Late Middle Ages. The Renaissance in the history of San Marino

), and then, seeking solitude, he built himself a small cell on its top and retired from the world. The glory of his holy life attracted crowds of pilgrims to him, and soon a small monastery was formed near his cell. This monastery, named after its founder, undoubtedly existed already at the end of the 6th century and lived an independent life, not politically dependent on any of its neighbors.

During the raids on Italy by the Magyars and Saracens, the community was fortified with ramparts and walls. At the beginning of the second millennium, it was governed by a popular assembly consisting of the heads of families. In the 13th century, the power of the people's assembly was replaced by the power of the elected General Council. From the 11th to the 13th centuries, the republic's possessions expanded somewhat by purchasing small pieces of land from neighbors.

In the 13th century, San Marino, lying between the domains of the pro-Ghibelline counts of Montefeltro (in San Leo), and the pro-Guelph city of Rimini, was involved in a struggle between the two parties. San Marino entered into an alliance with the Counts of Montefeltro, for which it was cursed by Pope Innocent IV.

The popes made several attempts to take possession of San Marino, but without success. The republic was in great danger when Malatesta seized power in Rimini. To defend itself against his designs, San Marino entered into a treaty with Alfonso V of Aragon, King of Naples, and in the ensuing war captured the strong castle of Fiorentino, which belonged to Malatesta; After the war, the castle remained with the republic. Pope Pius II also resorted to her help in the year, in the war against Malatesta; the help turned out to be valuable, and as a result of the war, the villages of Serravalle, Faetano and Montegiardino remained with the Republic.

Standing apart from the theater of struggle in 1859-1860, she survived the unification of Italy and in the year concluded a treaty of good neighborliness and a trade treaty with her; both were renewed in 1872.

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The Republic of San Marino, a state in Europe, on the Apennine Peninsula, is surrounded by the territory of Italy. Founded in 301 by the Dalmatian Marino, who fled the persecution of Christians by Emperor Diocletian, as a religious community independent of the emperor and the pope.… … Geographical encyclopedia

Most Serene Republic of San Marino ... Wikipedia

This term has other meanings, see San Marino (meanings). Most Serene Republic of San Marino Serenissima Repubblica di San Marino ... Wikipedia

SAN MARINO (San Marino), the capital of the Republic of San Marino (see SAN MARINO (state)), is located on the southwestern slope of Mount Titano. Population 4.3 thousand people (2004). State Library. State Archive. Museum of San Marino... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Republic of San Marino, a state in Southern Europe. Located on the Apennine Peninsula in the northeastern foothills of the Tuscan Emilian Apennines and surrounded by Italian territory (between the regions of Marche and Emilia Romagna). Border length 39... ... Collier's Encyclopedia

SAN MARINO- (San Marino) General information The official name is the Republic of San Marino (Italian: La Repubblica di San Marino, English: Republic of San Marino). Located in the southern part of Europe. Area 61.2 km2, population 27.7 thousand people. (est. 2002).… … Encyclopedia of countries of the world

I (San Marino) Republic, the smallest and oldest state in Europe, located in Central Italy, between the province of Forli from the north and Pesaro and Urbino from the south. Space 62 sq. km. Zhit. (1894) 9535, i.e. 154 people. per sq. km; all Catholics... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Ephron

Coordinates: 43°56′06″ N. w. 12°26′56″ E. d. / 43.935° n. w. 12.448889° E. d. ... Wikipedia

The history of the emergence and formation of San Marino. Development and main historical events in San Marino.

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The history of San Marino begins with the legend of Saint Marino, who fled here in the unimaginably distant year 298 from picturesque Dalmatia (now the island of Rab in Croatia) from religious persecution. Having worked for some time on the site of present-day Rimini as a stonemason, he was the first to open quarries on Mount Titano (Monte Titano), where he later built himself a small cell, wanting to retire from the world.

The fame of his holy life began to attract many pilgrims to the mountain, who built their houses around the cell of St. Marino, thereby forming a small mountain monastery. Named after its founder, St. Marino (in Italian: San Marino), this monastery received full independence and political independence at the end of the 6th century.

Middle Ages

For many centuries, the powerful walls of this monastery defended the rights and freedom of its inhabitants. It is known that in 951 Duke Berengar II took refuge in San Marino from Emperor Otto. Then the fortified ramparts of the commune more than once coped with the raids of the Magyars and Saracens. In the 13th century, the commune replaced the power of the people's assembly with a general council. Around the same time, San Marino was expanding its possessions with might and main, acquiring small plots of land from its neighbors - and as a result found itself sandwiched between warring neighbors: the possessions of the Counts of Montefeltro (San Leo), who were supporters of the Ghibellines, and Rimini, which stood for the Guelphs . Having opted for an alliance with the Counts of Montefeltro, San Marino naturally came under the curse of Pope Innocent IV.

