Defeat in the Crimean War of the 19th century meant. For four years the fighting took place

Russia's defeat can be explained by three groups of reasons or factors.

The political reason for Russia's defeat during the Crimean War was the unification of the main Western powers (England and France) against it, with the benevolent (for the aggressor) neutrality of the rest. This war demonstrated the consolidation of the West against a civilization alien to them.

The technical reason for the defeat was the relative backwardness of the Russian army's weapons.

The socio-economic reason for the defeat was the preservation of serfdom, which is inextricably linked with the limitation of industrial development.

Crimean War in the period 1853-1856. claimed the lives of over 522 thousand Russians, 400 thousand Turks, 95 thousand French and 22 thousand British Soviet Military Encyclopedia. T. I. M., 1977. P. 487..

In terms of its grandiose scale - the width of the theater of military operations and the number of mobilized troops - this war was quite comparable to the world war. Defending on several fronts - in Crimea, Georgia, the Caucasus, Sveaborg, Kronstadt, Solovki and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky - Russia acted alone in this war. It was opposed by an international coalition consisting of Great Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire and Sardinia, which inflicted a crushing defeat on our country.

The defeat in the Crimean War led to the fact that the country's authority in the international arena dropped extremely. The destruction of the remnants of the battle fleet on the Black Sea and the liquidation of the fortress on the coast opened the southern border of the country to any enemy invasion. In the Balkans, Russia's position as a great power has been shaken due to a number of restrictive restrictions. According to the articles of the Paris Treaty, Turkey also abandoned its Black Sea fleet, but the neutralization of the sea was only an appearance: through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits, the Turks could always send their squadrons there from the Mediterranean Sea. Soon after his accession to the throne, Alexander II dismissed Nesselrode: he was an obedient executor of the will of the former sovereign, but was not suitable for independent activity. Meanwhile, Russian diplomacy was faced with the most difficult and important task - to achieve the abolition of the humiliating and difficult articles of the Paris Treaty for Russia. The country was in complete political isolation and had no allies in Europe. M.D. was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs instead of Nesselrode. Gorchakov. Gorchakov was distinguished by his independence of judgment, he knew how to accurately correlate Russia's capabilities and its specific actions, and brilliantly mastered the art of diplomatic play. In choosing allies, he was guided by practical goals, and not by likes and dislikes or speculative principles.

Russia's defeat in the Crimean War ushered in the era of the Anglo-French redivision of the world. Having knocked the Russian Empire out of world politics and secured their rear in Europe, the Western powers actively used the gained advantage to achieve planetary domination. The path to the successes of England and France in Hong Kong or Senegal lay through the destroyed bastions of Sevastopol. Soon after the Crimean War, England and France attacked China. Having achieved a more impressive victory over him, they turned this giant into a semi-colony. By 1914, the countries they captured or controlled accounted for 2/3 of the world's territory.

The main lesson of the Crimean War for Russia was that in order to achieve its global goals, the West is without hesitation ready to combine its power with the Muslim East. In this case, to crush the third center of power - Orthodox Russia. The Crimean War also frankly exposed the fact that when the situation at the Russian borders worsened, all the allies of the empire smoothly moved into the camp of its opponents. At the western Russian borders: from Sweden to Austria, as in 1812, there was a smell of gunpowder.

The Crimean War clearly demonstrated to the Russian government that economic backwardness leads to political and military vulnerability. Further economic lag behind Europe threatened with more serious consequences.

At the same time, the Crimean War served as a kind of indicator of the effectiveness of the military reforms undertaken in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I (1825 - 1855). A distinctive feature of this war was poor troop management (on both sides). At the same time, the soldiers, despite the terrifying conditions, fought exceptionally courageously See Smolin N.N. The role of the moral factor of the Russian army during the Crimean War. 1853-1856 // Diss. Ph.D. ist. sciences, spec. 07.00.02. M, 2002. under the leadership of outstanding Russian commanders: P.S. Nakhimova, V.A. Kornilova, E.I. Totleben and others.

