GOALS OF THE STATES PARTICIPATING IN THE WAR All the great European powers that participated in the First World War pursued their own, and selfish, goals: Germany claimed world domination and expansion of the colonial empire; Austria-Hungary wanted to establish control over the Balkans; England fought against the expansion of Germany's sphere of influence and sought to subjugate the territories of the Ottoman Empire; France sought to recapture Alsace and Lorraine, as well as seize the Saar coalfield in Germany; Russia sought to gain a foothold in the Balkans and the Middle East; Türkiye wanted to keep the Balkans under its rule and seize Crimea and Iran; Italy sought to establish its dominance in the Mediterranean.

THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR On June 28, 1914, in the capital of Serbia, Sarajevo, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was assassinated. The Austrian-Hungarian government presented Serbia with an ultimatum, according to which Austrian units were to enter the country. Serbia rejected the conditions presented. On July 28, 1914, war began between the two countries. Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Duchess von Hohenberg in Sarajevo (28 June 1914).

THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR Russia demanded to leave Serbia alone. General mobilization began in the country. In response to this, on August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia. Soon other large countries entered the war: France (August 3, 1914); Great Britain (4 August 1914); Japan (23 August 1914). Manifestation on Palace Square in anticipation of Nicholas II's announcement of the Manifesto on Russia's entry into the war.

WAR PLANS OF THE PARTIES At the beginning of the war, the Entente countries (Russia, France and England) were opposed by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey. The German “Schlieffen Plan” envisaged the defeat of France in the first month of the war, and then a strike on Russia. Russia planned active military operations against Austria-Hungary and defense against Germany. England planned to blockade the German coast with its fleet and help the French on land.

CAMPAIGN OF 1914 At the beginning of the war, German troops, having broken through Belgium, began to approach Paris. On September 5–9, 1914, the French army was able to launch a counterattack on the Marne River and stop the German advance. The Western Front has stabilized. The enemy began building trenches, barbed wire and minefields. The war in the West became a “trench war”. Advance of German infantry. Advance of French infantry.

CAMPAIGN OF 1914 At the request of the Allies, Russia simultaneously launched two large offensive operations: in Galicia against the Austrians; in East Prussia against the Germans. The Galician operation was a success. The Russian army blocked Przemysl, the main fortress of the Austrians. The offensive in East Prussia ended for the Russian army with defeat at Tannenberg. Russian trenches on the Eastern Front.

CAMPAIGN OF 1915 The next year on the Western Front passed relatively calmly. However, it was in 1915 that chemical weapons were used on the Western Front for the first time in the history of war. On April 22, 1915, the Germans attacked British positions with chlorine. Soldiers and officers were injured, of whom 5,000 died. Gas attack near Ypres (22 April 1915). German machine gunners in gas masks.

CAMPAIGN OF 1915 On the eastern front, the Germans decided to withdraw Russia from the war. As a result of their offensive, which lasted from May to September 1915, the Russian army suffered a painful defeat. She was forced to leave Galicia, Poland, Lithuania, Courland and part of Belarus. The front has stabilized on the Riga-Minsk-Chernivtsi line. However, it was not possible to bring Russia out of the war. Russian battery on the Eastern Front.

1916 CAMPAIGN In 1916, two major battles took place on the Western Front. One of them was the Battle of Verdun, which went down in the history of the First World War as the “Verdun Meat Grinder”. Between February 21 and July 21, 1916, both sides lost about soldiers and officers, but the front line did not change. The Germans never managed to take the last fortress on the way to Paris and decide the outcome of the war in their favor. "Verdun meat grinder". Verdun after the battle.

1916 CAMPAIGN Another major battle that determined the outcome of the 1916 campaign in the West was the Battle of the Somme. From June 26 to October 26, 1916, British and French troops made a number of attempts to break through the German defenses. Losses on both sides amounted to about people. However, the front line did not undergo significant changes. English tank from the First World War.

CAMPAIGN OF 1916 On the Eastern Front, on June 5, 1916, troops of the Southwestern Front under the command of General Brusilov broke through the Austro-Hungarian front and occupied an area of ​​sq. km. Austria-Hungary found itself on the brink of military disaster. Only the transfer of German troops from near Verdun and Austrian troops from Italy helped stop the Russian offensive in Galicia. General Brusilov and the actions of the Southwestern Front in the summer of 1916.

WAR AT SEA From the beginning of the war, the English fleet established a blockade of the German coast. In an effort to turn the tide at sea, Germany began a submarine war in 1915. The decisive naval battle of the First World War took place on May 31, 1916 in the North Sea. Despite the fact that the English fleet suffered heavy losses, the Germans were unable to break through the naval blockade. The sinking of the Lusitania (May 7, 1915). Battle of Jutland (May 31, 1916).

CAMPAIGN OF 1917 The course of the war on the Eastern Front was dramatically changed by the February Revolution in Russia. Discipline in the army fell sharply. Desertion became widespread. The soldiers began to fraternize with the enemy. The Bolsheviks who came to power declared their desire to end the war and in December 1917 concluded a truce with the enemy. Poster dedicated to the February Revolution. Fraternization of Russian and German soldiers at the front.

