The sequence of emergence of representatives of the human race. Anthropogenesis, human races

The evolutionary history of man ended with the formation of a species that was qualitatively different from other animals inhabiting the Earth, but the mechanisms and factors that acted during the evolution of the ancestors of Homo sapiens were no different from the mechanisms and factors in the evolution of any species of living beings. Only from a certain stage of development in the evolution of mankind did social factors begin to play a greater role than biological ones. Therefore, the basic principles of the general theory of evolution are quite applicable to the problem of anthropogenesis. However, it has not yet been possible to solve all the problems of human origins. We cannot imagine in detail the process of the formation of humanity, although the main stages of its formation are traced quite clearly. In the study of periods of anthropogenesis, modern archaeological methods of dating found human remains are used. The most widely used methods are radioisotope methods (radiocarbon potassium argon). In recent decades, methods of geochemistry, biochemistry, and genetics have been widely used in anthropology. The main stages of anthropogenesis are presented in Table 3.

There are 4 main stages in human evolution:

1. proanthropus - the predecessor of man (Australopithecus - Australopithecus);

2. archanthropus – the oldest man (Homo habilis; Homo erectus);

3. paleoanthropus – ancient man (Homo neanderthalensis);

4. neoanthropus – modern man (Homo sapiens).

According to modern ideas, primates descended from the most ancient insectivorous mammals. The evolution of the order of primates occurred in the Tertiary period of the Cenozoic. The area of ​​their distribution was quite extensive, it covered Europe, Africa, India, and Transcaucasia. About 30 million years ago people lived in forests Parapithecus. They led an arboreal lifestyle and could move on the ground. Perhaps they were the starting point for the further evolution of primates. Divergent development went in the directions towards Propliopithecus and Dryopithecus. The first gave rise to modern gibbons, and Dryopithecus gave rise to modern gorillas and were the ancestors of chimpanzees. One of the species of Dryopithecus was the original ancestral form of modern hominids.

Large fossil monkeys are considered an intermediate form - Ramapithecus, who lived 10-14 million years ago in India. These were omnivores with weak canine development and a long period of childhood preceding puberty. Ramapithecus moved to

Table 3. Main stages of human evolution:

mostly on two legs. The freed upper limbs began to be used to use natural objects (sticks, stones, bones) as tools for obtaining food and protection. In parallel, there was a progressive development of higher nervous activity.

The immediate predecessor of humans is considered to be the ancient primates - Australopithecines - southern monkeys. They were first described by R. Dart in 1924. The skeletal structure of Australopithecines is more similar to humans than to modern apes. They walked on two legs and were mostly right-handed. Hands were used as an organ of labor, but they used ready-made natural tools. Australopithecines were a fairly diverse group. There are Australopithecus africanus (Australopithecus africanus), Australopithecus afarensis, and Australopithecus robustus. A review of the latest finds indicates that in the process of transition from Australopthecus to humans one can see a kind of outbreak of morphogenesis. Many of the ancestors coexist with their descendants - with humans. Its cradle turned out to be Eastern and Southern Africa. Fossil remains of pre-humans are absent from Western and Equatorial Africa. Its close relatives, chimpanzees and gorillas, lived and still live here.

In 1959-1960 anthropologists the Leakeys in Tanzania discovered the skull of a higher primate more advanced than australopithecus. Primitive stone tools made from pebbles chipped at one angle (Olduvai culture) were also found here. The age of this primate is about 1.75-2.0 million years. He was given the species name Homo habilis - Homo habilis, since the ability to produce artificial tools is not inherent in any species of animal.

During the long period of the Anthropocene era, the most ancient people, the Archanthropes, existed on a vast territory of the Eastern Hemisphere. The first discovery of bone remains was made on the island. Java by the Dutch physician and anatomist E. Dubois in 1891-1893. These include Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, and Heidelberg man. The earliest forms appeared about 700 thousand years ago, on the eve of the great continental glaciations. Currently, they are all combined into one species, Homo erectus - Homo erectus. They used fire and stone tools, hunted collectively, and had primitive speech (Acheulean culture). The earliest people spread widely across the Earth, occupying the territories of Europe, Africa, and Asia. Despite the significant progress of Homo erectus, the evolution of archanthropes was guided exclusively by biological factors, including strict natural selection and brutal intraspecific struggle for existence.

The predecessor of modern man in Western Europe was Neanderthal (paleoanthropus)– Homo neandertalensis, who alone inhabited this area during the first Würm glaciation (70-40 thousand years ago). Its fossil remains were found in the Neanderthal River valley near Düsseldorf in Germany in 1848, and date back to the Middle Paleolithic period about 200 thousand years ago. Classic Neanderthals had a large brain. The Neanderthal was also somewhat similar to Homo erectus with its powerful supraorbital ridges and sloping forehead. He had a clearly defined occipital protuberance, to which the neck muscles were attached. The wide front part is strongly pushed forward. They were short, muscular and stocky. Physical characteristics and advanced technical techniques allowed them to exist in cold climates. Despite this, this group apparently became extinct about 30 thousand years ago. Some scientists believe that they were destroyed by a new modern type of man, or could interbreed with him.

Neanderthals also lived in southwest Asia and possibly Africa, but some of them lacked the rugged features that characterized the classical European form. Neanderthal tools are called Mousterian after finds in the Le Moustier cave in France. They were a step forward from the earlier hack and chopper cultures. Major innovations included a variety of specialized, finely finished stone tools. Their products could serve various purposes: for slaughtering game, skinning and cutting up carcasses, making wooden tools and clothing.

European Neanderthals were able to survive the harsh winters of the Ice Age by creating a warm microclimate for themselves using clothing and heated homes. Burials, rituals and the beginnings of art suggest that Neanderthals were more self-aware, socially engaged and generally more capable of abstract thought than their ancestor Homo erectus.