The main task of Russian foreign policy in 1856 - 1871 was the struggle for the abolition of the restrictive articles of the Paris Peace. Russia could not tolerate a situation in which its Black Sea border remained unprotected and open to military attack. The economic and political interests of the country, as well as the security interests of the state, required the cancellation of the neutralization of the Black Sea. But this task had to be solved in conditions of foreign policy isolation and military-economic backwardness not through military means, but through diplomacy, using the contradictions of the European powers. This explains the major role of Russian diplomacy during these years.

In 1857 - 1860 Russia managed to achieve diplomatic rapprochement with France. However, the very first diplomatic initiatives of the Russian government on the very narrow issue of Turkey carrying out reforms for Christian peoples in the Balkan provinces showed that France did not intend to support Russia.

At the beginning of 1863, an uprising broke out in Poland, Lithuania, and Western Belarus. The rebels demanded independence, civil equality and the allocation of land to the peasants. Soon after the events began, on January 27, an agreement was reached between Russia and Prussia on mutual assistance in suppressing the uprising. This convention sharply worsened Russia's relations with England and France.

The result of these international events was a new balance of power. Mutual alienation between Russia and England increased even more. The Polish crisis interrupted the rapprochement between Russia and France. There was a noticeable improvement in relations between Russia and Prussia, in which both countries were interested. The Russian government abandoned its traditional course in Central Europe, aimed at preserving a fragmented Germany.

Military conflicts are not uncommon for imperialist states, especially when their interests are affected. The Crimean War of 1853, or the Eastern War, was the decisive event of the mid-19th century. Let us briefly consider its causes, participants, course and consequences of the bloody confrontation.

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Background and participants in the war

Among the many factors that led to the escalation of the conflict, competent historians highlight the main list.

Ottoman Empire – the power and greatness of the Ottomans wavered in the New Age. 1820-1830 became decisive for a multinational country. Defeats from the Russian Empire, France and the suppression of internal manifestations of patriotism led to an unstable situation. Greece, like the kingdom of Egypt, raised an uprising and achieved independence. The Ottoman Porte was saved from actual collapse by foreign aid. In return, a huge state lost the opportunity to independently conduct foreign policy.

Great Britain b was a trading empire, its interests extended to every corner of the world, Turkey was no exception. The events of the Crimean War were ahead of the signed analogue of the “free trade zone,” which made it possible to import and sell British goods without duties or customs duties.

This situation destroyed Turkish industry, the government became a puppet. The situation was so favorable that the English Parliament did not want the collapse of the empire and in every possible way prevented Russian reinforcement in the Black Sea and in the Balkans. Anti-Russian information propaganda was carried out.

French society of that time burned with revenge for the defeats of Napoleonic times. In addition to economic decline, under the rule of King Napoleon III, the state lost some of its colonial influence. To distract people from their problems, the press actively voiced calls for a military conflict in alliance with England.

The Sardinian kingdom had no political or territorial claims to Russia. However, the difficult situation in the foreign policy arena required a search for allies. Victor Emmanuel II responded to France's offer to join the Crimean War; upon completion, the French side pledged to help unify the Italian lands.

Austria: dictated some obligations for the Russian Empire. However the Austrian government was not satisfied with the growth of the Orthodox movement on the Balkan Peninsula. The national liberation movement would lead to the collapse of the Austrian Empire. The reasons for the defeat of the Russian Empire in the Crimean War will be discussed below.

Why did the Crimean War start?

Historians identify several objective and subjective reasons:

1. Rivalry between European countries and Russia for control of Turkey.
2. The desire of the Russian side to receive access to the Dardanelles and Bosphorus Straits.
3. The policy of unification of the Balkan Slavs.
4. The decline of the Oman Empire in domestic and foreign policy.
5. Self-confidence when dealing with complex issues.
6. The Crimean War of 1853 as a refutation that Europe is not capable of presenting a united front.
7. An autocratic form of government that led to a series of bad decisions.
8. Confrontation between Catholic and Orthodox dioceses on the issue of “Palestinian shrines”.
9. France's desire to destroy the established alliance of the Napoleonic conquests.

