monarchy (1907 -1914).
The 20th century is the century of great achievements of mankind and global antagonisms. This is the time of: grandiose scientific discoveries; world wars; deep democratic transformations; cruel tyrannical regimes. . The origins of the contradictions of the 20th century go back to the 18th-19th centuries. during the period of formation of industrial civilization, when, as a result of the industrial revolution, the traditional agrarian society was replaced by an industrial society, where industry became the defining sector of the economy.
Types of modernization “Organic modernization” The epicenter of the first echelon of modernization is England – with subsequent spread to continental Europe and North America. “Progressive” model of development: the genesis of capitalism was carried out primarily on the basis of self-development from the initial accumulation of capital to the industrial revolution and factory production. “Inorganic modernization” the epicenter of the second echelon of modernization - Russia, a number of countries in Europe (Germany, Italy, Scandinavian states) and Asia (Japan) “Catch-up” model of development: countries that entered the path of capitalism much later actively used the experience of the first echelon, while The state played a decisive role in the processes of industrial development.
Turn of the 19th – 20th centuries. – new features of industrial society: The term “imperialism” used by free competition capitalism gradually began to be acquired by modern researchers for the features of monopoly capitalism, entering into trends in the characteristics of the new imperialist stage of development. political life of the economic and leading industrial powers of the world, which emerged in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. Qualitative indicators of imperialist development: q high concentration of production and the formation of monopolies; q active introduction of scientific and technological progress into production; q consolidation and monopolization of banking capital; q merger of banking capital with industrial capital and the formation of large financial and industrial groups; q export of capital and the formation of large transnational corporations; q increased economic and political expansion; q the struggle for the redistribution of spheres of influence and new territories between the most powerful states of the world.
The share of leading countries in world industrial production at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Years Germany France England USA Russia 1870 13, 2 10, 3 31, 8 23, 3 4, 0 18961913 16, 6 7, 1 19, 5 30, 1 5, 0 1913 15, 9 6, 4 14, 0 35, 8 5, 3
Russian Empire at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. By the beginning of the 20th century. The Russian Empire ranked 2nd in the world in terms of territory and population, second only to Great Britain along with its colonies.
Russian Empire at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. q Territory – 22 million square meters. km (17% of the entire earth's surface). q Administrative-territorial division - 81 provinces and 20 regions. q Population - according to the All-Russian Census of 1897, 128.2 million people lived in Russia. , of which 57% were non-Russian peoples. By 1914, the population of Russia increased to 182 million people. q Political system – absolute monarchy. q Main classes: nobility, clergy, urban inhabitants (city dwellers), rural inhabitants (peasants). q Economic status – agrarian-industrial, moderately developed country.
Russian Empirehereditary absolute monarchy “Basic laws of the Russian Empire” Article 1. “The All-Russian Emperor is an autocratic and unlimited monarch. God himself commands to obey his supreme authority not only out of fear, but also out of conscience.” q Concentration of all legislative and executive power in the hands of the emperor. q High degree of bureaucratization of public administration. q Complete absence of representative institutions of government, civil rights and freedoms. q Lack of legal political parties.
Nicholas II Alexandrovich (1868 -1918) - the last Russian emperor (1894 -1917) q Ascended the throne in 1894 after the death of his father, Alexander III. q Wife - Alexandra Feodorovna (Princess Alice of Hesse-Darmstadt). q Children: Olga, Tatyana, Maria, Anastasia, Alexey. q He considered autocracy to be unshakable and saw in it the main condition for the prosperity of Russia. q On March 2, 1917, he signed the Abdication Manifesto. q From March 8, 1917, by order of the Provisional Government, he was kept under arrest, first in Tsarskoye Selo, and then in Tobolsk. q On July 17, 1918, he and his family were shot by decision of the Ural Regional Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies and with the sanction of the leaders of Soviet Russia V.I. Lenin and Ya.V. Sverdlov. q In 2000, the royal family was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church.
The process of modernization is a determining factor in the social development of Russia at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Modernization is a gradual transition from a traditional agrarian society to an industrial society. q Industrialization - accelerated development of industry. q Urbanization - the growth of cities and the increase in urban population. q Democratization - political reform of power. q The dynamism of the social system – the destruction of social isolation. q Growth in the educational and general cultural level of the population. q Secularization of public consciousness. All leading powers went through a similar period of development.
Specificity of Russian modernization Reasons: peculiarity of historical development. Manifestations: q in the economy – diversity; q in the social sphere - unequal status of classes, lack of land for peasants, unresolved labor issues, the dual position of the bourgeoisie (economic wealth and political lack of rights), national oppression; q in the political structure - the outdated system of government of the empire, the absence of representative authorities, civil rights and freedoms; q in the spiritual sphere - preservation of traditional consciousness, low literacy of the population.