Apparently, the classical Neanderthals were a dead-end branch in the human ancestry, however, not being separated from the progressive forms of paleoanthropes by a species reproductive barrier, they could partially merge with the latter. It is believed that the ancestors of modern humans were progressive forms of Neanderthals; bone remains were found in the Middle East in Palestine. The Mediterranean region was also more favorable for living. Progressive evolution took place here intensively, as evidenced by finds in the caves of Mount Carmel. The structure of their skull combines some typical features of Neanderthals (protruding supraorbital ridge, significant width of the occiput) with the features of a new, modern person (straighter forehead, protruding chin, higher cranial vault). Some representatives of Asian and African Neanderthals had straighter and thinner limbs, less pronounced supraorbital ridges and shortened, less massive skulls. Approximately 40 thousand years ago, the last Neanderthals of Southwest Asia apparently existed simultaneously with modern humans.

Modern people - neoanthropes appeared in the Upper Paleolithic (100-50 thousand years ago). According to the compromise theory, modern man originated in one place, but his interbreeding with older local forms led to the emergence of modern races. Their earliest representatives are Cro-Magnons (found on the territory of France in the Cro-Magnon grotto in 1868). This early form Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens) characterized by the large size of the skull (about 1400 cm 3), the development of the frontal part, the absence of supraorbital ridges, and a protruding chin. The average height is about 180 cm, the bones of the skeleton are more massive than those of modern humans. Compared to Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons had a longer period of childhood, which required more advanced forms of its organization and provided the opportunity for learning and other social forms of inheritance. Between paleoanthropes and neoanthropes, a qualitative leap in the development of not only the physical type, but also material culture and social relations is clearly visible.

During this period, complex composite tools appeared - dart tips, flint inserts, spear throwers. Tools for the production of tools appear. This indicates high intelligence and consciousness. Art emerges: drawings of animals, group compositions, and hunting scenes were found on the walls of caves. Cave painting is distinguished by realism and dynamism. Sculptural images of animals and birds and female figurines also appear. At Upper Paleolithic sites, burials were found with richly decorated objects placed in the grave. Consequently, the people of this era had complex ideological ideas that were reflected in rituals.

The primitive communal system is characterized by clan organization. By improving material culture, man adapted better and better to the environment, protecting himself from unfavorable conditions. Not biological, but social factors began to exert an increasing influence.

It is impossible to determine from fossil remains why our subspecies was so successful. Indeed, over 10 thousand years ago, during the Paleolithic era, our ancestors still roamed in herds, hunting and gathering. And yet they were able to conquer all the continents, with the exception of Antarctica, and created such tools, techniques and new forms of behavior that were to radically transform the way people lived and cause a sharp increase in population.

State (final) certification of 2012 (in a new form) in BIOLOGY of students who have mastered basic general education

programs

Demo version

control measuring materials for state (final) certification in 2012

(in a new form) in BIOLOGY for students who have mastered the basic general education programs of basic general education

prepared by the Federal State Scientific Institution "FEDERAL INSTITUTE OF PEDAGOGICAL MEASUREMENTS"

Demonstration version of control measuring materials for carrying out

in 2012, state (final) certification (in a new form) in BIOLOGY of students who have completed basic general education programs of basic general education

Explanations for the demo version of the examination paper

When reviewing the 2012 demo version, please be aware that the tasks included in the demo version do not reflect all of the content elements that will be tested using the CMM options in 2012. Complete list of content elements that may be tested on the 2012 exam ., is given in the codifier of elements of the content of the examination work for graduates of IX grades of general education institutions in biology, posted on the website: www.fipi.ru.

The demo version is intended to enable any examination participant and the general public to get an idea of ​​the structure of the examination paper, the number and form of tasks, as well as their level of difficulty. The given criteria for assessing the completion of tasks with a detailed answer, included in the demo version of the examination paper, will allow you to get an idea of ​​the requirements for the completeness and correctness of recording a detailed answer.

answer. This information gives graduates the opportunity to develop a strategy for preparing for the biology exam.

Demo version 2012 Instructions for performing the work

You are given 2 hours 20 minutes (140 minutes) to complete the exam paper in biology. The work consists of 3 parts, including 31 tasks.

Part 1 contains 24 tasks (A1–A24). For each task there are 4 possible answers, of which only 1 is correct. When completing tasks in Part 1, circle the number of the selected answer in the exam paper. If you circled the wrong number, cross out the circled number and then circle the number for the correct answer.

Part 2 includes 4 short answer tasks (Q1–Q4). For tasks in Part 2, the answer is written down in the exam paper in the space provided. If you write down an incorrect answer, cross it out and write a new one next to it.

Part 3 contains 3 tasks (C1–C3), to which you should give a detailed answer. Assignments are completed on a separate sheet.

When completing assignments, you can use a draft. Please note that entries in the draft will not be taken into account when assessing the work.

We advise you to complete the tasks in the order in which they are given. To save time, skip a task that you cannot complete immediately and move on to the next one. If you have time left after completing all the work, you can return to the missed tasks.

The points you receive for completed tasks are summed up. Try to complete as many tasks as possible and score the most points.

We wish you success!

© 2012 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation

A5 What happens in leaves during respiration?

1) carbon dioxide is absorbed

2) organic substances are formed

3) oxygen is released

4) energy is released

A6 The phylum of invertebrates, whose representatives for the first time in the animal world had a through digestive system -

1) Flatworms

2) Arthropods

3) Roundworms

4) Annelids

A7 What is the function of air sacs in birds?

1) reduce bird body density

2) help the bird's orientation in flight

3) promote the accumulation of oxygen in the body

4) ensure the movement of blood through the vessels

A8 Which of the representatives of the genus Man belongs to the presented images of rock paintings?

1) Cro-Magnon

2) Pithecanthropus

3) Australopithecus

4) Neanderthal

A9 Which of the following is an organ of the human body?