The reason for the Crimean War

Nicholas I did not recognize the legitimacy of the French monarch; official correspondence took unacceptable liberties. She became offensive to Napoleon III. He took steps to return Christian shrines to the Catholic Church, which Russia did not like.

In response to notes of protest being ignored The Russian army sent troops into the territory of Moldova and Wallachia. The subsequent Vienna Note was intended to calm the raging monarchs, but the causes of the Crimean War were too serious.

With the support of the British side, the Turkish Sultan demands the withdrawal of troops, which is refused. In response, the Ottoman Empire declares war on Russia, which takes similar steps.

Attention! Many consider the religious reason for the start of the Crimean War to be only a formal pretext for escalation conflict situation in the center of Europe.

Crimean War campaigns

October 1853 – April 1854

The outdated weapons of the Russian Empire were compensated by the number of personnel. Tactical maneuvers were based on confrontation with numerically equal Turkish troops.

The course of hostilities took place with varying degrees of success, but fortune smiled on the Russian squadron of Admiral Nakhimov. In Sinop Bay, he discovered a significant concentration of enemy ships and decided to attack. Firepower advantage made it possible to disperse enemy forces and capture the enemy commander.

April 1854 – February 1856

The conflict has ceased to be local; it has spread to the Caucasus, the Balkans, the Baltic and even Kamchatka. Russia was deprived of access to the sea, which led to the Crimean War of 1853–1856. The defense of Sevastopol became the culmination of the confrontation.

In the fall of 1854, coalition forces landed in the Evpatoria region. The Battle of the Alma River was won, and the Russian army retreated to Bakhchisarai. At this stage, not a single soldier voiced the reasons for the Crimean War, everyone hoped for an easy victory.

The garrison of the Sevastopol fortress under the command of General Nakhimov, Kornilov and Istomin turned into a formidable force. The city was defended by 8 bastions on land and a bay blocked by sunken ships. For almost a whole year (1856), the proud defenders of the Black Sea port held the defense; Malakhov Kurgan was abandoned under enemy pressure. However, the northern part remained Russian.

Many local confrontations are combined into one name: the Crimean War. The collision map will be presented below.

Danube Campaign

The first move in the Crimean War was made by the Russian corps under the command of Prince Gorchakov. He crossed the Danube to quickly occupy Bucharest. The population welcomed the liberators; the received note about the withdrawal of troops was ignored.

Turkish troops began shelling of Russian positions, Having broken through the enemy's defenses, the siege of Silistria began in March 1854. However, due to the danger of Austria entering the war, the withdrawal of troops from the liberated principalities began.

Participants in the Crimean War launched a landing in the Varna area with the aim of capturing Dobruja. However, cholera that raged during the campaign prevented the implementation of the plan.

Caucasian Theater

A series of defeats for the Turkish troops forced them to moderate their warlike ardor, but the Crimean Defensive War of 1853–1856. quickly flowed into the sea plane.

On November 5, 1854, an important battle of steam ships took place, the Vladimir captured the Pervaz-Bahri. This event foreshadowed the bloodless capture of the Ottoman steamer Mejari Tejat.

In 1855 it became a success capture of Kars fortress, General Muravyov continued the siege until the enemy surrendered; the reasons for the defeat were obvious. As a result, the Russian army gained control over a vast area, including Ardahan, Kazyman, Olty.

Important! The defense of Sevastopol consisted of continuous defensive battles by Russian troops. As a result of six allied bombings, the city's infrastructure was destroyed. Daily losses from enemy fire amounted to 900-1000 people per day.

The French lost 53 transport ships and several battleships.