Alternatives to Russian modernization Protective-conservative course (Nicholas II, V.K. Plehve) ▲ Growth of the material well-being of Russians, while respecting the socio-economic interests of the nobility ▲ Preservation of the inviolability of the autocratic monarchy. Liberal reform course (S. Yu. Witte, P. D. Svyatopolk-Mirsky) ▲ Accelerated industrial development ▲ Gradual, government-controlled, political reforms of a bourgeois-liberal nature. Radical revolutionary course (socialist parties - RSDLP, AKP) ▲ Destruction of autocracy, transfer of power into the hands of the people. ▲Building a new social society in Russia on the basis of national self-government, public ownership and the elimination of the exploitation of man by man.
Witte Sergei Yulievich (1849 -1915) q Graduated from Novorossiysk University in Odessa. q Since 1889 - Director of the Railway Department of the Ministry of Finance. q Since 1892 - Minister of Finance. q Since 1903 - Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers. q From 1905 to 1906 - Chairman of the Council of Ministers. q He considered Alexander III to be the ideal emperor.
Reform activities of S. Yu. Witte The goal is to turn Russia into a leading industrial power q q q q Ways of implementation: state protectionism of industry; achieving financial stability by strengthening the Russian ruble through its gold backing (monetary reform of 1897); creation of transport infrastructure based on railway construction, including the Trans-Siberian Railway; attracting foreign capital on the basis of government guarantees; agrarian reform with the aim of eliminating peasants' lack of land, free exit of peasants from the community (1902 -1905 “Special meeting on the peasant issue”); development of labor legislation (1897 -1903); preparation of the Manifesto of October 17, 1905
Pleve Vyacheslav Konstantinovich (1846 - 1904) q In 1867 he graduated from the Faculty of Law of the Imperial Moscow University. q From 1881 to 1884 - Director of the State Police Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. q Since 1885 - Comrade (Deputy) Minister of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. q Since 1902, after the murder of the Minister of Internal Affairs D.S. Sipyagin, he was appointed to the post of Minister of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. q Member of the Russian Assembly - the first monarchical organization. q In 1904 he was killed by the Socialist Revolutionary E. S. Sazonov.
State policy of V.K. Pleve: “Russia will be freed from the oppression of capital and the bourgeoisie and the struggle of classes” The goal is the conservation of the traditional way of Russian life (classes, religiosity, peasant community) due to the futility of the development of capitalism in Russia. Ways of implementation: q encouragement of labor entrepreneurship, strict prosecution of the activities of financial fraudsters, speculators, and unscrupulous entrepreneurs; q introducing measures to limit the exploitation of hired workers; support for the local nobility and peasantry on the basis of strengthening state control over the activities of zemstvo institutions 1902 - ban on zemstvos collecting statistical information, 1903 - abolition of mutual responsibility for peasants; q active struggle against the revolutionary movement (police terror, shootings of demonstrations, punitive expeditions to areas of peasant unrest); q achieving social stability through strengthening administrative and police control.
Svyatopolk-Mirsky Peter Dmitrievich (1857 - 1914) q Graduated from the Corps of Pages, Nikolaev Academy of the General Staff. q Participated in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877 – 1878. q In 1890 -1900 was the leader of the nobility of the Kharkov province, governor in Penza and Yekaterinoslav. q In 1900 he became a comrade (deputy) of the Minister of the Interior. q In 1904, after the murder of V.K. Plehve, he was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs. q January 18, 1905 dismissed.
Reforms proposed by P. D. Svyatopolk-Mirsky The reform project: “On measures to improve the state order” was developed in November 1904. Goal: with the help of liberal reforms, attract the bourgeois opposition to the side of the government and prevent a revolutionary explosion Contents: q partial amnesty for political prisoners q weakening of censorship q inclusion in the State Council of elected representatives from zemstvos and city dumas Fate of the project: in December 1905, the project was rejected by Nicholas II, the last opportunity to overcome the social crisis peacefully was missed by the authorities
Russo-Japanese War January 27, 1904 - August 23, 1905 V. K. Pleve “Russia needs a small victorious war!” “The cruiser “Varyag” and the gunboat “Koreets” in the battle of Chemulpo” (artist unknown) q The war between Russia and Japan for control of Manchuria and Korea. q One of the first wars of the 20th century. for the redistribution of spheres of influence. q Russia's defeat in the Russo-Japanese War was the accelerator of the first Russian revolution. q. Reasons for Russia's defeat: qunderestimation of the enemy's military strength; qsuddenness of the first strike from Japan; qincompleteness of the rearmament of the Russian army; qmistakes and incompetence of the command of the Russian troops.