1) heart muscle

2) duodenum

3) ciliated epithelium

4) neuron

A10 Nerve nodes in the human nervous system are classified as

1) cerebral cortex

2) central department

3) peripheral department

4) subcortical nuclei

A11 Which joint is shown on the x-ray?

1) pelvic

2) knee

3) shoulder

A12 You can often find special stripes on the uniforms of military personnel, rescuers, firefighters, and security guards. What does the patch shown in the assignment mean?

1) Rh negative

2) its owner has the second blood group, Rh positive

3) Rh negative

4) its owner has a third blood group, Rh positive

A13 The reverse movement of blood from the ventricles into the atria of the heart is prevented

1) pericardium

2) flap valves

3) septum of the heart muscle

4) semilunar valves

© 2012 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation

A14 What process occurs in the anatomical formation shown in the figure?

1) liberation from toxic food substances

2) nutrient absorption

3) blood filtration

4) exchange of gases

A16 Olfactory receptors in the human body are located in

1) oral cavity

2) soft palate area

3) maxillary sinuses

4) nasal cavity

A17 The drawings (1–3) by the Danish cartoonist H. Bitstrup depict the reaction of a man whose hat was sat on by a passer-by. Determine the type of temperament from a person’s external reaction.

© 2012 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation

A18 In what part of the eyeball does the image focus in people suffering from farsightedness?

1) in the area of ​​the macula

2) behind the retina

3) in the blind spot area

4) in front of the retina

A19 What needs to be done to clear the victim’s airways of water?

1) Place the victim in a sitting position and place a cushion under his head

2) place the victim on the rescuer's knee face down and press on the back

3) apply a pressure bandage to the chest and elevate the victim’s legs

4) place a warm heating pad on the victim’s chest and wrap him in a blanket

A20 For the mountain hare, the abiotic factor is

1) fox

2) spruce

3) snow

4) person

A21 Which of the following food chains is correct?

1) leaf litter → earthworm → mole → fox

2) earthworm → leaf litter → mole → fox

3) leaf litter → mole → fox → earthworm

4) fox → mole → earthworm → leaf litter

© 2012 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Study the graph of the dependence of metabolic rate on the running distance over which an athlete runs. (The x-axis represents the length of the distance, and the y-axis represents the metabolic rate.) Which of the following descriptions of metabolic intensity most accurately describes this relationship?

1) decreases, reaching its minimum value, after which it also increases sharply

2) grows sharply, reaching its maximum value, after which it also sharply decreases

3) decreases sharply and then reaches constant levels

4) throughout its entire length it gradually decreases, reaching minimum levels

The guiding factor of evolution is

1) mutational variability

2) modification variability

3) geographical isolation

4) natural selection

© 2012 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation

When completing tasks with a short answer (B1–B4), write down the answer as indicated in the text of the task.

B1 Which of the following can cause AIDS? Choose three correct answers out of six and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) using a public toilet

2) kiss on the cheek of an AIDS patient

3) sharing a desk with an AIDS patient

4) using someone else's toothbrush

5) blood transfusion

6) ear piercing

© 2012 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation

© 2012 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation

For answers to tasks C1–C3, use a separate sheet. First write down the number of the task (C1, etc.), and then the answer to it.

C1 When the ambient temperature rises, in order to avoid overheating, the heat transfer from the human body increases. In what ways is it carried out?

Read the text and complete task C2.

FERTILIZERS

Mineral fertilizers, unlike organic ones, have a short-term effect, so they are applied before sowing seeds or simultaneously with them, as well as during plant growth in the form of fertilizing. Potassium (ash) and nitrogen (saltpeter) fertilizers quickly dissolve in water, penetrate into the soil and are absorbed by plant roots. They are applied to the soil in the spring. Phosphorus fertilizers, such as superphosphate, have poor solubility, so they are applied to the soil in the fall. Mineral fertilizers have different effects on the growth and development of plants. Potassium fertilizers increase the outflow of organic matter from leaves to roots and crops. Nitrogen fertilizers stimulate the growth of shoots with leaves and buds. The application of phosphorus fertilizers affects flowering, increases the likelihood of fertilization, and accelerates the ripening of fruits and seeds.

© 2012 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Using the table “Comparative composition of blood plasma, primary and secondary urine of the human body,” answer the following questions.

Comparative composition of blood plasma, primary and secondary urine of the human body (in%)

© 2012 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation

© 2012 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Assessment system for examination work in biology Part 1

For correct completion of each of tasks A1–A24, 1 point is awarded.

© 2012 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation

CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING COMPLETION OF TASKS WITH DETAILED ANSWER

The tasks in this part are graded depending on the completeness and correctness of the answer.

© 2012 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation

FERTILIZERS

Soil is the top layer of earth that is fertile. The productivity of cultivated crops depends on it. However, every year, along with the harvest, a person removes a certain amount of minerals from the soil. To replenish their content, organic and mineral fertilizers are added to the soil.

Organic fertilizers not only enrich the soil with necessary substances, but also improve its structure and retain moisture in the soil. Organic fertilizers are complex in their composition, since they contain all the chemical elements necessary for the plant, but in the form of organic compounds. These compounds are converted into minerals dissolved in water available to plants due to the activity of soil bacteria. For example, it is enough to add humus to the soil once to ensure its fertility for several years.

Mineral fertilizers, unlike organic ones, have a short-term effect, so they are applied before sowing seeds or simultaneously with them, as well as during plant growth in the form of fertilizing. Potassium (ash) and nitrogen (saltpeter) fertilizers quickly dissolve in water, penetrate into the soil and are absorbed by plant roots. They are applied to the soil in the spring. Phosphorus fertilizers, such as superphosphate, have poor solubility, so they are applied to the soil in the fall. Mineral fertilizers have different effects on the growth and development of plants. Potassium fertilizers increase the outflow of organic matter from leaves to roots and crops. Nitrogen fertilizers stimulate the growth of shoots with leaves and buds. The application of phosphorus fertilizers affects flowering, increases the likelihood of fertilization, and accelerates the ripening of fruits and seeds.