Signing of the peace treaty

The results of the Crimean War were documented within the framework of the Paris Agreement, which prescribed:

1. Remove Navy, fortifications and arsenals from the Black Sea. This applied to Turkey and Russia.
2. The Russian side renounced part of its possessions in Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube, i.e., it lost secret control over the Balkans.
3. The protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia was annulled.

The consequences of Russia's defeat in the Crimean War are the suspension of its expansionary policy and the development of the Black Sea Fleet.

The reasons for the defeat of the Russian Empire in the Crimean War are as follows:

• moral and technical Russia's lag behind Western powers;
• undeveloped infrastructure, which led to disruption of logistics and troop replenishment;
• rear corruption, embezzlement as an endemic phenomenon in the state apparatus of power;
• the defense of Sevastopol became tragic due to the shortcomings of the commander-in-chief;

Results of the Crimean War

Top 7 interesting facts about the Crimean War

Among the incredible kaleidoscope of events, the following stand out:

1. The first use of propaganda as a tool to influence public opinion. The occasion came after the Battle of Sinop, when English newspapers vividly described Russian atrocities.
2. Appeared profession of war photographer, Roger Fenton took 363 photographs of the everyday life of Allied soldiers.
3. The defense of the Solovetsky Monastery did not lead to casualties, “domestic” seagulls also did not suffer from the term “Crimean War”. An interesting fact: out of 1,800 cannonballs and bombs of the Anglo-French squadron, only a few damaged buildings.
4. The “foggy” bell of Chersonesos was taken to France as a war trophy. He was held captive for more than 60 years, until the causes of the Crimean War were forgotten in 1913.
5. Russian sailors came up with new sign, according to which the third person to smoke will be seriously injured. This is due to the shooting characteristics of the first rifled rifles in the Allied army.
6. Interesting facts indicate the global scale of military operations. The abundance of conflict theaters is striking in terms of geography and mass scale.
7. The Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire was deprived of protection from the Russian Empire.

Causes and results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856

Crimean War (1853 - 1856)

Conclusion

The results of the Crimean War showed the strength of spirit of the Russian people, their desire to defend the interests of the country. On the other hand, every citizen became convinced of the insolvency of the government, the weakness and expressiveness of the autocrat.

The Crimean War answered the long-standing dream of Nicholas I to gain Russian possession of the Black Sea straits, which Catherine the Great had already dreamed of. This was contrary to the plans of the European Great Powers, who intended to counteract Russia and help the Ottomans in the coming war.

Main causes of the Crimean War

The history of the Russian-Turkish wars is incredibly long and contradictory, however, the Crimean War is perhaps the brightest page in this history. There were many reasons for the Crimean War of 1853-1856, but they all agreed on one thing: Russia sought to destroy the dying empire, and Turkey counteracted this and was going to use hostilities to suppress the liberation movement of the Balkan peoples. The plans of London and Paris did not include strengthening Russia, so they hoped to weaken it, at best, separating Finland, Poland, the Caucasus and Crimea from Russia. In addition, the French still remembered the humiliating loss of the war with the Russians during the reign of Napoleon.

Rice. 1. Map of the combat operations of the Crimean War.

When Emperor Napoleon III ascended the throne, Nicholas I did not consider him a legitimate ruler, since after the Patriotic War and the Foreign Campaign the Bonaparte dynasty was excluded from possible contenders for the throne in France. The Russian Emperor, in his congratulatory letter, addressed Napoleon “my friend,” and not “my brother,” as etiquette required. It was a personal slap in the face from one emperor to another.

Rice. 2. Portrait of Nicholas I.

Briefly about the causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, we will collect information in the table.

The immediate cause of hostilities was the issue of control of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Bethlehem. The Turkish Sultan handed over the keys to the Catholics, which offended Nicholas I, which led to the start of hostilities through the entry of Russian troops into the territory of Moldova.

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Rice. 3. Portrait of Admiral Nakhimov, a participant in the Crimean War.

Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War

Russia accepted an unequal battle in the Crimean (or as it was printed in the Western press - Eastern) war. But this was not the only reason for the future defeat.