1917 CAMPAIGN The most significant event of the war on the Western Front was the entry of the United States into it on April 6, 1917. A year later, American soldiers and officers were already fighting in Europe. The entry of the United States into the war, given its economic potential and untapped human resources, turned out to be one of the decisive factors in the victory of the Entente. American poster from the First World War.

CAMPAIGN OF 1918 On March 3, 1918, Russia and its opponents signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. According to its terms, Russia: renounces Ukraine, the Baltic states and Finland; disarms the army and navy; pays indemnity in marks. The seizure of a huge territory, which produced 32% of Russia's agricultural and 25% of industrial production, allowed Germany to hope for a final victory. Caricature of Leon Trotsky, who signed the Brest Peace Treaty. Russia's losses as a result of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty.

CAMPAIGN OF 1918 In 1918, after the failure of the next German offensive in the West, the outcome of the war was a foregone conclusion. During September-November 1918, Germany's allies signed an armistice with the Entente countries. On November 11, 1918, in the Compiegne Forest, German representatives signed the Compiegne Armistice. This marked the end of the First World War. The end of the First World War.

First World War (1914 - 1918)

The Russian Empire collapsed. One of the goals of the war has been achieved.

Chamberlain

The First World War lasted from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918. 38 states with a population of 62% of the world took part in it. This war was quite controversial and extremely contradictory in modern history. I specifically cited Chamberlain’s words in the epigraph in order to once again emphasize this inconsistency. A prominent politician in England (Russia's war ally) says that by overthrowing the autocracy in Russia one of the goals of the war has been achieved!

The Balkan countries played a major role in the beginning of the war. They were not independent. Their policies (both foreign and domestic) were greatly influenced by England. Germany had by that time lost its influence in this region, although it controlled Bulgaria for a long time.

• Entente. Russian Empire, France, Great Britain. The allies were the USA, Italy, Romania, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
• Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire. Later they were joined by the Bulgarian kingdom, and the coalition became known as the “Quadruple Alliance”.

The following large countries took part in the war: Austria-Hungary (July 27, 1914 - November 3, 1918), Germany (August 1, 1914 - November 11, 1918), Turkey (October 29, 1914 - October 30, 1918), Bulgaria (October 14, 1915 - 29 September 1918). Entente countries and allies: Russia (August 1, 1914 - March 3, 1918), France (August 3, 1914), Belgium (August 3, 1914), Great Britain (August 4, 1914), Italy (May 23, 1915), Romania (August 27, 1916) .

One more important point. Initially, Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance. But after the outbreak of World War I, the Italians declared neutrality.

Causes of the First World War

The main reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the desire of the leading powers, primarily England, France and Austria-Hungary, to redistribute the world. The fact is that the colonial system collapsed by the beginning of the 20th century. The leading European countries, which had prospered for years through the exploitation of their colonies, could no longer simply obtain resources by taking them away from Indians, Africans and South Americans. Now resources could only be won from each other. Therefore, contradictions grew:

• Between England and Germany. England sought to prevent Germany from increasing its influence in the Balkans. Germany sought to strengthen itself in the Balkans and the Middle East, and also sought to deprive England of maritime dominance.
• Between Germany and France. France dreamed of regaining the lands of Alsace and Lorraine, which it had lost in the war of 1870-71. France also sought to seize the German Saar coal basin.
• Between Germany and Russia. Germany sought to take Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states from Russia.
• Between Russia and Austria-Hungary. Controversies arose due to the desire of both countries to influence the Balkans, as well as Russia's desire to subjugate the Bosporus and Dardanelles.

The reason for the start of the war

The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the events in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina). On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand of the Young Bosnia movement, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Ferdinand was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, so the resonance of the murder was enormous. This was the pretext for Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia.

The behavior of England is very important here, since Austria-Hungary could not start a war on its own, because this practically guaranteed war throughout Europe. The British at the embassy level convinced Nicholas 2 that Russia should not leave Serbia without help in the event of aggression. But then the entire (I emphasize this) English press wrote that the Serbs were barbarians and Austria-Hungary should not leave the murder of the Archduke unpunished. That is, England did everything to ensure that Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia did not shy away from war.

Important nuances of the casus belli

In all textbooks we are told that the main and only reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the assassination of the Austrian Archduke. At the same time, they forget to say that the next day, June 29, another significant murder took place. The French politician Jean Jaurès, who actively opposed the war and had great influence in France, was killed. A few weeks before the assassination of the Archduke, there was an attempt on the life of Rasputin, who, like Zhores, was an opponent of the war and had great influence on Nicholas 2. I would also like to note some facts from the fate of the main characters of those days:

• Gavrilo Principin. Died in prison in 1918 from tuberculosis.
• The Russian Ambassador to Serbia is Hartley. In 1914 he died at the Austrian embassy in Serbia, where he came for a reception.
• Colonel Apis, leader of the Black Hand. Shot in 1917.
• In 1917, Hartley’s correspondence with Sozonov (the next Russian ambassador to Serbia) disappeared.