When applying fertilizers, caution and accurate knowledge of the needs of plants and the supply of nutrients in the soil are necessary. “Overfeeding” plants is just as harmful as a lack of any nutrients.

C2 Using the content of the text “Fertilizer”, answer the following questions.

1. What is meant by fertility in the text?

2. Organic and mineral fertilizers have an effect on the soil. In what ways are their influences similar and in what ways are they different?

3. The farmer wants to get the maximum carrot yield and therefore decided to add fertilizer to the soil. He acquired ash and humus. Which of these fertilizers should be added to the soil in the fall, and which in the spring, before planting carrot seeds? Justify your answer.

© 2012 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation

The concentration of which substance remains virtually unchanged as blood plasma is converted into secondary urine? What substance and why is absent from secondary urine compared to primary urine?

© 2012 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation

© 2012 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation

To date, there is no exact hypothesis about how and where they appeared. ancient human ancestors. Most scientists are of the opinion that humans and monkeys have a common ancestor. It is believed that somewhere 5-8 million years ago, the evolution of anthropoid apes went in two independent directions. Some of them remained to live in the animal world, and the rest, after millions of years, turned into people.

Rice. 1 - Human evolution

Dryopithecus

One of the ancient ancestors of man is Dryopithecus "tree monkey"(Fig. 2), who lived in Africa and Europe 25 million years ago. He led a herd lifestyle and was strikingly similar to a modern chimpanzee. Due to the fact that he constantly lived in trees, his forelimbs could turn in any direction, which played an important role in the further formation of man.

Features of Dryopithecus:

• developed upper limbs contributed to the emergence of the ability to manipulate objects;
• Coordination improved and color vision developed. There was a transition from a herd to a social way of life, as a result of which speech sounds began to develop;
• brain size increased;
• a thin layer of enamel on the teeth of Dryopithecus indicates the predominance of food of plant origin in its diet.

Rice. 2 - Dryopithecus - an early human ancestor

The remains of Australopithecus (Fig. 3) were discovered in Africa. Lived approximately 3-5.5 million years ago. He walked on his feet, but his arms were much longer than those of modern humans. The climate of Africa gradually changed and became drier, which resulted in a decrease in forests. More than half of the apes have adapted to new living conditions in open space. Due to the hot climate, ancient human ancestors, they mainly began to move on their feet, which saved them from overheating of the sun (the area of ​​their back is much larger than the top of their head). As a result, this led to a decrease in sweating, thereby reducing water consumption.

Features of Australopithecus:

• knew how to use primitive objects of labor: sticks, stones, and so on;
• the brain was 3 times smaller than the brain of modern humans, but much larger than the brain of large monkeys of our time;
• was distinguished by his short stature: 110-150 cm, and body weight could be from 20 to 50 kg;
• ate plant and meat foods;
• earned his own food using tools he made himself;
• lifespan - 18-20 years.

Rice. 3 - Australopithecus

(Fig. 4) lived approximately 2-2.5 million years ago. The posture of his figure was very close to that of a human. He walked in an upright position, which is where he got his second name - “homo erectus.” Habitat Africa, as well as some places in Asia and Europe. In the Olduvai Gorge (East Africa), things made from partially processed pebbles were discovered next to the remains of Homo habilis. This suggests that the ancient ancestors of man of that time already knew how to create simple objects of labor and hunting, and select raw materials for their manufacture. Presumably a direct descendant of Australopithecus.

Features of a “skillful” person:

• brain size - 600 cm²;
• the facial part of the skull became smaller, giving way to the brain part;
• the teeth are not very large, like those of Australopithecus;
• was an omnivore;
• the foot acquired an arch, which contributed to better walking on two limbs;
• the hand has become more developed, thereby expanding its grasping abilities, and the grip strength has increased;
• although the larynx was not yet able to reproduce speech, the part of the brain responsible for this was finally formed.

Rice. 4 - A “skillful” person

Homo erectus

Another name - Erectus(Fig. 5). Without a doubt he is considered a representative of the human race. Existed 1 million - 300 years ago. It got its name from the final transition to straight walking.

Features of Homo erectus:

• possessed the ability to speak and think abstractly;
• knew how to create quite complex objects of labor and handle fire. There is an assumption that an upright man could make fire on his own;
• appearance resembles the features of modern people. However, there are significant differences: the walls of the skull are quite thick, the frontal bone is located lower and has massive supraorbital protrusions. The heavy lower jaw is larger, and the chin protuberance is almost invisible;
• males were much larger than females;
• height is about 150-180 cm, brain size has increased to 1100 cm³.

The lifestyle of the erect walking ancestor of man consisted of hunting and gathering edible plants, berries, and mushrooms. He lived in social groups, which contributed to the formation of speech. Perhaps it was supplanted by Neanderthals 300 thousand years ago, but this version does not have solid arguments.

Rice. 5 - Erectus

Pithecanthropus

Pithecanthropus - is rightfully considered one of ancient human ancestors. This is one of the varieties of upright man. Habitat: Southeast Asia, lived about 500-700 thousand years ago. The remains of the “ape-man” were first found on the island of Java. It is assumed that he is not a direct ancestor of modern humanity, most likely he can be considered our “cousin”.

Sinanthropus

Another species of Homo erectus. Existed 600-400 thousand years ago in the current territory of China. Sinanthropus are relatively developed ancient ancestors of humans.