The Allied forces greatly outnumbered the Russian soldiers. Russia fought with dignity and was able to achieve the maximum during this war, although it lost it.

Another reason for the defeat was the diplomatic isolation of Nicholas I. He pursued a strong imperialist policy, which caused irritation and hatred from his neighbors.

Despite the heroism of the Russian soldier and some officers, theft occurred among the highest ranks. A striking example of this is A. S. Menshikov, who was nicknamed the “traitor.”

An important reason is the military-technical backwardness of Russia from European countries. Thus, when sailing ships were still in service in Russia, the French and English fleets already made full use of the steam fleet, which showed its best side during calm periods. Allied soldiers used rifled guns, which fired more accurately and farther than Russian smoothbore guns. The situation was similar in artillery.

The classic reason was the low level of infrastructure development. There were no railways yet leading to Crimea, and the spring thaws destroyed the road system, which reduced the supply of the army.

The result of the war was the Peace of Paris, according to which Russia did not have the right to have a navy in the Black Sea, and also lost its protectorate over the Danube principalities and returned Southern Bessarabia to Turkey.

What have we learned?

Although the Crimean War was lost, it showed Russia the paths of future development and pointed out weaknesses in the economy, military affairs, and social sphere. There was a patriotic upsurge throughout the country, and the heroes of Sevastopol were made national heroes.

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The spirit in the troops is beyond description. During the times of ancient Greece there was not so much heroism. I was not able to be in action even once, but I thank God that I saw these people and live in this glorious time.

Lev Tolstoy

The wars of the Russian and Ottoman empires were a common phenomenon in international politics in the 18th-19th centuries. In 1853, the Russian Empire of Nicholas 1 entered into another war, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856, and ended in the defeat of Russia. In addition, this war showed the strong resistance of the leading countries of Western Europe (France and Great Britain) to the strengthening of Russia's role in Eastern Europe, in particular in the Balkans. The lost war also showed Russia itself problems in domestic politics, which led to many problems. Despite victories in the initial stage of 1853-1854, as well as the capture of the key Turkish fortress of Kars in 1855, Russia lost the most important battles on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula. This article describes the causes, course, main results and historical significance in a short story about the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Reasons for the aggravation of the Eastern Question

By the Eastern Question, historians understand a number of controversial issues in Russian-Turkish relations, which at any moment could lead to conflict. The main problems of the Eastern question, which became the basis for the future war, are the following:

• The loss of Crimea and the northern Black Sea region to the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 18th century constantly stimulated Turkey to start a war in the hope of regaining the territories. Thus began the wars of 1806-1812 and 1828-1829. However, as a result, Türkiye lost Bessarabia and part of the territory in the Caucasus, which further increased the desire for revenge.
• Belonging to the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. Russia demanded that these straits be opened for the Black Sea Fleet, while the Ottoman Empire (under pressure from Western European countries) ignored these Russian demands.
• The presence in the Balkans, as part of the Ottoman Empire, of Slavic Christian peoples who fought for their independence. Russia provided them with support, thereby causing a wave of indignation among the Turks about Russian interference in the internal affairs of another state.

An additional factor that intensified the conflict was the desire of Western European countries (Britain, France, and Austria) not to allow Russia into the Balkans, as well as to block its access to the straits. For this reason, countries were ready to provide support to Turkey in a potential war with Russia.

The reason for the war and its beginning

These problematic issues were brewing throughout the late 1840s and early 1850s. In 1853, the Turkish Sultan transferred the Temple of Bethlehem in Jerusalem (then the territory of the Ottoman Empire) to the management of the Catholic Church. This caused a wave of indignation among the highest Orthodox hierarchy. Nicholas 1 decided to take advantage of this, using the religious conflict as a reason to attack Turkey. Russia demanded that the temple be transferred to the Orthodox Church, and at the same time also open the straits to the Black Sea Fleet. Türkiye refused. In June 1853, Russian troops crossed the border of the Ottoman Empire and entered the territory of the Danube principalities dependent on it.