This all indicates that in the events of the day there were a lot of black spots that have not yet been revealed. And this is very important to understand.

England's role in starting the war

At the beginning of the 20th century, there were 2 great powers in continental Europe: Germany and Russia. They did not want to openly fight against each other, since their forces were approximately equal. Therefore, in the “July crisis” of 1914, both sides took a wait-and-see approach. British diplomacy came to the fore. She conveyed her position to Germany through the press and secret diplomacy - in the event of war, England would remain neutral or take Germany's side. Through open diplomacy, Nicholas 2 received the opposite idea that if war broke out, England would take the side of Russia.

It must be clearly understood that one open statement from England that it would not allow war in Europe would be enough for neither Germany nor Russia to even think about anything like that. Naturally, under such conditions, Austria-Hungary would not have dared to attack Serbia. But England, with all its diplomacy, pushed European countries towards war.

Russia before the war

Before the First World War, Russia carried out army reform. In 1907, a reform of the fleet was carried out, and in 1910, a reform of the ground forces. The country increased military spending many times over, and the total peacetime army size was now 2 million. In 1912, Russia adopted a new Field Service Charter. Today it is rightly called the most perfect Charter of its time, since it motivated soldiers and commanders to show personal initiative. Important point! The doctrine of the army of the Russian Empire was offensive.

Despite the fact that there were many positive changes, there were also very serious miscalculations. The main one is the underestimation of the role of artillery in war. As the course of events of the First World War showed, this was a terrible mistake, which clearly showed that at the beginning of the 20th century, Russian generals were seriously behind the times. They lived in the past, when the role of cavalry was important. As a result, 75% of all losses in the First World War were caused by artillery! This is a verdict on the imperial generals.

It is important to note that Russia never completed preparations for war (at the proper level), while Germany completed it in 1914.

The balance of forces and means before and after the war

Artillery

According to the data from the table, it is clear that Germany and Austria-Hungary were many times superior to Russia and France in heavy weapons. Therefore, the balance of power was in favor of the first two countries. Moreover, the Germans, as usual, created an excellent military industry before the war, which produced 250,000 shells daily. By comparison, Britain produced 10,000 shells per month! As they say, feel the difference...

Another example showing the importance of artillery is the battles on the Dunajec Gorlice line (May 1915). In 4 hours, the German army fired 700,000 shells. For comparison, during the entire Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), Germany fired just over 800,000 shells. That is, in 4 hours a little less than during the entire war. The Germans clearly understood that heavy artillery would play a decisive role in the war.

Weapons and military equipment

Production of weapons and equipment during the First World War (thousands of units).

This table clearly shows the weakness of the Russian Empire in terms of equipping the army. In all main indicators, Russia is much inferior to Germany, but also inferior to France and Great Britain. Largely because of this, the war turned out to be so difficult for our country.

Number of people (infantry)

Number of fighting infantry (millions of people).

The table shows that Great Britain made the smallest contribution to the war, both in terms of combatants and deaths. This is logical, since the British did not really participate in major battles. Another example from this table is instructive. All textbooks tell us that Austria-Hungary, due to large losses, could not fight on its own, and it always needed help from Germany. But notice Austria-Hungary and France in the table. The numbers are identical! Just as Germany had to fight for Austria-Hungary, so Russia had to fight for France (it is no coincidence that the Russian army saved Paris from capitulation three times during the First World War).

The table also shows that in fact the war was between Russia and Germany. Both countries lost 4.3 million killed, while Britain, France and Austria-Hungary together lost 3.5 million. The numbers are telling. But it turned out that the countries that fought the most and made the most effort in the war ended up with nothing. First, Russia signed the shameful Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, losing many lands. Then Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, essentially losing its independence.

Progress of the war

Military events of 1914

July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. This entailed the involvement of the countries of the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Entente, on the other hand, into the war.

Russia entered World War I on August 1, 1914. Nikolai Nikolaevich Romanov (Uncle of Nicholas 2) was appointed Supreme Commander-in-Chief.

In the first days of the war, St. Petersburg was renamed Petrograd. Since the war with Germany began, the capital could not have a name of German origin - “burg”.

Historical reference

German "Schlieffen Plan"

Germany found itself under the threat of war on two fronts: Eastern - with Russia, Western - with France. Then the German command developed the “Schlieffen Plan”, according to which Germany should defeat France in 40 days and then fight with Russia. Why 40 days? The Germans believed that this was exactly what Russia would need to mobilize. Therefore, when Russia mobilizes, France will already be out of the game.

On August 2, 1914, Germany captured Luxembourg, on August 4 they invaded Belgium (a neutral country at that time), and by August 20 Germany reached the borders of France. The implementation of the Schlieffen Plan began. Germany advanced deep into France, but on September 5 it was stopped at the Marne River, where a battle took place in which about 2 million people took part on both sides.