A representative of the human race, he was previously considered a subspecies of Homo sapiens. Its habitat was Europe and North Africa more than 100 thousand years ago. The period of life of the Neanderthals fell just during the Ice Age; accordingly, in harsh climatic conditions, they had to take care of making clothes and building housing. The main food is meat. It does not relate to the direct relationship of Homo sapiens, but it could well have lived next to the Cro-Magnons, which contributed to their mutual crossing. Some scientists believe that there was a constant struggle between Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons, which led to the extinction of Neanderthals. It is assumed that both species hunted each other. Neanderthals (Fig. 6) had a massive, large physique, compared to Cro-Magnons.

Features of Neanderthals:

• brain size - 1200-1600 cm³;
• height - approximately 150 cm;
• due to the large brain, the skull had an elongated backward shape. True, the frontal bone was low, the cheekbones were wide, and the jaw itself was large. The chin had a weakly defined character, and the brow ridge had an impressive protrusion.

Rice. 6 - Neanderthal

Neanderthals led a cultural life: musical instruments were discovered during excavations. Religion was also present, as indicated by special rituals at the funerals of their fellow tribesmen. There is evidence that these ancient human ancestors had medical knowledge. For example, they knew how to heal fractures.

Direct descendant of Homo sapiens. Existed approximately 40 thousand years ago.

Features of Cro-Magnons (Fig. 7):

• had a more developed human appearance. Distinctive features: a fairly high straight forehead, absence of a brow ridge, a more distinctly shaped chin protuberance;
• height - 180 cm, but body weight is much less than that of Neanderthals;
• brain size was 1400-1900 cm³;
• spoke clearly;
• considered the founder of the first true human cell;
• lived in groups of 100 people, so to speak, tribal communities, building the first villages;
• engaged in the construction of huts and dugouts, using the skins of killed animals. He created clothing, household items and hunting tools;
• knew agriculture;
• he went hunting with a group of fellow tribesmen, chasing and driving the animal into a prepared trap. Over time, he learned to domesticate animals;
• had its own highly developed culture, which has survived to this day in the form of rock paintings and clay sculptures;
• performed rituals during the burial of relatives. It follows from this that the Cro-Magnons, like the Neanderthals, believed in another life after death;

Science officially believes that the Cro-Magnon man is a direct descendant of modern people.

The ancient ancestors of humans will be discussed in more detail in the following lectures.

Rice. 7 - Cro-Magnon

Difficulties of classification

It would seem that no problems should arise with the classification of the animal species known as Homo sapiens sapiens (reasonable man). It would seem, what could be simpler? It belongs to the chordates (subphylum vertebrates), to the class of mammals, to the order of primates (humanoids). In more detail, his family is hominids. So, his race is human, his species is intelligent. But the question arises: how is it different from others? At least from the same Neanderthals? Were extinct species of humans really that unintelligent? Can a Neanderthal be called a distant but direct ancestor of man of our time? Or maybe these two species existed in parallel? Did they interbreed and produce joint offspring? Until work is done to study the genome of these mysterious Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, there will be no answer to this question.

Where did the species “Homo sapiens” appear?

Most scientists believe that the common ancestor of all people, both modern and extinct Neanderthals, appeared in Africa. There, during the Miocene era (this is approximately six or seven million years ago), a group of species separated from the hominids, which subsequently evolved to the genus Homo . First of all, the basis for this point of view was the discovery of the oldest remains of a man called Australopithecus. But soon other finds of ancient people were discovered - Sinanthropus (in China) and Homo heidelbergensis (in Europe). Were these varieties of the same genus?

Were they all ancestors of modern humans or dead-end branches of evolution? One way or another, Homo sapiens appeared much later - forty or forty-five thousand years ago, during the Paleolithic. And the revolutionary difference between homo sapiens and other hominids that move on their hind limbs was that he made tools. His ancestors, however, like some modern monkeys, only used improvised means.

Secrets of the family tree

Even 50 years ago, they taught in school that Homo sapiens descended from Neanderthals. He was often represented as a hairy half-animal, with a sloping skull and protruding jaw. And Homo Neanderthals, in turn, evolved from Pithecanthropus. Soviet science depicted him almost as a monkey: on half-bent legs, completely covered with hair. But if everything is more or less clear with this ancient ancestor, then the relationship between Homo sapiens sapiens and Neanderthals is much more complicated. It turns out that both of these species existed for some time at the same time and even in the same territories. Thus, the hypothesis of the origin of Homo sapiens from Neanderthals requires additional evidence.

Did Homo neanderthalensis belong to the Homo sapiens species?

A more thorough study of the burials of this species showed that the Neanderthal was completely upright. In addition, these people had articulate speech, tools (stone chisels), religious cults (including funeral ones), and primitive art (jewelry). However, he was distinguished from modern man by a number of features. For example, the absence of a chin protrusion, which suggests that the speech of such people was not sufficiently developed. The findings confirm the following facts: Neanderthal man arose one hundred and fifty thousand years ago and flourished until 35-30 thousand years BC. That is, this happened at a time when the species “Homo sapiens sapiens” had already appeared and clearly taken shape. The “Neanderthal” completely disappeared only during the era of the last glaciation (Wurmsky). It is difficult to say what caused his death (after all, the change in climatic conditions affected only Europe). Perhaps the legend of Cain and Abel has deeper roots?

Anthropogenesis (Greek anthropos man, génesis origin), part biological evolution, which led to the emergence of the species Homo sapiens, which separated from other hominids, anthropoid

monkeys and monkeys placental mammals. This is the process of historical and evolutionary formation of the physical type of a person, the initial development of his labor activity, speech, and society.

Stages of human evolution

Scientists claim that modern man did not descend from modern apes, which are characterized by narrow specialization (adaptation to a strictly defined way of life in tropical forests), but from highly organized animals that died out several million years ago - dryopithecus.