Nicholas 1 hoped that France was too weak after the revolution of 1848, and Britain could be appeased by transferring Cyprus and Egypt to it in the future. However, the plan did not work; European countries called on the Ottoman Empire to act, promising it financial and military assistance. In October 1853, Türkiye declared war on Russia. This is how, to put it briefly, the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began. In the history of Western Europe, this war is called the Eastern War.

Progress of the war and main stages

The Crimean War can be divided into 2 stages according to the number of participants in the events of those years. These are the stages:

1. October 1853 – April 1854. During these six months, the war was between the Ottoman Empire and Russia (without direct intervention from other states). There were three fronts: Crimean (Black Sea), Danube and Caucasian.
2. April 1854 - February 1856. British and French troops enter the war, which expands the theater of operations and also marks a turning point in the course of the war. The Allied forces were technically superior to the Russians, which was the reason for the changes during the war.

As for specific battles, the following key battles can be identified: for Sinop, for Odessa, for the Danube, for the Caucasus, for Sevastopol. There were other battles, but the ones listed above are the most basic. Let's look at them in more detail.

Battle of Sinop (November 1853)

The battle took place in the harbor of the city of Sinop in Crimea. The Russian fleet under the command of Nakhimov completely defeated the Turkish fleet of Osman Pasha. This battle was perhaps the last major world battle on sailing ships. This victory significantly raised the morale of the Russian army and inspired hope for an early victory in the war.

Map of the Sinopo naval battle November 18, 1853

Bombing of Odessa (April 1854)

At the beginning of April 1854, the Ottoman Empire sent a squadron of the Franco-British fleet through its straits, which quickly headed for the Russian port and shipbuilding cities: Odessa, Ochakov and Nikolaev.

On April 10, 1854, the bombardment of Odessa, the main southern port of the Russian Empire, began. After a rapid and intense bombardment, it was planned to land troops in the northern Black Sea region, which would force the withdrawal of troops from the Danube principalities, as well as weaken the defense of Crimea. However, the city survived several days of shelling. Moreover, the defenders of Odessa were able to deliver precise strikes on the Allied fleet. The plan of the Anglo-French troops failed. The Allies were forced to retreat towards Crimea and begin battles for the peninsula.

Fighting on the Danube (1853-1856)

It was with the entry of Russian troops into this region that the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began. After success in the Battle of Sinop, another success awaited Russia: the troops completely crossed over to the right bank of the Danube, an attack was opened on Silistria and further on Bucharest. However, the entry of England and France into the war complicated the Russian offensive. On June 9, 1854, the siege of Silistria was lifted, and Russian troops returned to the left bank of the Danube. By the way, Austria also entered the war against Russia on this front, which was worried about the rapid advance of the Romanov Empire into Wallachia and Moldavia.

In July 1854, a huge landing of the British and French armies (according to various sources, from 30 to 50 thousand) landed near the city of Varna (modern Bulgaria). The troops were supposed to enter the territory of Bessarabia, displacing Russia from this region. However, a cholera epidemic broke out in the French army, and the British public demanded that the army leadership give priority to the Black Sea Fleet in the Crimea.

Fighting in the Caucasus (1853-1856)

An important battle took place in July 1854 near the village of Kyuryuk-Dara (Western Armenia). The combined Turkish-British forces were defeated. At this stage, the Crimean War was still successful for Russia.

Another important battle in this region took place in June–November 1855. Russian troops decided to attack the eastern part of the Ottoman Empire, the Karsu fortress, so that the Allies would send some troops to this region, thereby slightly easing the siege of Sevastopol. Russia won the Battle of Kars, but this happened after the news of the fall of Sevastopol, so this battle had little impact on the outcome of the war. Moreover, according to the results of the “peace” signed later, the Kars fortress was returned to the Ottoman Empire. However, as the peace negotiations showed, the capture of Kars still played a role. But more on that later.