Late Middle Ages

Since then, the popes' dislike for this monastery has more than once led to fruitless attempts to capture San Marino. Perhaps the republic faced the greatest danger during the reign of Malatesta in Rimini. To avoid a pitiable fate, San Marino had to conclude a treaty with Alfonso V of Aragon, King of Naples. It was thanks to this coalition that the republic managed to capture the castle of Fiorentino, which belonged to Malatesta, which has since been registered as San Marino. Well, the surrounding villages of Serravalle, Faetano and Montegiardino joined the monastery in 1462, after Pope Pius II resorted to the help of San Marino in his war against Malatesta.

The Renaissance in the history of San Marino

In the 16th century, stubborn popes again tried several times to capture San Marino - and again without success. In 1543, an army of 500 people thought to break into the city at night, but got lost in the gorges of Mount Titano. The day of this bloodless victory is still celebrated in the republic.

On October 8, 1600, San Marino adopted its own constitution, and thirty years later, in 1631, Pope Urban VIII recognized the independence of the republic and granted it freedom from customs duties. However, due to the fact that San Marino continued to provide refuge for fugitives from the lands of the pope, clashes between them arose more than once.

New time

San Marino survived even during the era of revolutionary wars, Napoleon I offered it a friendly alliance, and also did not touch the republic and the Congress of Vienna. It is not surprising that since 1831 San Marino has become a favorite refuge for political emigrants. Thanks to the fact that San Marino stood aloof from the civil strife that lasted in Italy in 1859-1860, the republic survived the unification, concluding a good neighbor agreement in 1862.

San Marino in modern times and today

During the First World War, the Republic of San Marino was an ally of the Entente, and during the Second World War it declared its neutrality, which, however, did not save it from a two-week occupation. In 1951, they thought about opening a large casino in San Marino and building a powerful television and radio station, but Italy protested and declared a blockade of San Marino. So the miniature state had to give in (this time).

Since 1956, San Marino has received the status of a free economic zone with a low level of taxation. And since July 2008, the historical center of the capital of the same name, together with Mount Monte Titano, was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

In a popular presentation, it might sound like this: some time ago, in the mid-3rd or early 4th century, Diocletian gave the order to reconstruct the walls around Rimini, destroyed by Demosthenes, king of Liburnia. Among the many stonemasons brought from Europe to complete the project were two believers, Marino and Leo. This was a period in the history of Christianity when holy men were in abundance, both on earth and on the gallows: extreme forms of investigation were combined with extreme forms of religious behavior, and the saints engaged in self-denial, self-flagellation and fasting beyond measure, all for the sake of glory. God.

Mariino and Leo were a kind of apostles, they devoted their lives to religious self-denial, self-sacrifice, creating miracles, for example, healing the lame and blind, until life took them in different directions (Leo to Montefeltro, and Mariino to Mount Titano). They quickly gathered around them a huge number of followers, and by the end of the 12th century, San Marino had become an independent settlement with its own government, protected from the intervention of archbishops and capture by the armies of neighboring states due to its isolation and inaccessible cliffs.

By the mid-5th century it was a republic governed by a Great Council of 60 people chosen from members of the Arengo, a popular assembly of heads of families. This system of government has survived to this day. Serious attempts to annex the country were made in the 16th century, with Caesar Borgia going so far as to temporarily occupy the country, but San Marino survived the Renaissance as an independent republic, a living relic of the ancient, self-governing Italian city-states.

Ironically, it was Napoleon's capture of the entire Italian territory that helped strengthen San Marino as an independent republic. Either for political reasons, or out of a sense of admiration for the independent-minded residents of San Marino, or (as some suggest) simply amused at the sight of such a small state (as, for example, giants condescendingly tolerate when all sorts of short people run past them and dust them off in face with sand), the Little General proposed to expand the territory of San Marino. A horrified emissary was sent to gratefully decline the Emperor's offer after the Great Council decided that to dine with the devil one must have a very large spoon. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna recognized the independent status of the state of San Marino, and it was as an independent state that San Marino offered political asylum to the Italian nationalist leader, Garibaldi, in 1849. Garibaldi returned from exile to the United States 15 years later to lead the people of Italy to unification.

At the end of the 1940s, despite the fascination with medieval traditions, the republic instantly capitulated to communism, which appeared in the form of a Romanian businessman obsessed with the ideas of changing the state system and Trotskyism. The true motives of Maximo Maxim (or, as his friends called him, "Max to the Maximum") began to emerge when he began to win at the casino (perhaps "bet on Marxism"?), and then, without any obstacles from the tax authorities, became emptying the casinos one by one, filling the coffers of San Marino. Flirting with communism caused a slight ideological tension in the society of San Marino, although the residents of the republic's addiction to communism was fragile, it was a kind of “pink communism”; just as imperceptibly as it entered the slippery road of communism, the republic 12 years later returned back to complete independence from anyone else, of which it is proud to this day.