Brief chronicle of the Russo-Japanese War q January-December 1904 Sudden attack of the Japanese fleet on the Russian cruiser "Varyag" and the gunboat "Koreets". Heroic defense of Port Arthur by Russian troops. q August 1904 Defeat of Russian troops near Liaoyang (Manchuria). q February 1905. Japanese victory at Mukden. The death of the 1st Russian Pacific Squadron while trying to break through to Vladivostok. q May 1905 Tsushima naval battle. The defeat of the 2nd and 3rd Pacific squadrons of Russia. August 23 (September 5), 1905, signing of a peace treaty in Portsmouth (USA). Portsmouth Peace Treaty between Russia and Japan Russia recognized Korea as Japan's sphere of influence and ceded to Japan: q Southern Sakhalin, q rights to the Liaodong Peninsula with the cities of Port Arthur and Dalniy, q part of the South Moscow Railway from Port Arthur to Kuanchengzi.
Causes of the revolution of 1905 -1907 The systemic crisis was provoked by the contradiction between the socio-economic development of the industrial type (capitalist relations) and the political system of traditional society (absolute monarchy). . q Remnants of feudal land ownership – landlordism and peasants’ land shortage. q The desire of the bourgeoisie to participate in government. q Preservation of absolute monarchy as an attribute of feudal society is the need to restructure the political system. q Labor and national issues.
The main political forces of the revolution of 1905 -1907. Three political camps in the revolution Government camp Liberal-bourgeois camp Preservation of the absolute monarchy Constitutional monarchy Revolutionary-democratic camp Democratic republic
Periodization of the first Russian revolution January 9, 1905 - June 3, 1907 Stage I – ascending development of the revolution – January-September 1905. q Bloody Sunday January 9, 1905 - shooting of a peaceful demonstration in St. Petersburg. q The growth of the workers', peasants' and social movements. q Unrest in the army and navy. "January 9, 1905 on Vasilyevsky Island". Artist V. Makovsky
Periodization of the first Russian revolution January 9, 1905 - June 3, 1907 Stage II - the culmination of the revolution - October-December 1905 q All-Russian October political strike. q Manifesto of October 17, 1905 q December armed uprising in Moscow.
Periodization of the first Russian revolution January 9, 1905 - June 3, 1907 q q q Stage III - decline of the revolution - January 1906 - June 1907. Tightening government measures in the fight against revolutionary actions. Gradual fading of protests. The growth of the number of political parties and the intensification of their activities on a legal basis. Elections to the I and II State Dumas. P. A. Stolypin's bills on reforming the agricultural sector of the economy. The formation of a new political system - the “Duma” (“June Third”) monarchy. June 3, 1907 - “June 3rd coup” dissolution of the Second State Duma and adoption of a new electoral law
Manifesto “On Improving the State Order” of October 17, 1905 Contents q Providing political rights and freedoms to Russian citizens. q Establishment of the State Duma - a legislative and advisory representative body of power. The project was prepared by S. Yu. Witte and signed by Nicholas II. Meaning q Limitation of the autocratic power of the emperor. q Formation of legal political parties in Russia. q The beginning of the formation of Russian parliamentarism, the activities of the State Duma, an elected representative body of power.
I State Duma April 27 - July 8, 1906 "Reception in the St. George Hall of the Winter Palace on the occasion of the opening of the First State Duma on April 27, 1906" (artist V. V. Polyakov)
I State Duma April 27 - July 8, 1906 Chairman - cadet S. A. Muromtsev The majority of deputy seats (43%) were held by cadets. The main issue is agrarian. Worked for 72 days. Disbanded for failure to “calm the people down.”
II State Duma February 20 - June 2, 1907 Chairman - cadet S. A. Golovin The majority of deputy seats were held by revolutionary democratic parties (43%) and cadets (19%). The main issues are agrarian, education reforms, taxation, political freedoms. Dissolved on charges of 55 deputies of conspiracy against the royal family.
New electoral law of June 3, 1907 Goal: to ensure in the State Duma the representation of political forces loyal to the official government; representation was reduced: q from peasants (90% of voters) by 2 times - only 22% of electors had the right to elect instead of 42%; q from workers - the number of electors decreased by 2 times (from 4% to 2%); q the number of seats from Poland, the Caucasus and Asian Russia (non-Russian peoples of Transbaikalia, peoples of Central Asia), Astrakhan and Stavropol provinces decreased by 3 times; q provided the privileges of landowners (0.2% of voters) - 50% of voters; q military personnel, students under 25, and women did not have the right to vote. Thus, in 1907, only 13% of the country’s population became voters, and the number of members of the State Duma decreased from 524 to 442.