Defense of Sevastopol (1854-1855)

The most heroic and tragic event of the Crimean War is, of course, the battle for Sevastopol. In September 1855, French-English troops captured the last point of defense of the city - Malakhov Kurgan. The city survived an 11-month siege, but as a result it was surrendered to the Allied forces (among which the Sardinian kingdom appeared). This defeat was key and provided the impetus for ending the war. From the end of 1855, intensive negotiations began, in which Russia had practically no strong arguments. It was clear that the war was lost.

Other battles in Crimea (1854-1856)

In addition to the siege of Sevastopol, several more battles took place on the territory of Crimea in 1854-1855, which were aimed at “unblocking” Sevastopol:

1. Battle of Alma (September 1854).
2. Battle of Balaklava (October 1854).
3. Battle of Inkerman (November 1854).
4. Attempt to liberate Yevpatoria (February 1855).
5. Battle of the Chernaya River (August 1855).

All these battles ended in unsuccessful attempts to lift the siege of Sevastopol.

"Distant" battles

The main fighting of the war took place near the Crimean Peninsula, which gave the name to the war. There were also battles in the Caucasus, on the territory of modern Moldova, as well as in the Balkans. However, not many people know that battles between rivals also took place in remote regions of the Russian Empire. Here are some examples:

1. Petropavlovsk defense. The battle, which took place on the territory of the Kamchatka Peninsula between the combined Franco-British troops on one side and the Russian ones on the other. The battle took place in August 1854. This battle was a consequence of Britain's victory over China during the Opium Wars. As a result, Britain wanted to increase its influence in eastern Asia by displacing Russia. In total, the Allied troops launched two assaults, both of which ended in failure. Russia withstood the Petropavlovsk defense.
2. Arctic company. The operation of the British fleet to attempt to blockade or capture Arkhangelsk, carried out in 1854-1855. The main battles took place in the Barents Sea. The British also launched a bombardment of the Solovetsky Fortress, as well as the robbery of Russian merchant ships in the White and Barents Seas.

Results and historical significance of the war

Nicholas 1 died in February 1855. The task of the new emperor, Alexander 2, was to end the war, and with minimal damage to Russia. In February 1856, the Paris Congress began its work. Russia was represented there by Alexey Orlov and Philip Brunnov. Since neither side saw the point in continuing the war, already on March 6, 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed, as a result of which the Crimean War was completed.

The main terms of the Treaty of Paris 6 were as follows:

1. Russia returned the Karsu fortress to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol and other captured cities of the Crimean peninsula.
2. Russia was prohibited from having a Black Sea fleet. The Black Sea was declared neutral.
3. The Bosporus and Dardanelles straits were declared closed to the Russian Empire.
4. Part of Russian Bessarabia was transferred to the Principality of Moldova, the Danube ceased to be a border river, so navigation was declared free.
5. On the Allad Islands (an archipelago in the Baltic Sea), Russia was prohibited from building military and (or) defensive fortifications.

As for losses, the number of Russian citizens who died in the war is 47.5 thousand people. Britain lost 2.8 thousand, France - 10.2, Ottoman Empire - more than 10 thousand. The Sardinian kingdom lost 12 thousand military personnel. The number of deaths on the Austrian side is unknown, perhaps because it was not officially at war with Russia.

In general, the war showed the backwardness of Russia compared to European countries, especially in terms of the economy (the completion of the industrial revolution, the construction of railways, the use of steamships). After this defeat, the reforms of Alexander 2 began. In addition, the desire for revenge had been brewing in Russia for a long time, which resulted in another war with Turkey in 1877-1878. But this is a completely different story, and the Crimean War of 1853-1856 was completed and Russia was defeated in it.

Causes of the war, its beginning and general characteristics

The natural development of the “eastern question”: increasingly real prospects for the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire, the intensification of the struggle of the great powers for its heritage. Nikolai first of all wanted to solve the problem of the straits. England and France, among other things, believed that Russia had become too strong and wanted to weaken it. Anti-Russian campaign in Europe, incl. participation in it of leftist forces, including Marx (against the “gendarme of Europe”).