Story. The most ancient period. The ancient history of San Marino does not differ from the history of its neighboring regions of Italy. Ancient people appeared on the Apennine Peninsula ca. 500 thousand years ago. About 7–6 thousand years BC. Agricultural settlements began to appear on the Adriatic coast, and in 3500–2500 BC. In Northern Italy, a center of metallurgy of the Late Bronze Age developed. In the 13th–9th centuries. BC. this area was in the zone of distribution of the “fields of burial urns” culture. The ancient population was displaced by Italic tribes, one of which, the Umbrians, settled east of the Apennine Mountains. Later, Etruscan settlements appeared in this area. The “Iron Age” took hold in Northern Italy. In the 5th century BC. the Celtic Senone tribe settled south of the Po River. Finally, in the 3rd century. BC. Umbria was conquered by the Romans and became part of the Roman state. Located to the north, the Italian city of Ravenna was in the 5th century. AD the last capital of the Western Roman Empire.

The founder of San Marino is considered to be the Christian stonemason Marin, originally from Loparo on the Dalmatian island of Arbe (modern Rab island in Croatia). At the end of the 3rd century. he, as the legend goes, came to Rimini to work on the construction of the port. He quickly gained authority in the local Christian community, and Bishop Gaudentius appointed him a deacon. Fleeing from the persecution of the Roman authorities, who under Emperor Diocletian (c. 245 - c. 313/316) launched a fierce persecution of Christians, Marinus went to look for a safe place where he could build a church and freely practice Christian worship. He managed to find such a place on Mount Titano, where he settled. Soon other Christian settlers began to join Marin. A settlement arose, and the noble Roman Felicita, in whose possession the mountain was, gave it to the settlers forever, since Marinus cured her children. Marin was the spiritual father and priest of the community. According to legend, it originated in 301.

After the death of the founder, the community did not disintegrate. Its members decided to live in accordance with Marin's covenant: “I leave you free from other people.” The oldest evidence of the existence of a religious monastery is the record of the monk Eugippius (5th–6th centuries), which mentions the monk Basilitius from Mount Titano. Marin was canonized, and the settlement received his name.

In the 9th century the settlement was probably under the patronage of the Duke of Urbino, but then regained its independence. According to the document “Placitum feretranum” (885), stored in the State Archives of San Marino, no one, including the church, had the right to dispose of the inhabitants of the mountain and make claims against them. Apparently, already at this time a general meeting of the inhabitants was meeting - the future Arengo.

In the 10th century Wars in Northern Italy prompted residents to begin strengthening their settlement. The Diploma of Berengaria (951) and the Bull of Honorius II (1126) mention the existence of a fortified town of San Marino. In the 10th–11th centuries. it became a city republic with its own laws. Its main body was Arengo, and executive functions belonged to two consuls (future captain-regents). Their list dates back to 1244. In 1253 the first statutes were adopted. Population growth prompted residents to expand the territory they occupied. They bought two castles from neighboring monasteries and counts - Pennarossa and Casole, as evidenced by sources dating back to 1200. The first handwritten collection of laws adopted by Arengo dates back to 1295.

In the 12th–13th centuries, along with Arengo, new bodies of the republic appeared - narrower in composition: the Council of 60 and the Council of 12. It was they who began to deal with current political issues. Medieval republic. The bitter struggle between the German emperors and the papacy in the 13th century, which engulfed Northern Italy, also affected San Marino. For centuries, the Republic had to fend off neighboring bishops who sought to tax the Sanmarinians and subject them to their judicial power. The victorious opponents of the papacy, the Ghibellines, expelled their opponents, the Guelphs. The inhabitants of Sanmarino entered into an alliance with the Ghibelline bishop Ugolin, and in 1247 Pope Innocent IV excommunicated them from the church. The excommunication was lifted from them two years later in Perugia. It did not intimidate the Sanmarinians; on the contrary, it gave them the will to fight.

The Republic entered into an alliance with the Ghibelline Duke Guido of Montefeltro, and then with his son Federico, against the Guelph Republic of Rimini, which was ruled by tyrants from the Malatesta family. The struggle between them continued until the conclusion of peace in Romagna in 1299.

San Marino had to endure conflicts with the papal throne under Popes Martin IV (1281–1285), Nicholas IV, Boniface VIII (1294–1303) and John XXII (1316–1334). Over the course of 75 years, church authorities cursed the republic four times.

In 1291, Bishop Hildebrand, appointed by Pope Nicholas IV as governor of Romagna, tried to force the Sanmarinians to recognize themselves as subjects of the pope and pay him taxes and quitrents. Residents refused, citing their history and independence. The dispute was examined by the famous jurist Palamede from Rimini, and his verdict was in favor of San Marino. The lawyer stated that the privileges of freedom were granted to St. Marina. In 1296, church governors again tried to subjugate the republic. The Sanmarinos appealed to Pope Boniface VIII, and this time the papal legate confirmed the verdict of Palameda and confirmed the complete freedom and independence of San Marino.

The peace did not last long. In 1303, the Sanmarinians captured several envoys of the church who entered the territory of the republic, and the confrontation flared up with renewed vigor. Success in the war accompanied San Marino. Thanks to its well-trained military forces, the Republic forced Bishop Uberto to sign peace in 1320.