Northwestern Front of Russia in 1914

At the beginning of the war, Russia did something stupid that Germany could not calculate. Nicholas 2 decided to enter the war without fully mobilizing the army. On August 4, Russian troops, under the command of Rennenkampf, launched an offensive in East Prussia (modern Kaliningrad). Samsonov's army was equipped to help her. Initially, the troops acted successfully, and Germany was forced to retreat. As a result, part of the forces of the Western Front was transferred to the Eastern Front. The result - Germany repelled the Russian offensive in East Prussia (the troops acted disorganized and lacked resources), but as a result the Schlieffen plan failed, and France could not be captured. So, Russia saved Paris, albeit by defeating its 1st and 2nd armies. After this, trench warfare began.

Southwestern Front of Russia

On the southwestern front, in August-September, Russia launched an offensive operation against Galicia, which was occupied by troops of Austria-Hungary. The Galician operation was more successful than the offensive in East Prussia. In this battle, Austria-Hungary suffered a catastrophic defeat. 400 thousand people killed, 100 thousand captured. For comparison, the Russian army lost 150 thousand people killed. After this, Austria-Hungary actually withdrew from the war, since it lost the ability to conduct independent actions. Austria was saved from complete defeat only by the help of Germany, which was forced to transfer additional divisions to Galicia.

The main results of the military campaign of 1914

• Germany failed to implement the Schlieffen plan for lightning war.
• No one managed to gain a decisive advantage. The war turned into a positional one.

Map of military events of 1914-15

Military events of 1915

In 1915, Germany decided to shift the main blow to the eastern front, directing all its forces to the war with Russia, which was the weakest country of the Entente, according to the Germans. It was a strategic plan developed by the commander of the Eastern Front, General von Hindenburg. Russia managed to thwart this plan only at the cost of colossal losses, but at the same time, 1915 turned out to be simply terrible for the empire of Nicholas 2.

Situation on the northwestern front

From January to October, Germany waged an active offensive, as a result of which Russia lost Poland, western Ukraine, part of the Baltic states, and western Belarus. Russia went on the defensive. Russian losses were gigantic:

• Killed and wounded - 850 thousand people
• Captured - 900 thousand people

Russia did not capitulate, but the countries of the Triple Alliance were convinced that Russia would no longer be able to recover from the losses it had suffered.

Germany's successes on this sector of the front led to the fact that on October 14, 1915, Bulgaria entered the First World War (on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary).

Situation on the southwestern front

The Germans, together with Austria-Hungary, organized the Gorlitsky breakthrough in the spring of 1915, forcing the entire southwestern front of Russia to retreat. Galicia, which was captured in 1914, was completely lost. Germany was able to achieve this advantage thanks to the terrible mistakes of the Russian command, as well as a significant technical advantage. German superiority in technology reached:

• 2.5 times in machine guns.
• 4.5 times in light artillery.
• 40 times in heavy artillery.

It was not possible to withdraw Russia from the war, but the losses on this section of the front were gigantic: 150 thousand killed, 700 thousand wounded, 900 thousand prisoners and 4 million refugees.

Situation on the Western Front

"Everything is calm on the Western Front." This phrase can describe how the war between Germany and France proceeded in 1915. There were sluggish military operations in which no one sought the initiative. Germany was implementing plans in eastern Europe, and England and France were calmly mobilizing their economy and army, preparing for further war. No one provided any assistance to Russia, although Nicholas 2 repeatedly turned to France, first of all, so that it would take active action on the Western Front. As usual, no one heard him... By the way, this sluggish war on Germany’s western front was perfectly described by Hemingway in the novel “A Farewell to Arms.”

The main result of 1915 was that Germany was unable to bring Russia out of the war, although all efforts were devoted to this. It became obvious that the First World War would drag on for a long time, since during the 1.5 years of the war no one was able to gain an advantage or strategic initiative.

Military events of 1916

"Verdun Meat Grinder"

In February 1916, Germany launched a general offensive against France with the goal of capturing Paris. For this purpose, a campaign was carried out on Verdun, which covered the approaches to the French capital. The battle lasted until the end of 1916. During this time, 2 million people died, for which the battle was called the “Verdun Meat Grinder”. France survived, but again thanks to the fact that Russia came to its rescue, which became more active on the southwestern front.

Events on the southwestern front in 1916

In May 1916, Russian troops went on the offensive, which lasted 2 months. This offensive went down in history under the name “Brusilovsky breakthrough”. This name is due to the fact that the Russian army was commanded by General Brusilov. The breakthrough of the defense in Bukovina (from Lutsk to Chernivtsi) happened on June 5. The Russian army managed not only to break through the defenses, but also to advance into its depths in some places up to 120 kilometers. The losses of the Germans and Austro-Hungarians were catastrophic. 1.5 million dead, wounded and prisoners. The offensive was stopped only by additional German divisions, which were hastily transferred here from Verdun (France) and from Italy.