In the early 50s. Nikolai’s incorrect assessment of the international situation, as a result of which increased pressure on Turkey in the hope of receiving the support of the great powers as a “reward” for the suppression of revolutions in Europe. In fact - isolation: England's refusal to capture Egypt and Crete with the help of Russia, hostility and Austria.

Tactless behavior of the Tsar's envoy Menshikov in Istanbul. Nicholas demanded that Russia be recognized as the patron of all Orthodox Christians in Turkey, and that Russian troops be introduced into the territory of Moldova and Wallachia as reinforcements. In response, the English and French squadrons entered the Sea of ​​Marmara. October 1853 - Türkiye started the war.

Throughout the war, there were three theaters: Transdanubian, Transcaucasian and later Crimean, so it would be more correct to call it (as historians most often do) not Crimean, but Eastern.

Periodization - can be roughly divided into four periods:

1. October 1853 - March 1854: war with Turkey,
2. March - September 1854 - Western countries entered the war and their first military operations against Russia,
3. September 1854 - August 1855: defense of Sevastopol,
4. August 1855 - March 1856: final battles, capture of Kars and the Peace of Paris.

The first stages of the war

October 1853 - the beginning of the war. The biggest event: November 1853 - the victory of the Russian fleet under the command of Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov over the Turks in Sinop Bay - the last major battle of the era of the sailing fleet. Resistance to the Turkish invasion of Georgia. Saving Turkey from imminent defeat, the Anglo-French squadron entered the Black Sea.

March 1853: England and France declared war, and the Kingdom of Sardinia joined. The Anglo-French squadron in the Baltic Sea, the blockade of Kronstadt, the heroic defense of the Solovetsky Monastery on the White Sea and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.

Defense of Sevastopol and the end of the war

September 1854 - Allied landing in Crimea, Russian defeat at Alma (commander Menshikov). The beginning of the siege of Sevastopol. Under the leadership of Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin and Totleben, a fortress was actually created anew - earthen fortifications. During the first assault in October, Kornilov died (defend Sevastopol!). In October - the battle of Balaklava, the “valley of death”. Russian defeat at Inkerman.

After this, the war becomes protracted, which inevitably leads Russia to defeat, because limited resources. And this despite the unprecedented heroism of the Russians (three admirals, sailor Koshka, Dasha of Sevastopol, “Sevastopol Stories” by L. Tolstoy).

February 1855 - Nikolai's death, similar to suicide. Before his death, Menshikov was replaced by Gorchakov. Soon after this - the death of Istomin. In June, Nakhimov died (“they shoot pretty accurately today”). August - the decisive assault, the capture of Malakhov Kurgan, the abandonment of the southern side of Sevastopol by the Russians. Thus ended the 349-day defense of Sevastopol.

At the end of 1855: success - the capture of the Kare fortress in Transcaucasia. Pressure from Austria is a threat to act against Russia. Let's go to negotiations.

Results of the war. Causes of defeat. Meaning

March 1856 - Paris Peace Treaty: relative moderation of the allies after Sevastopol (“behind the Russian delegation stood the shadow of Nakhimov”). Small territorial losses (part of Bessarabia). The most difficult thing is the ban on keeping a navy in the Black Sea.

Causes of defeat

The main thing is backwardness, serfdom:

1. limited resources, weak transport (on oxen), lack of ammunition, even bandages and cotton wool (they pinched lint),
2. military-technical backwardness: sailing fleet and smooth-bore weapons,
3. failure of autocratic rule: foreign policy isolation of Russia, incompetent Menshikov as a commander, wild theft.

Meaning

On the one hand, there is the heroism of the Russian people and important patriotic traditions. On the other hand, it is a decisive blow to the Nikolaev regime, the most important impetus for reforms. Herzen: defeat in the Crimean War “rolled away the stone from the coffin of Russia.”