Threats from outside prompted the Sanmarinians to strengthen the fortification of the city. When in the 13th century. There was a danger of being encircled by Malatesta's troops, and construction began on the mountain of two more fortress towers, “Cesta” (“Fratta”) and “Montale,” along with the already existing “Guaita.” From the end of the 13th century. a second ring of fortress walls 1 m thick was built. In the 14th century. New work was carried out to strengthen the fortresses. Cardinal Anglico in 1371 mentioned that the city is located “on a high rock”, on the top of which “rises three powerful fortresses”, inspiring anyone who wants to take them “fear and reverence”.

In the 14th century the alliance between San Marino and the Dukes of Montefeltro was dissolved. Bishop Benvenuto and the Malatesta family offered the Sanmarinians church forgiveness, exemption from taxes on Sanmarinian property outside the republic, and the right to freely engage in trade. In exchange, they demanded that the republic refuse support to their rivals, the rulers of Urbino. The inhabitants rejected these conditions, and the struggle with the Malatesta family continued until 1366. Rulers from this family tormented San Marino for the next hundred years. In 1441–1451, in the midst of a new confrontation between the Malatesta and Montefeltro, a third, thicker city wall was built, which today surrounds the city. It was built taking into account the artillery that had appeared.

In the end, Malatesta's position weakened when it became clear that the rulers of Rimini had deceived their ally, King Alfonso of Aragon of Naples, and deprived him of a large sum of money. Relations between Malatesta and the papacy also deteriorated. Taking advantage of this, the Sanmarines entered into an alliance with Pope Pius II and the King of Naples in 1461 and resumed the war. In 1463 it ended with the heavy defeat of Sigismund Malatesta: the republic captured the castles of Fiorentino, Montegiardino and Serravalle, and the castle of Faetano voluntarily joined San Marino. Since then, the country's borders have not changed. In 1491, the Sanmarinians carried out a reform of legislative provisions.

The struggle for independence. In 1503, the republic was invaded by the troops of Duke Cesare Borgia, who sought to seize the states of Central Italy. Borgia installed his viceroy, Hercules Spavaldo, in power. The occupation did not last long, as the Sanmarines entered into an alliance with the inhabitants of the Duchy of Urbino, who also rebelled against the invaders. In 1542, during the reign of Pope Paul III, he attempted to capture San Marino with a detachment of 500 men under the command of Fabiano de Montesansavino. However, the intention to take the city residents by surprise failed, and the detachment retreated. The representative of the German Emperor Charles V in Rome offered privileges to the republic and persuaded it not to trust the papal servants in Romagna. In 1556, Guidobaldo Rivera, a mercenary of Pope Paul IV, occupied San Marino for some time, but was soon expelled.

When the line of the Dukes of Urbino died out in 1631, its possessions passed to the papacy. The Papal States now surrounded the republic on all sides. In the same year, an agreement was concluded between her and the papacy, according to which the country accepted the patronage of Pope Urban VIII, and he in return recognized its independence and exempted it from customs duties when exporting goods from it to the Papal States.

During this period, the decline of the Republic of San Marino began. Arengo met for the last time on January 9, 1571. Statutes issued at the end of the 16th century deprived him of the power to elect members of the Councils of 60 and 12. From now on, the advisers themselves co-opted new members into their composition, as needed. All power was exercised by the Council of 60, or Great General Council, which officially consisted of 20 nobles, 20 peasants and 20 townspeople. In reality, it included representatives of the urban and rural nobility and the oligarchy. Residents showed increasing indifference to public affairs, many prominent citizens emigrated from the country. The cultural level of the population of San Marino was falling.

In 1739, the republic was subjected to the most severe threat during its entire existence. Sanmarinians P. Lolli and M. Belzoppi, incited by the papal legate of Romagna, Cardinal Alberoni, organized an anti-government conspiracy, but were arrested. The cardinal demanded their release, and having been refused, he arrested Sanmarinese citizens in Romagna and blocked the borders of the republic to prevent the delivery of food. In October 1739, Alberoni's troops, with the support of the clergy and papal supporters, captured San Marino. Residents of the republic were herded into the cathedral to swear an oath to the pope, but they refused. The houses of the most prominent citizens of the republic were looted. The captain-regents Giuseppe Onofri and Gerolamo Gozzi were deposed, arrested and replaced by a gonfaloniere and two guardians. However, they continued to call on the population to resist. A popular uprising broke out. At the same time, the Sanmarinians secretly sent envoys to the pope, seeking the restoration of independence. An inspector was sent from Rome, Cardinal Enrico Enriquez, and then the pope ordered Cardinal Alberoni in February 1740 to leave the territory of San Marino. “You can choke on this republic like a nail,” remarked one of the papal condottieri. These events once again awakened the Sanmarinians from their social lethargy, and the poet Carducci made his famous speech about “eternal freedom.”