This offensive of the Russian army was not without a fly in the ointment. As usual, the allies dropped her off. On August 27, 1916, Romania entered the First World War on the side of the Entente. Germany defeated her very quickly. As a result, Romania lost its army, and Russia received an additional 2 thousand kilometers of front.

Events on the Caucasian and Northwestern fronts

Positional battles continued on the Northwestern Front during the spring-autumn period. As for the Caucasian Front, the main events here lasted from the beginning of 1916 to April. During this time, 2 operations were carried out: Erzurmur and Trebizond. According to their results, Erzurum and Trebizond were conquered, respectively.

The result of 1916 in the First World War

• The strategic initiative passed to the side of the Entente.
• The French fortress of Verdun survived thanks to the offensive of the Russian army.
• Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente.
• Russia carried out a powerful offensive - the Brusilov breakthrough.

Military and political events 1917

The year 1917 in the First World War was marked by the fact that the war continued against the background of the revolutionary situation in Russia and Germany, as well as the deterioration of the economic situation of the countries. Let me give you the example of Russia. During the 3 years of the war, prices for basic products increased on average by 4-4.5 times. Naturally, this caused discontent among the people. Add to this heavy losses and a grueling war - it turns out to be excellent soil for revolutionaries. The situation is similar in Germany.

In 1917, the United States entered the First World War. The position of the Triple Alliance is deteriorating. Germany and its allies cannot effectively fight on 2 fronts, as a result of which it goes on the defensive.

The end of the war for Russia

In the spring of 1917, Germany launched another offensive on the Western Front. Despite the events in Russia, Western countries demanded that the Provisional Government implement the agreements signed by the Empire and send troops on the offensive. As a result, on June 16, the Russian army went on the offensive in the Lvov area. Again, we saved the allies from major battles, but we ourselves were completely exposed.

The Russian army, exhausted by the war and losses, did not want to fight. The issues of provisions, uniforms and supplies during the war years were never resolved. The army fought reluctantly, but moved forward. The Germans were forced to transfer troops here again, and Russia's Entente allies again isolated themselves, watching what would happen next. On July 6, Germany launched a counteroffensive. As a result, 150,000 Russian soldiers died. The army virtually ceased to exist. The front fell apart. Russia could no longer fight, and this catastrophe was inevitable.

People demanded Russia's withdrawal from the war. And this was one of their main demands from the Bolsheviks, who seized power in October 1917. Initially, at the 2nd Party Congress, the Bolsheviks signed the decree “On Peace,” essentially proclaiming Russia’s exit from the war, and on March 3, 1918, they signed the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty. The conditions of this world were as follows:

• Russia makes peace with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
• Russia is losing Poland, Ukraine, Finland, part of Belarus and the Baltic states.
• Russia cedes Batum, Kars and Ardagan to Turkey.

As a result of its participation in the First World War, Russia lost: about 1 million square meters of territory, approximately 1/4 of the population, 1/4 of arable land and 3/4 of the coal and metallurgical industries were lost.

Historical reference

Events in the war in 1918

Germany got rid of the Eastern Front and the need to wage war on two fronts. As a result, in the spring and summer of 1918, she attempted an offensive on the Western Front, but this offensive had no success. Moreover, as it progressed, it became obvious that Germany was getting the most out of itself, and that it needed a break in the war.

Autumn 1918

The decisive events in the First World War took place in the fall. The Entente countries, together with the United States, went on the offensive. The German army was completely driven out of France and Belgium. In October, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria concluded a truce with the Entente, and Germany was left to fight alone. Her situation was hopeless after the German allies in the Triple Alliance essentially capitulated. This resulted in the same thing that happened in Russia - a revolution. On November 9, 1918, Emperor Wilhelm II was overthrown.

End of the First World War

On November 11, 1918, the First World War of 1914-1918 ended. Germany signed a complete surrender. It happened near Paris, in the Compiègne forest, at the Retonde station. The surrender was accepted by the French Marshal Foch. The terms of the signed peace were as follows:

• Germany admits complete defeat in the war.
• The return of the province of Alsace and Lorraine to France to the borders of 1870, as well as the transfer of the Saar coal basin.
• Germany lost all its colonial possessions, and was also obliged to transfer 1/8 of its territory to its geographical neighbors.
• For 15 years, Entente troops were on the left bank of the Rhine.
• By May 1, 1921, Germany had to pay members of the Entente (Russia was not entitled to anything) 20 billion marks in gold, goods, securities, etc.
• Germany must pay reparations for 30 years, and the amount of these reparations is determined by the winners themselves and can be increased at any time during these 30 years.
• Germany was prohibited from having an army of more than 100 thousand people, and the army had to be exclusively voluntary.

The terms of the “peace” were so humiliating for Germany that the country actually became a puppet. Therefore, many people of that time said that although the First World War ended, it did not end in peace, but in a truce for 30 years. That’s how it ultimately turned out...

Results of the First World War

The First World War was fought on the territory of 14 states. Countries with a total population of over 1 billion people took part in it (this is approximately 62% of the entire world population at that time). In total, 74 million people were mobilized by the participating countries, of whom 10 million died and another 20 million were injured.