According to paleontological finds (fossil remains), about 30 million years ago ancient primates Parapithecus appeared on Earth, living in open spaces and in trees. Their jaws and teeth were similar to those of apes. Parapithecus gave rise to modern gibbons and orangutans, as well as the extinct branch of Dryopithecus. The latter in their development were divided into three lines: one of them led to the modern gorilla, the other to the chimpanzee, and the third to Australopithecus, and from him to man. The relationship of Dryopithecus with humans was established based on a study of the structure of its jaw and teeth, discovered in 1856 in France. The most important stage on the path of transformation of ape-like animals into ancient people was the appearance of upright walking. Due to climate change and forest thinning, a transition has occurred from an arboreal to a terrestrial way of life; in order to better survey the area where human ancestors had many enemies, they had to stand on their hind limbs. Subsequently, natural selection developed and consolidated upright posture, and, as a consequence of this, the hands were freed from the functions of support and movement. This is how Australopithecines arose - the genus to which hominids (family of humans) belong..

Australopithecus

Australopithecines are highly developed bipedal primates that used objects of natural origin as tools (hence, Australopithecines cannot yet be considered human). Bone remains of Australopithecines were first discovered in 1924 in South Africa. They were as tall as a chimpanzee and weighed about 50 kg, their brain volume reached 500 cm3 - according to this feature, Australopithecus is closer to humans than any of the fossil and modern monkeys.

The structure of the pelvic bones and the position of the head were similar to those of humans, indicating an upright position of the body. They lived about 9 million years ago in the open steppes and ate plant and animal foods. The tools of their labor were stones, bones, sticks, jaws without traces of artificial processing.

A skilled man

Not having a narrow specialization of the general structure, Australopithecus gave rise to a more progressive form, called Homo habilis - a skilled man. Its bone remains were discovered in 1959 in Tanzania. Their age is determined to be approximately 2 million years. The height of this creature reached 150 cm. The volume of the brain was 100 cm3 larger than that of australopithecines, the teeth of the human type, the phalanges of the fingers were flattened like those of a person.

Although it combined the characteristics of both monkeys and humans, the transition of this creature to the manufacture of pebble tools (well-made stone) indicates the appearance of its labor activity. They could catch animals, throw stones and perform other actions. The piles of bones found with the Homo habilis fossils indicate that meat became a regular part of their diet. These hominids used crude stone tools.

Homo erectus

Homo erectus is a man who walks upright. the species from which modern humans are believed to have evolved. Its age is 1.5 million years. Its jaws, teeth and brow ridges were still massive, but the brain volume of some individuals was the same as that of modern humans.

Some Homo erectus bones have been found in caves, suggesting its permanent home. In addition to animal bones and fairly well-made stone tools, heaps of charcoal and burnt bones were found in some caves, so, apparently, at this time, Australopithecines had already learned to make fire.

This stage of hominid evolution coincides with the settlement of other colder regions by people from Africa. It would be impossible to survive cold winters without developing complex behaviors or technical skills. Scientists hypothesize that the prehuman brain of Homo erectus was capable of finding social and technical solutions (fire, clothing, food storage, and cave dwelling) to the problems associated with surviving the winter cold.

Thus, all fossil hominids, especially australopithecus, are considered to be the predecessors of humans.

The evolution of the physical characteristics of the first people, including modern man, covers three stages: ancient people, or archanthropes;ancient people, or paleoanthropes;modern people, or neoanthropes.

Archanthropes

The first representative of the archanthropes is Pithecanthropus (Japanese man) - an ape-man who walks upright. His bones were found on the island. Java (Indonesia) in 1891. Initially, its age was determined to be 1 million years, but, according to a more accurate modern estimate, it is slightly more than 400 thousand years old. The height of Pithecanthropus was about 170 cm, the volume of the skull was 900 cm3. Somewhat later, there was Sinanthropus (Chinese man). Numerous remains of it were found in the period 1927 to 1963. in a cave near Beijing. This creature used fire and made stone tools. This group of ancient people also includes Heidelberg Man.

Paleoanthropes

Paleoanthropes - Neanderthals appeared to replace the Archanthropes. 250-100 thousand years ago they were widely distributed throughout Europe. Africa. Western and South Asia. Neanderthals made a variety of stone tools: hand axes, scrapers, pointed points; they used fire and rough clothing. Their brain volume increased to 1400 cm3.

The structural features of the lower jaw show that they had rudimentary speech. They lived in groups of 50-100 individuals and during the advance of glaciers they used caves, driving wild animals out of them.

Neoanthropes and Homo sapiens

Neanderthals were replaced by modern people - Cro-Magnons - or neoanthropes. They appeared about 50 thousand years ago (their bone remains were found in 1868 in France). Cro-Magnons form the only genus of the species Homo Sapiens - Homo sapiens. Their ape-like features were completely smoothed out, there was a characteristic chin protuberance on the lower jaw, indicating their ability to articulate speech, and in the art of making various tools from stone, bone and horn, the Cro-Magnons went far ahead compared to the Neanderthals.

They tamed animals and began to master agriculture, which allowed them to get rid of hunger and obtain a variety of food. Unlike their predecessors, the evolution of Cro-Magnons took place under the great influence of social factors (team unity, mutual support, improvement of work activity, a higher level of thinking).

The emergence of Cro-Magnons is the final stage in the formation of modern humans . The primitive human herd was replaced by the first tribal system, which completed the formation of human society, the further progress of which began to be determined by socio-economic laws.

18) Evidence of the origin of man from animals. Atavisms and rudiments in humans.

TO it is traditionally referred to comparative anatomical, embryological, physiological and biochemical, molecular genetic, paleontological.

1. Comparative anatomical.

The general plan of the human body structure is similar to the body structure of chordates. The skeleton consists of the same sections as those of other mammals. The body cavity is divided by the diaphragm into abdominal and thoracic sections. The nervous system is tubular type. In the middle ear there are three auditory ossicles (hammer, incus, stirrup), there are auricles and associated auricular muscles. Human skin, like other mammals, contains mammary, sebaceous and sweat glands. The circulatory system is closed, there is a four-chambered heart. Confirmation of the animal origin of man is the presence of rudiments and atavisms.