The Napoleonic Wars changed at the beginning of the 19th century. international position of San Marino. Walking along the country's border in 1797, Napoleon paid tribute to its republican traditions and declared: "San Marino should be preserved as an example of freedom." He sent his representative Monge to Mount Titano to assure the inhabitants of the republic of his friendship. In 1805, the French emperor received the envoy of San Marino, Antonio Onofri, who arrived in Milan to sign an agreement to expand the trade agreement between San Marino and the Cisalpine Republic. The Sanmarinians were offered to expand their territory at the expense of neighboring Italian regions, but A. Onofri refused, saying: “We don’t need someone else’s. The Republic is content with its poor honesty.” The Emperor also promised to provide grain and artillery to San Marino, but this promise was never fulfilled.

The fall of Napoleon did not affect the status of the country: the Congress of Vienna in 1815 confirmed its independence and the inviolability of its borders.

In the 19th century San Marino served as a refuge for Italian revolutionaries and republicans. In the late 1830s, a branch of the Mazzinist society “Young Italy” arose here. In 1849, after the fall of the Roman Republic, Giuseppe Garibaldi retreated to the territory of San Marino with 2 thousand soldiers of his legion. The country's authorities agreed to provide assistance to the wounded and persecuted, but demanded that the Sanmarinians be spared the hardships of war. Yielding to this demand, Garibaldi announced the dissolution of the legion. The fact that the Italian revolutionary took refuge in San Marino aroused the wrath of Austria. Austrian and papal troops began to surround the republic. However, Garibaldi and 250 of his supporters managed to leave the country 15 minutes before the encirclement was completed. They were conducted by Sanmarinian Nicola Zani. Austria and the papal government did not forgive the republic for its self-will. In 1851, San Marino had to withstand the blockade of Austrian troops, and in 1854 the papal authorities invited the Duke of Tuscany to carry out a military occupation of San Marino as a “place of refuge for liberals.” The threat was averted only due to the fact that the French Emperor Napoleon III sent his envoy to the country and offered it his protection. The situation was aggravated by political unrest in the republic itself in 1853–1854, which was blamed on young adherents of Garibaldi. In 1859, regimes hostile to the republic in neighboring Italian states fell, and it was now surrounded by a single Italian kingdom. In 1862, Italy concluded a treaty of friendship and trade with San Marino, recognizing and guaranteeing the country's independence. This treaty was renewed in 1872 and 1897.

Social movements and political reforms. The period 1865–1885 was relatively favorable for the economy of the republic. The treasury of San Marino was significantly replenished, not least through the trade in awards and titles. Measures were taken to develop economic infrastructure, build roads and public buildings. But at the end of the 19th century. The time has come for an economic recession against the backdrop of the agrarian crisis in Europe. Government funds have declined sharply, leaving many workers unemployed. The difficult social situation increased criticism of the oligarchic government, especially from young people. Demands for political reforms intensified.

The Sanmarinian opposition was initially dominated by adherents of Garibaldi and Mazzini. In 1882, a monument to Garibaldi was erected in the Republic, and local progressives sought permission to raise their banners during this ceremony. The Sanmarine Mazzinists organized their own group, led by a lawyer from Borgo, Giacomo Martelli. They maintained close ties with like-minded people from the Italian city of Rimini and with republican and radical refugees who found refuge in San Marino.

In the 1880s–1890s, the ideas of anarchism spread in the country, and by the end of the 1890s, legal socialist reformists became stronger. The latter found support in the Mutual Aid Society, created back in 1876 and numbering only 128 members at the time of its creation. In 1891 there were already 400 people in it. The leader of the organization was the intellectual Pietro Franciosi (1864–1935), an active supporter of political reforms back in the 1880s. put forward the idea of ​​reviving Arengo. Using part of the income from a savings bank opened in 1892, the Mutual Aid Society expanded its activities to various corners of the social sphere. A grain warehouse for the poor and unemployed was opened (1891), a cheap canteen (1894), labor cooperatives and the Women's Mutual Aid Society (1900), a cash fund for the elderly and disabled workers and the Mount Titano Greening Society (1902), a consortium of workers' houses (1910) , mechanical bakery (1911), Trustee Society at the School of Arts and Crafts (1913), vocational school (1916), etc.

In 1892–1896, the socialists formed a political party, and already in 1898 they openly put forward the goal of “gradually transforming the existing regime into one of the forms of republican democracy.” P. Franciosi proposed restoring the original rights of Arengo, abolishing the nobility, introducing universal suffrage, changing the relationship between church and state and introducing a single income tax. The struggle for representative democracy unfolded under the guise of a campaign to restore Arengo's rights. In 1899, a Petition in support of Arengo was formulated and a corresponding campaign was launched. At the beginning of the 20th century. The social situation in the country worsened even more. The state budget deficit increased continuously. The population increasingly listened to demands for political reforms.

In April 1902, three members of the Great General Council made a proposal to introduce the institution of a popular referendum. During subsequent discussions, it was noted that there was no need to introduce new political institutions in the country and it would be more logical to return to Arengo. This slogan became a unifying slogan for all reformist forces. On March 15, 1903, the Sanmarine Democratic Association (SDA) was created, which put forward demands for the restoration of popular sovereignty and Arengo, the holding of referendums, the implementation of periodic elections of members of the Grand General Council, the democratization of the state and the separation of church and state. The newspaper “Il Titano” became the organ of the SDA, which quickly gained popularity.