As a result of the war, the political map of Europe changed significantly. Such independent states as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, and Albania appeared. Austro-Hungary split into Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Romania, Greece, France, and Italy have increased their borders. There were 5 countries that lost and lost territory: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey and Russia.

Map of the First World War 1914-1918

The plans of the participants in the war did not sufficiently take into account the increased role of economic and moral factors and were designed to conduct combat operations only at the expense of mobilization reserves accumulated in peacetime. It was believed that the war would be short-lived. The transfer of the military economy to wartime needs was not envisaged.

The general staffs of the imperialist states spent many years developing war plans.

What all plans had in common was that they expressed the aggressive aspirations of individual powers, as well as individual warring coalitions; at the same time, they expressed acute contradictions between individual imperialist predators within the coalitions, each of which sought to place more of the military burden on its allies and grab more wealth from the mutual division of the spoils.

The essence of the German plan(the Schlieffen plan) was the desire to hit the opponents sequentially: first it was supposed to strike France and defeat its army, and then transfer the main forces to the East and defeat Russia. In both cases, the bet was on a short-term war.

In order to bypass and encircle the French army, it was planned to carry out a flank maneuver through Belgium, bypassing the main forces of the French army from the north. The auxiliary group was supposed to play the role of a barrier against a possible offensive by the French army. In the East, at the beginning of the war, it was planned to deploy one army with the task of covering East Prussia from a possible invasion by Russian troops. Austro-Hungarian troops were supposed to conduct active operations against Russia at this time. The main flaw of the German plan was to overestimate one's own strength and underestimate the enemy's.

On Austro-Hungarian war plan The German General Staff had a strong influence, seeking to use Austro-Hungarian troops to pin down the Russian armies during the period when Germany struck France. In view of this, the Austro-Hungarian General Staff was forced to plan simultaneous active actions against Russia, Serbia and Montenegro. The main blow was planned to be delivered from Galicia to the east and northeast. The Austro-Hungarian plan was constructed in isolation from a real consideration of its economic and moral capabilities. This clearly demonstrated the influence of the German military school - underestimating the enemy and overestimating one's own strength. The availability of forces and means did not correspond to the assigned tasks.

French war plan was offensive, but it was of a wait-and-see nature, since the initial actions of the French troops were made dependent on the actions of the German troops. Only the Lorraine group, consisting of two armies, received an active offensive mission. The central group of troops within one army was assigned the role of a connecting link between the Belgian and Lorraine groups. The Belgian group within one army had to act depending on the behavior of the enemy.

In the event that the Germans violated the neutrality of Belgium and advanced through its territory, this army must be ready to advance in a north-easterly direction, otherwise it would have to advance in an easterly direction.

The essence of the English plan boiled down to a promise to send an expeditionary army of seven divisions to France. The British ruling circles hoped to shift the main burden of the war on land to Russia and France. England considered its main task to ensure supremacy at sea.

Russian war plan was developed in the conditions of economic and political dependence of Tsarist Russia on Anglo-French capital. England and France, presenting enslaving loans to the tsarist autocracy, placed heavy military obligations on Russia, which the general staff had to take into account when developing a war plan. The interests of the autocracy required delivering the main blow to Austria-Hungary. However, due to its dependence on England and France, Russia had to conduct offensive actions against Germany in order to divert its forces from the west and weaken the blows of German troops against the French army. The desire to satisfy interested parties led to the decision to attack simultaneously against both opponents. The Northwestern Front was supposed to encircle and destroy the German army on the 8th and capture East Prussia; the Southwestern Front was tasked with encircling and defeating the Austro-Hungarian troops located in Galicia.

By the beginning of hostilities in the Western European Theater of Operations against France and Belgium, Germany had deployed 86 infantry and 10 cavalry divisions (1.6 million men and 5,000 guns). These forces were opposed by 85 infantry and 12 cavalry divisions of Franco-Anglo-Belgian troops (1.6 million people, 4,640 guns).

For Russia, the First World War resulted in millions of deaths, the collapse of the empire and the end of the monarchy. Until now, historians do not have a consensus on why the country entered into this large-scale conflict in the first place.

Unanswered warning

The motives that prompted the major European powers to start a large-scale war are obvious and, one way or another, connected with their desire for geopolitical and economic hegemony on the continent. But what goals did Russia set for itself when it got involved in this military enterprise?

On the eve of the war, former Minister of Internal Affairs Pyotr Durnovo warned Nicholas II in an analytical note about the danger of drawing the country into a confrontation with Germany. Even victory in this war, according to Durnovo, would not promise Russia anything valuable; in case of failure, the likelihood of a revolution increased: “The defeated army, which during the war had lost its most reliable personnel, was captured for the most part by a spontaneously common peasant desire for land, will be too demoralized to serve as a bastion of law and order. Russia will be plunged into hopeless anarchy, the outcome of which cannot even be predicted.” It was as if a perspicacious politician was looking into the water.