2. Embryological.

In human embryogenesis, the main stages of development characteristic of vertebrates are observed (cleavage, blastula, gastrula, etc.). In the early stages of embryonic development, the human embryo develops signs characteristic of lower vertebrates: notochord, gill slits in the pharyngeal cavity, hollow nerve tube, bilateral symmetry in the structure of the body, smooth surface of the brain. The further development of the embryo exhibits features characteristic of mammals: several pairs of nipples, the presence of hair on the surface of the body, as in all mammals (except monotremes and marsupials), the development of the baby inside the mother’s body and nutrition of the fetus through the placenta.

3. Physiological and biochemical.

In humans and apes, the structure of hemoglobin and other body proteins is very similar. There are similarities in blood groups. The blood of the pygmy chimpanzee (bonobo) of the corresponding group can be transfused to humans. Humans also have the Rh blood antigen (it was first identified in the Rhesus monkey). Apes are close to humans in terms of the duration of pregnancy and the timing of puberty.

4. Molecular genetic.

All apes have a diploid number of chromosomes 2 n = 48. In humans, 2 n = 46 (it has been established that chromosome 2 in humans is formed by the fusion of two chromosomes, homologous to those in chimpanzees). There is a high degree of homology in the primary structure of genes (more than 90% of human and chimpanzee genes are similar to each other).

5. Paleontological.

Numerous fossil remains have been found (individual bones, teeth, skeletal fragments, tools, etc.), which make it possible to compile an evolutionary series of ancestral forms of modern humans and explain the main directions of their evolution.

Difference between humans and animals

Hereditary changes that arose during evolution under the control of natural selection contributed to the appearance of upright posture in humans, the freeing of hands, the development and enlargement of the brain skull, and the reduction of its facial part. At the same time, humans developed a need for the systematic production of tools, which contributed to the improvement of the structure and function of the hand, brain, speech apparatus, mental activity and the emergence of speech. Binocular (stereoscopic) color vision, which was present in human ancestors, played a significant role in the development of the brain and hand.

Atavisms and rudiments in humans.

Rudiments are organs that have lost their basic significance in the process of evolutionary development of the organism.

Many vestigial organs are not completely useless and perform some minor functions with the help of structures apparently intended for more complex purposes.

Atavism is the appearance in an individual of characteristics characteristic of distant ancestors, but absent in nearby ones.

The appearance of atavisms is explained by the fact that the genes responsible for this trait are preserved in the DNA, but do not function because they are suppressed by the action of other genes.

Rudiments in humans:

∙ caudal vertebrae;

∙ some humans have a vestigial tail muscle, extensor coccygis, identical to the muscles that move the tail in other mammals. It is attached to the tailbone, but since the tailbone in humans can hardly move, this muscle is useless to humans;

∙ body hair;

∙ special muscles arrectores pilorum, which in our ancestors served to “raise the fur on end” (this is useful for thermoregulation, and also helps animals look larger - to intimidate predators and competitors). In humans, contraction of these muscles results in “goose bumps,” which is unlikely to have some adaptive value;

∙ three ear muscles that allowed our ancestors to move their ears. There are people who know how to use these muscles. This helps animals with large ears determine the direction of the sound source, but in humans this ability can only be used for fun;

∙ Morgani ventricles of the larynx;

∙ vermiform appendix of the cecum (appendix). Long-term observations have shown that removal of the appendix does not have a significant effect on people’s life expectancy and health, except for the fact that after this operation people, on average, suffer from colitis slightly less often;

∙ grasping reflex in newborns (it helps baby monkeys hold on to their mother’s fur);

∙ hiccups: we inherited this reflex movement from our distant ancestors - amphibians. In a tadpole, this reflex allows a portion of water to quickly pass through the gill slits. In both humans and tadpoles, this reflex is controlled by the same part of the brain and can be suppressed by the same means (for example, inhaling carbon dioxide or straightening the chest);

∙ lanugo: hair growth that develops in a human embryo on almost the entire body except the palms and soles of the feet, and disappears shortly before birth (premature babies are sometimes born with lanugo).

Examples of atavisms:

∙ caudal appendage in humans;

∙ continuous hair on the human body;

∙ additional pairs of mammary glands;

19. Aging of the body. Theories of aging. Geriatrics and gerontology.

Old age is a stage of individual development, upon reaching which the body experiences natural changes in its physical condition, appearance, and emotional sphere. Senile changes become obvious and increase in the post-reproductive period of ontogenesis. However, the beginning of the decline of reproductive function or even its complete loss cannot serve as the lower limit of old age. Indeed, menopause in women, which consists in the cessation of the release of mature eggs from the ovary and, accordingly, the cessation of monthly bleeding, determines the end of the reproductive period of life. However, by the time menopause is reached, most functions and external signs are far from reaching the state characteristic of old people. On the other hand, many of the changes we associate with old age begin before the decline in reproductive function. This applies both to physical signs (greying of hair, development of farsightedness) and to the functions of various organs. For example, in men, a decrease in the release of male sex hormones by the gonads and an increase in the release of gonadotropic hormones by the pituitary gland, which is typical for an old organism, begins at about 25 years of age.

There are chronological and biological (physiological) ages.

According to the modern classification, based on the assessment of many average indicators of the state of the body, people whose chronological age has reached 60-74 years are called elderly, 75-89 years old - old, over 90 years old - centenarians. Accurate determination of biological age is complicated by the fact that individual signs of old age appear at different chronological ages and are characterized by different rates of increase. In addition, age-related changes in even one trait are subject to significant gender and individual variations.

Let's consider such a sign as the firmness (elasticity) of the skin. In this case, the same biological age is reached by a woman at about 30 years old, and by a man at 80. That is why, first of all, women need competent and constant skin care. In order to determine biological age, which is necessary for judging the rate of aging, batteries of tests are used, conducting a combined assessment of many signs that naturally change during life.