Trying to disarm the reformers, the authorities carried out tax reform and took out a loan of 200 thousand liras to eliminate the budget deficit. But financial scandals soon came to light, and the situation worsened again. In September 1905, progressive-minded members of the Great General Council resigned, protesting against the conservative course of the government. In October, supporters of the reforms convened an “open people's assembly”, which was attended by many citizens of San Marino. The “Committee for Arengo” was formed, headed by lawyer Gustavo Babboni and P. Franciosi. He demanded the resignation of the government and the convocation of Arengo. Yielding to public pressure, the authorities were forced to agree to hold Arengo on March 26, 1906 in the form of a referendum to answer the question of whether the population wanted to change the country's constitution. 805 heads of families gathered for this meeting. Most of them were in favor of holding periodic elections of members of the Grand General Council.

On June 10, 1906, the first general elections were held, in which the “Electoral Committee”, formed on the basis of the “Committee for Arengo,” achieved success. However, there was no clear majority in the new parliament. The Socialists, who stood on the far left flank of the reform movement, received 5 seats in the Council. They proposed a list of necessary changes, starting with the separation of church and state.

The new authorities entered into an agreement with Italy that provided San Marino with more favorable customs payments, organized an international lottery, which significantly replenished the state treasury, introduced the metric system of measures, abolished the privileges of holders of noble titles, and also adopted a new law granting citizenship to foreigners.

However, the anti-clerical demands of the socialists did not meet with the understanding of their more moderate democratic allies. At the end of 1907, their coalition collapsed, and the socialists left the “democratic group” in the Council. In 1908, by-elections were held for the five vacant seats, and the Socialists were successful. They called for the abolition of the teaching of God's law in schools and the introduction of elections of captain-regents by members of the Council (until then determined by lot). The Grand General Council voted to introduce the post of Inspector of Public Services (in reality, he took up his duties only in 1913), and in 1909 adopted laws regulating the work of guides (this marked the beginning of the development of tourism) and transport.

On October 8, 1908, the teaching of God's law in the primary schools of the republic was abolished. On August 3, 1909, this decision was officially approved by the Council.

Outraged Catholics, relying on the support of rural residents, intensified their work in the Great General Council, and on May 16, 1909 they established the Sanmarin Catholic Union (SCU). He declared his task to be the defense of Catholicism and traditional Sanmarinian institutions. But partial elections in June did not change the overall political situation. In September 1909, the post of Secretary of State for Internal Affairs was taken by the socialist Giuseppe Forcellini.

Catholics and conservatives began a bitter campaign against the government majority. From the beginning of 1910, they organized mass rallies, and also began to develop their own social program, create their own social insurance funds, etc. On February 26, when the Council was discussing the law on civil servants, Catholics organized a mass demonstration of peasants protesting against the introduction of benefits for employees. The protest marchers attacked the Captains Regents and Progressive Deputies and laid siege to the Council building. However, the demonstrators eventually lifted the siege and dispersed. On March 20, a meeting of members of the Great General Council, as a compromise, called on the parties to show restraint, recommended that the Council adopt a law on civil servants and manage the republic’s economy with more skill. After this, the tension subsided somewhat. In July, Catholics achieved significant success in partial elections to the Council.

Political infighting hampered the implementation of reforms. In 1910, only laws on civil servants and primary schools were adopted; in 1911, the reform process slowed down. In May 1911, anti-clericals refused to take part in partial elections. Only in 1912 did a regrouping of political forces take place. In May, the socialists proposed holding early re-elections of the entire composition of the Great General Council, Catholics called for the convening of a new Arengo to discuss the current situation and the law adopted by the Council on filling vacant church posts. Protesting against him, the Sanmarinian clergy threatened to close all churches in the country. In June, Catholics boycotted the elections of a third of the Council members and disrupted them in a number of areas. In September, the Socialists and various factions of the Democrats agreed to create a Democratic Bloc with a common program. A new round of elections in September failed to fill vacant seats on the Council as Catholics continued their boycott. And only in November the vote brought complete triumph to the Democratic bloc. This success was confirmed in partial elections in April and November 1913.

The government of the Democratic Bloc obtained an increase in customs duties from Italy, signed an agreement on the supply of electricity to San Marino, and began construction of a water pipeline. However, in June 1914 the socialists failed to achieve the adoption of a new tax law. The democratic bloc began to disintegrate.

Another aggravation of the political situation occurred in connection with the revolutionary uprising in Italy in June 1914 (“Red Week”). After its suppression, many Italian revolutionaries (socialists and anarchists) took refuge in San Marino. The country's socialists defended granting them asylum, while Catholics strongly objected. Workers' demonstrations took place in the republic. Ultimately, the Democrats broke their alliance with the Socialists and aligned themselves with the Catholics.