How Nicholas II reacted to Durnovo’s note is unknown. One thing is clear, the tsar was guided not by the arguments of reason, but by a patriotic impulse. However, it should be noted that Nicholas hoped to the last to stop the war. On July 29, 1914, he sent a telegram to German Emperor Wilhelm II with a proposal to “refer the Austro-Serbian issue to the Hague Conference.” Wilhelm did not answer. After this, Nicholas II declared: “My conscience is clear. I did everything to avoid war."

Patriotic upsurge

The official version of the reason for Russia's start of military action is the fulfillment of allied obligations to Serbia. Indeed, Russia, according to the agreement, was supposed to provide military assistance to Serbia in the event of attacks on the latter’s territorial integrity.

On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, and on the same day began shelling Belgrade. Russia did not rush things, reacting only two days later - on July 31, when general mobilization was announced in the country. Germany, in the form of an ultimatum, demanded that Russia cancel the mobilization, but was refused.

On August 1, the German ambassador in St. Petersburg, Count Friedrich Pourtales, handed over a note on the declaration of war to the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs Sergei Sazonov, after which, according to the minister’s recollections, he “went to the window and began to cry.” On August 2, Nicholas II signed a manifesto on the beginning of the war.

President of the Russian Association of Historians of the First World War, Evgeny Sergeev, notes that Russia’s decision to enter the war was also dictated by its “fear of losing prestige and influence in the Balkan countries.” Serbia was not just an ally, but also an important strategic foothold in the Balkans.

Historian Boris Kolonitsky is convinced that when analyzing the reasons for the outbreak of the war, one should not underestimate the importance of public opinion. According to him, there was “strong pressure from the street.” Those around Nicholas II noted that in those days the tsar felt such a unity with the people that had not been experienced during the previous 20 years of his reign.

In the first days of the war, mass demonstrations in support of the Serbs took place on the streets of Russian cities, and there were also spontaneous pogroms of German offices and shops. Anti-German sentiment and patriotic euphoria turned out to be a factor that largely predetermined Russia's entry into the war.

Russian interests

American historian Sean McMeekin explains the motives of the First World War by the rivalry and territorial claims of Russia and Germany. This idea is reinforced by the French diplomat Maurice Paleologue in his book “Tsarist Russia during the World War,” citing the words of Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Sazonov:
“My formula is simple, we must destroy German imperialism. We will achieve this only through a series of military victories; We are facing a long and very difficult war. The Emperor has no illusions in this regard. But so that the “Kaiser” does not rise again from its ruins, so that the Hohenzollerns can never again lay claim to a world monarchy, great political changes must take place.”

Boris Kolonitsky expresses the opinion that Russia's goal was the unification of the Polish territories that were part of Austria-Hungary and Germany, as well as the need to establish control over the Bosporus. A note addressed by Sazonov to the French and British ambassadors (M. Paleologue and J. Buchanan) confirms that, on the eve of the expected attack by the allied forces on the Bosphorus, Russia hastened to “stake out” Constantinople and the Straits. It says, in particular, the following: “The course of recent events leads Emperor Nicholas to the idea that the issue of Constantinople and the straits must be finally resolved in accordance with the centuries-old aspirations of Russia.”

British historian Geoffrey Hosking writes about this in his book “The West’s View of Russia”: “By the spring of 1915, Russian diplomats finally reached an agreement with the governments of Great Britain and France that after the war, Constantinople and most of the straits would become Russian territory.” .

To whom is war, and to whom is mother dear?

It is no secret that the First World War was truly manna from heaven for bankers and industrialists. The Russian army, which was in the stage of re-equipment, experienced a shortage of modern military equipment, weapons and ammunition. State factories could not fully provide the front with everything necessary, and private companies took over, selling their products at inflated prices.

In the monograph of the head of the Main Artillery Directorate (1914–1917), Lieutenant General A.A. Manikovsky “Combat supply of the Russian army during the World War” some figures are given for comparison. Thus, 76-mm shrapnel (a type of artillery shell) at a state-owned factory cost 9 rubles. 83 kopecks, and in private – 15 rubles. 32 kopecks, prices for a 152-mm grenade were 42 rubles, respectively. and 70 rub. The benefits for domestic entrepreneurs were obvious.

Western countries also took advantage of the difficult situation in the Russian military industry. The British government proposed to supply Russia with 12 million shells at extremely high prices and within an extremely extended time frame, thereby disrupting the offensive operations of the Russian army. Despite this, the English side's proposal was accepted.

Historian I.V. Mayevsky notes that during the war, Russia “increasingly turned into an object of investment for foreign capital, which extracted unprecedented profits. Instead of the 4-5% dividend received in their homeland, foreign capitalists received from 20 to 30% in Russia!”

Researcher Alexander Shirokorad is confident that the pressure of Russian factory owners and bankers, closely associated with Anglo-French capital, ultimately influenced the ruling circles of Russia and contributed to the country's involvement in the war.