“June Third” monarchy or “Duma” monarchy (1907 -1914) The political system that developed in Russia after the revolution of 1905 -1907. , and existed until the outbreak of the First World War Characteristic features q A certain limitation of the power of the emperor by the activities of the Russian parliament q The activities of the Russian parliament - the State Council (upper house) and the State Duma (lower house) q The formation of a multi-party system q The reform activities of P. A. Stolypin
Stolypin Peter Arkadyevich (1862 -1911) q. He comes from an old noble family and is a large landowner. q Graduated from the natural sciences department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of St. Petersburg University. q 1902 - governor of the Grodno province. q 1903 - governor of the Saratov province. q From April 1906 - Minister of Internal Affairs, then - Chairman of the Council of Ministers. Implemented large-scale reforms. q On September 1, 1911, he was killed by the terrorist D. Bogrov in Kyiv.
A.F. Koni: “Having repeatedly betrayed Stolypin and placed him in a defenseless position in relation to open and secret enemies, the “adored monarch” did not find it possible to be at the funeral of the murdered man, but he found the opportunity to stop the case of connivance with the murderers.” On September 1, 1911, at the Kyiv Opera House during the intermission of the play “The Tale of Tsar Saltan,” P. A. Stolypin was mortally wounded by D. G. Bogrov. Died on September 5, 1911. Buried in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. On September 9, Bogrov appeared before the Kyiv District Military Court and on September 12, according to a court verdict, he was hanged.
Reform activities of P. A. Stolypin P. A. Stolypin: “You need great upheavals, we need Great Russia!” . Agrarian reform. q Introduction of freedom of religion. q Establishment of civil equality. q Expansion of labor legislation. q Local government reform. q Introduction of universal primary education, improvement of material support for public teaching. q Reform of higher and secondary schools. q Police reform. q
Agrarian reform by P. A. Stolypin Goal: creating a class of peasants - owners - a pillar of stability in the Russian Empire. The program was designed for 20 years with “external and internal calm.” Contents q On November 9, 1906, the Decree “On supplementing certain provisions of the current law relating to peasant land ownership and land use” was issued. q June 14, 1910 “Law on amending and supplementing certain regulations on peasant land ownership.” q Peasants received the right to leave the community with the consolidation of communal land into personal ownership. q Redemption payments were cancelled. q The peasants' land shortage was overcome: v. Part of the state, appanage and purchased lands from landowners was transferred to the Peasant Bank for sale. v A resettlement policy was carried out to the eastern outskirts.
Agrarian reform P. A. Stolypin: “We must give the capable, hardworking peasant the opportunity to secure the fruits of his labors and provide them with inalienable property. » Results q 1907 -1914 28% of households - 2.5 million peasant households - left the community. q 3.3 million people (of which 0.5 million returned) moved beyond the Urals. q Productivity increased by 20%. q Cultivated area increased by 10%. q Bread exports increased by 30%, and the marketability of peasant farms increased. q In 1916, peasants sown (on their own and rented land) 89.3% of the land and owned 94% of farm animals. Landowner farming has lost its economic significance. P. A. Stolypin's reforms were not supported by either the official authorities or society.
III State Duma November 1, 1907 - June 9, 1912 Chairmen N.A. Khomyakov A.I. Guchkov M.V. Rodzianko The Octobrists - a party of large landowners and industrialists - had 154 deputies and controlled the work of the entire Duma. Two majorities were formed: the right-Octobrist and the Octobrist-Cadet. The main issues: q budget, q agrarian reform, q reform of the army, q politics on the “national outskirts”.
IV State Duma November 15, 1912 – February 27, 1917 Chairman - M. V. Rodzianko q During the First World War, it formed the Progressive Bloc and turned into a political opposition to the official government, which became the most important reason for the February Revolution of 1917 q October 6 1917 The Provisional Government dissolved the State Duma in connection with the preparation of the elections to the Constituent Assembly.
Features of the Russian multi-party system q Political parties in Russia arose much later than in Europe and the USA. q In Russia for a long time there were no legal opportunities for party political activity. q The initiator of the creation of parties, regardless of their social orientation, was the Russian intelligentsia. q Socialist parties were the first to form. q The official government refused to conduct a constructive dialogue with the State Duma and parties, recognizing only monarchist parties.
Political parties of Russia During the period of the first Russian revolution, there were about 100 parties and 25 unions, organizations and movements in Russia. The largest parties represented three main political directions: Monarchical (Black Hundred) parties Union of the Russian People Bourgeois liberal parties Revolutionary democratic parties Union of October 17 (Octobrists) Russian Social Democratic Labor Party Constitutional Democratic Party (Cadets) Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (Socialist Revolutionaries) Bolsheviks Mensheviks
Conclusions Ø At the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. In Russia, attempts were made to accelerate economic modernization and political reforms. Ø However, the official government was unable to use the capabilities of the June Third political system to organize the effective activities of the State Duma as a mechanism for dialogue with society and the opposition, which inevitably created the ground for social instability and new revolutionary explosions. ØAll the obvious and hidden contradictions of Russian society intensified during the First World War.