The First World War and the Fascist Dictatorship. During the First World War, 15 Sanmarin volunteers took part in actions on the side of the Entente. At the front there was a military hospital with Sanmarine personnel. Although military operations did not directly affect the country, the war had a major impact on its economic and social situation. The opportunity to emigrate disappeared, hundreds of emigrants returned to their homeland. Inflation has increased sharply. In 1915, due to the danger of famine, the government confiscated crops to guarantee the population a minimum food supply. In November 1916, fixed prices for food products were introduced in San Marino, and in 1918, the Autonomous Administration for Consumption was organized to combat profiteering. But the results of these measures were insufficient. In 1918, unemployment increased. In the summer there were mass strikes and popular protests against high prices. In partial elections in June 1918, the bloc of rightists, Republicans and Catholics won 14 of 24 seats.

After the end of the war, unemployment continued to rise, and only in the early 1920s was this problem mitigated by renewed emigration. Social difficulties contributed to the aggravation of the political situation. Since November 1918, strikes of employees and workers took place. demanding improvement of material conditions. Radical sentiments grew in the socialist movement, which weakened the Socialist Party, which did not achieve success in partial elections in August 1919. During the same period, the Catholic People's Party (PP) took shape in San Marino. At the Arengo session, the party demanded a complete renewal of the Grand General Council based on universal suffrage and proportional representation. The PP supported measures to establish fixed prices for grain, but in 1920 it expressed support for peasant protests against this measure.

The PP achieved the dissolution of the Council and the holding of new general elections in November 1920. It won a landslide victory, winning 29 of the 60 seats; 18 seats went to the socialists and 13 to the democrats. Since the Socialists refused to take seats in the Council, by-elections were held in April 1921, and the PP now had an absolute majority. In the same year, the socialist party split: the Sanmarine communists organized their own party.

During the onset of fascism in Italy in the early 1920s, many socialists and anarchists fleeing fascist terror found refuge in San Marino. In the summer of 1921, fearing reprisals from the Italian fascists, the government of San Marino took measures to restrict democratic freedoms. It introduced censorship of the press, stationed the Italian Carabinieri in the republic and abolished the right to asylum. Most of the 189 political emigrants were arrested and handed over to Italian authorities; only a few were able to stay in the country until August 1921.

In the summer of 1922, fascist troops began terror in San Marino. In September they destroyed the People's House in Serraval. The fascists, led by Manlio Gozzi, attacked trade union premises and the homes of left-wing politicians and activists. P. Franciosi, socialist leader Gino Giacomini and many others were forced to leave the country. In October 1922, the Socialist Party actually ceased to exist, and its newspaper ceased publication. The fascists achieved the dissolution of the Great General Council; At the new elections in March 1923, a single list of candidates was nominated - the “Patriotic Bloc”, which also included members of the PP and Democrats. However, the NP was soon forced to declare that its members were “returning to religion”; its publication ceased.

During 1923, the Nazis created an organizational structure consisting of 14 city committees and local branches. A repressive apparatus was formed. By 1926, the establishment of an open fascist dictatorship in San Marino was completed. The establishment of the dictatorial regime was accompanied by the adoption of various discriminatory laws, including the law of 1928, according to which a resident of the country who married a foreigner lost her San Marino citizenship.

The rule of the fascists did not lead to a significant change in the socio-economic structure of the country. There was no modernization of the economy. In the 1940s, only five small industrial enterprises operated in San Marino: a paper mill, a tannery, a pasta factory and branches of two Italian firms. The only significant undertaking can be considered the construction in 1932, with the help of Italy, of an electrified railway 32 km long, connecting San Marino with the Italian city of Rimini. From 17 km. A significant part of the routes passing through the country were through tunnels under Mount Titano. Power was still in the hands of the old oligarchic groups, primarily the Gozzi family. At the head of the state were the captain-regents, who now became members of the fascist party. The Supreme Sovereign Council became the legislative body. In 1939, San Marino and Italy confirmed a treaty of friendship.

World War II and the fall of the fascist regime. Until the early 1940s, there was no organized opposition movement in San Marino. Only after 1941 did underground groups of communists, socialists and other anti-fascists begin to emerge in the country. The state remained neutral in the war, but after 1942 its consequences began to affect the economy. On January 1, 1943, bread cards were introduced; The black market, smuggling and food speculation flourished. After the fall of the fascist regime of Mussolini in Italy, on July 27, 1943, the fascist captains-regents proclaimed the dissolution of the fascist party and assumed full power. On July 28, a massive popular demonstration took place, convened on the initiative of communists, socialists and democrats. About 3 thousand people took part in it, demanding the resignation of the pro-fascist government. The delegation they formed held negotiations with the captain-regents Michelotti and Manzoni, during which an agreement was reached on the dissolution of the Supreme Sovereign Council and the appointment of a regency council to hold free elections to the Grand General Council. The liquidation of the fascist regime was officially announced. Political emigrants began to return to the country, including the socialist leader G. Giacomini, who was also included in the regency council. A mass anti-fascist organization was created - the Freedom Committee. The Council canceled all decrees, decrees, appointments and awards of authorities that followed in the period from January 1, 1923 to July 27, 1943, appointed an emergency control commission to investigate the activities of fascist figures, etc. In the elections to the Grand General Council on September 5, 1943, the Freedom Committee list won a complete victory.