The basis of such batteries are complex functional indicators, the state of which depends on the coordinated activity of several body systems. Simple tests are usually less informative. For example, the speed of propagation of a nerve impulse, which depends on the state of the nerve fiber, decreases in the age range of 20-90 years by 10%, while the vital capacity of the lungs, determined by the coordinated work of the respiratory, nervous and muscular systems, decreases by 50%.

The state of old age is achieved through changes that make up the content of the aging process. This process covers all levels of the structural organization of an individual - molecular, subcellular, cellular, tissue, organ. The overall result of numerous partial manifestations of aging at the level of the whole organism is an increasing decrease in the viability of an individual with age, a decrease in the effectiveness of adaptive, homeostatic mechanisms. It has been shown, for example, that young rats, after immersion in ice water for 3 minutes, restore their body temperature in about 1 hour. Middle-aged animals require 1.5 hours, and old ones - about 2 hours.

In general, aging leads to a progressive increase in the likelihood of death. Thus, the biological meaning of aging is that it makes the death of the organism inevitable. The latter is a universal way to limit the participation of a multicellular organism in reproduction. Without death, there would be no change of generations - one of the main conditions of the evolutionary process.

Age-related changes in the aging process do not in all cases involve a decrease in the body's adaptability. In the course of life, humans and higher vertebrates gain experience and develop the ability to avoid potentially dangerous situations. The immune system is also interesting in this regard. Although its effectiveness generally decreases after the organism reaches a state of maturity, thanks to “immunological memory” in relation to some infections, old individuals may be more protected than young ones.

HYPOTHESES EXPLAINING THE MECHANISMS OF AGING

Gerontology knows at least 500 hypotheses that explain both the root cause and the mechanisms of aging of the body. The vast majority of them have not stood the test of time and are of purely historical interest. These, in particular, include hypotheses linking aging with the consumption of a special substance of cell nuclei, the fear of death, the loss of some non-renewable substances received by the body at the time of fertilization, self-poisoning with waste products, and the toxicity of products formed under the influence of the microflora of the large intestine. Hypotheses of scientific value today correspond to one of two main directions.

Some authors consider aging as a stochastic process of age-related accumulation of “errors” that inevitably occur during normal life processes, as well as damage to biological mechanisms under the influence of internal (spontaneous mutations) or external (ionizing radiation) factors. Stochasticity is determined by the random nature of changes in time and location in the body. In various versions of hypotheses in this direction, the primary role is assigned to various intracellular structures, the primary damage of which determines functional disorders at the cellular, tissue and organ levels. First of all, this is the genetic apparatus of cells (hypothesis of somatic mutations). Many researchers associate the initial changes in the aging of the body with changes in the structure and, consequently, the physicochemical and biological properties of macromolecules: DNA, RNA, chromatin proteins, cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins, enzymes. Cell membrane lipids, which are often targets for free radicals, also stand out. Failures in the functioning of receptors, in particular cell membranes, disrupt the effectiveness of regulatory mechanisms, which leads to a mismatch in vital processes.

The direction under consideration also includes hypotheses that see the fundamental basis of aging in the increasing wear and tear of structures with age, ranging from macromolecules to the organism as a whole, ultimately leading to a state incompatible with life. This view, however, is too straightforward.

Let us recall that the emergence and accumulation of mutational changes in DNA are resisted by natural antimutational mechanisms, and the harmful consequences of the formation of free radicals

are reduced due to the functioning of antioxidant mechanisms. Thus, if the “concept of wear and tear” of biological structures correctly reflects the essence of aging, then the result in the form of a greater or lesser rate of senile changes, the age at which these changes become obvious in different people, is a consequence of the superposition of destructive and protective processes. In this case, the wear hypothesis inevitably includes

factors such as genetic predisposition, conditions and even lifestyle, on which, as we have seen, the rate of aging depends.

The second direction is represented by genetic or program hypotheses, according to which the aging process is under direct genetic control. This control, according to one view, is carried out using special genes. According to other views, it is associated with the presence of special genetic programs, as is the case with other stages of ontogenesis, for example embryonic.

There is evidence in favor of the programmed nature of aging, many of which have already been discussed in Section. 8.6.1. Usually they also refer to the presence in nature of species in which, following reproduction, changes rapidly increase, leading to the death of animals. A typical example is Pacific salmon (sockeye salmon, pink salmon), which die after spawning. The triggering mechanism in this case is associated with a change in the secretion regime of sex hormones, which should be considered as a feature of the genetic program of individual development of salmonids, reflecting their ecology, and not as a universal mechanism of aging.

It is noteworthy that castrated pink salmon do not spawn and live 2-3 times longer. It is during these additional years of life that we should expect signs of aging to appear in cells and tissues. Some program hypotheses are based on the assumption that a biological clock functions in the body, in accordance with which age-related changes occur. The role of the “clock” is attributed, in particular, to the thymus gland, which ceases functioning when the body enters adulthood. Another candidate is the nervous system, especially some of its parts (hypothalamus, sympathetic nervous system), the main functional element of which is primarily aging nerve cells. Let us assume that the cessation of thymus functions at a certain age, which is undoubtedly under genetic control, is a signal of the beginning of aging of the body. This, however, does not mean genetic control of the aging process. In the absence of the thymus, immunological control over autoimmune processes is weakened. But in order for these processes to take place, either mutant lymphocytes (DNA damage) or proteins with altered structure and antigenic properties are required.

Gerontology and Geriatrics

Gerontology (from the Greek gerontos - old man) is a branch of biology and medicine that studies the patterns of aging of living beings, including humans. The main areas of gerontology include the study of the main causes, mechanisms and conditions of aging, the search for effective means of increasing life expectancy and extending the period of active working capacity.

Geriatrics (from the Greek iatreia - treatment) is a field of clinical medicine that studies the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases of elderly and senile people.