Bleed off at any cost

On the eve of the First World War, future opponents, Russia and Germany, maintained close trade and economic ties. A third of Russian goods from total exports went to Germany, and a quarter of German goods were sent to the Russian market. German factories regularly fulfilled defense orders from St. Petersburg. So, in 1913, two cruisers were laid down for Russia at the Shichau shipyard - Admiral Nevelsky and Count Muravyov-Amursky.

However, in the summer of 1914, relations sharply deteriorate, and former partners are already becoming enemies. For historian Nikolai Starikov, everything is obvious here: Russia and Germany were simply pitted against each other. And, in his opinion, England did this. Researcher Alexander Samsonov also names a specific culprit - English Freemasonry.

Britain's goals become clear if we look at the economic situation on the eve of the war. The total cost of English goods on the Russian market was almost 4 times lower than the cost of goods from Germany. In addition, German goods were intensively crowding out English goods in other countries, including the British dominions and colonies. The weakening of Germany was vital for Great Britain.

The surest way, which British diplomacy has used more than once, is war, and by proxy. Interesting fact: universal conscription in the United Kingdom was only introduced in January 1916 - 16 months after the start of the global conflict! England waited while Russia lost its strength. How can one not recall the slogan of British diplomacy: “Defend the interests of Britain to the last Russian.” The first and main step to drag Russia into the war was the Russian-British Convention of 1907. On the eve of the fateful agreement, the German Reich Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow prophetically wrote: “If the Russian Empire unites with Britain, this will mean the opening of a front directed against us, which will lead to a major international military conflict in the near foreseeable future.” “Will Germany emerge victorious from this disaster?” - Bülow reflected. “Alas, most likely, Germany will be defeated, and everything will end in the triumph of the revolution.”

But even earlier, Russia will be destined to go through this tragic path.

On June 28, 1914, the Serb Gavrilo Princip killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife as they drove through the streets of the capital of Bosnia, Sarajevo. This was a response to the forced annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary. On July 23, Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with an ultimatum, which meant the loss of Serbia's independence. Although the Serbian government accepted most of these demands, July 28th

Austria-Hungary moved troops against Serbia and started a war. The Russian government responded with mobilization.

The leaders of Germany demanded its end, and when Russia rejected their ultimatum, Germany entered the war with Russia on August 1. On August 2, German troops occupied Luxembourg, and on August 3, Germany declared war on France. The British government, taking advantage of Germany's violation of Belgian neutrality, declared war on Germany on August 4. In total, 33 states were drawn into the war. On the side of the Entente - France, England and Russia - were Serbia, Montenegro, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, Romania, Greece, Japan, China, Siam, Egypt, Liberia, USA, Cuba, Haiti, Panama, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica , Honduras, Brazil. On the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary are Bulgaria and Türkiye. The war became global.

Austria-Hungary, torn by national strife, hoped that a victorious war would help strengthen and preserve the empire.

Türkiye - state survival and claims to the Russian Transcaucasus.

Great Britain - to eliminate competition from Germany in world markets, to stop its claims to redistribute the colonies.

France - return Alsace and Lorraine, seize German lands along the left bank of the Rhine and the Saar region.

Italy - to establish itself on the Balkan Peninsula.

The United States intended to dictate peace terms to countries weakened by the war that would ensure their own world domination.

61 Main fronts of the First World War. Military operations on the Western Front in 1914

The German command basically adhered to the plan developed by General Schlieffen. 3/4 of the German troops available on the western front were concentrated on the right flank, which moved across the weakly defended Belgian border to begin encircling the main enemy forces, pressing them to the Swiss border and destroying them “before the autumn leaves fall.” After the defeat of France, it would be Russia's turn. Having crossed Belgium in three weeks, which had been turned into a General Government by the occupiers, the German corps broke the resistance of French troops on the border and invaded France. Contrary to Schlieffen's plan, they lacked the strength to bypass the French divisions from the north-west, but four German armies crossed the Marne River, approached Verdun by September and threatened Paris. The French government temporarily left the capital. The training of Russian troops had not yet been completed when the French government turned to Russia for help. Russian troops were sent on the offensive. Two Russian armies occupied a significant part of the territory of East Prussia. This forced the German command to transfer troops there from France, part of the reserves intended for the offensive in France. Due to inconsistency in actions, one Russian army was defeated at the Masurian Lakes, and the other was driven out of East Prussia by the Germans. But the advance of several Russian armies in the southern direction continued. They occupied part of Poland and Galicia that belonged to Austria. The advance of Russian troops created a threat to important industrial areas for Germany - Silesia and Poznan. Only an acute shortage of ammunition and food slowed down their advance. To stop them, Germany had to transfer more troops here from France. The unprepared attack cost Russia enormous casualties, which may have saved France.

On September 5, French troops launched an offensive from Paris: the Battle of the Marne unfolded. Heavy losses forced the Germans to retreat somewhat: the threat of their capture of Paris was eliminated.

In the east, the Austro-German bloc also failed to achieve success in 1914.

The offensive launched by German and Austro-Hungarian troops in southern Poland ended in failure. The Germans did not achieve success in the offensive on the Vistula.