But the fate of democracy in San Marino now depended on military-political events in Italy. Fleeing from the fighting in 1943–1944, about 100 thousand refugees from neighboring Italian regions found refuge on the territory of the republic. After Mussolini, relying on German support, created the government of the “Italian Social Republic” in Northern Italy in September 1943, the fascists in San Marino became more active again. They seized the government palace and demanded the resignation of the elected government. As a result, a “reconciliation pact” was signed, and on October 23, a new government body, the State Council, was formed with the participation of fascist leaders. At the end of October, the country was visited by German Field Marshal General E. Rommel, who was received by the country's leadership. He assured the republic of his sympathy and promised to guarantee its security.

On October 28, the Grand General Council officially transferred powers to the Council of State. The new regime introduced sanctions against those who provided assistance to prisoners of war and deserters from warring armies who took refuge in San Marino. Anti-fascists were periodically arrested. Italian fascist and German military forces invaded the country, seized food from the population, searched the homes of families sheltering refugees, confiscated vehicles and arrested prisoners of war. Communists, socialists and other anti-fascists had to act under the legal cover of the People's Union.

In January 1944, the Fascist Party was officially re-established, led by Giuliano Gozzi. However, the fascists failed to get their supporters elected as captain regents on April 1, 1944. Despite San Marino's neutrality, the country was subjected to Allied air raids on June 26, 1944. The bombing killed about 60 people. Tension grew as the fighting approached the borders of the republic. Despite protests and objections, on September 4 the German command placed its artillery batteries on Sanmarinian territory, and the Allies responded with a raid on Serravalle. On September 19–20, fierce fighting took place on the lands between German units and the forces of the British 5th Army; The country suffered heavy damage. For two months the republic remained occupied.

On September 23, 1944, the Grand General Council canceled the transfer of powers to the Council of State and resumed the exercise of supreme power. The Freedom Committee was restored, and the publication of printed organs of various parties resumed. In March 1945, the Committee won a complete victory in the elections to the Grand General Council, winning 40 out of 60 seats (including 18 going to the Communist Party). The right-wing Sanmarino Democratic Union won 20 seats.

Republic of San Marino after World War II. Left forces were in power in the republic until 1957. The main parties of the ruling coalition remained the Sanmarinsky Communist Party (SMCP) and the Sanmarinsky Socialist Party (SMSP), whose representatives held the posts of captain-regents. The left government, which won the general elections in 1951 and 1955, carried out a number of reforms: some enterprises were nationalized, 1/4 of the mountain lands were developed, an agrarian reform was carried out, as a result of which the hired agricultural worker had to receive at least 60% of the total harvest, new ones were opened schools.

In an effort to achieve greater economic independence and solve financial problems, the government decided in 1950 to open a casino and begin building powerful radio and television stations. In response, Italy declared a blockade of the republic, which was lifted at the end of 1951. In 1953, San Marino and Italy signed an agreement according to which San Marino refused such construction in exchange for regular monetary compensation.

In 1957, an acute political crisis broke out in the country. There was a split in the SMSP; a breakaway group of "independent socialists" entered into an alliance with the opposition parties - the Christian Democrats (CDA, existed since 1948) and the Social Democrats (SDP, formed in 1955). The left-wing coalition lost its majority in the Grand General Council; Captain Regents Primo Marani (Communist) and Giordano Giacomini (Socialist) dissolved Parliament on September 18, announcing new elections under international supervision. However, the opposition refused to accept this decision. Italy came out in support of the opposition. On September 28, Italian carabinieri with tanks and armored vehicles blocked the republic. On September 30, the Christian Democratic Party, the Social Democratic Party and the Independent Socialists created a parallel provisional government in the village of Roveretto and announced the removal of the captains-regents. It was recognized by Italy and the USA. The authorities turned to the UN, but, unable to withstand the blockade, surrendered. The government of the republic resigned, yielding, as Secretary of State for Internal Affairs Morganti said, to “force and violence.” On October 12, San Marino was occupied by the Italian Carabinieri, and on October 24, the Christian Democrats and their allies appointed new captains-regents and a new government. The winners put former captain regents and other left-wing figures on trial, accused the communists of organizing a conspiracy, and introduced a state of emergency in 1958. The electoral law was changed, and Sanmarinians living abroad gained the right to vote by mail (abolished in 1966). This electoral reform allowed the Christian Democrats and Social Democrats to win the 1959 general elections. Their coalition won elections in 1964 and 1969 and remained in power until 1973.

Since the late 1950s, there has been rapid economic growth, associated primarily with the development of tourism and the service sector. Industrial enterprises also began to be built. An increasing number of people left work on the land and became employees and workers.

At the beginning of 1973, the ruling coalition of the Christian Democratic Party and the Social Democratic Party collapsed. In March 1973, a new government was formed from representatives of Christian Democrats, socialists and a small group called the Movement for the Defense of Fundamental Freedoms. Parliament passed a law giving women the right to serve in parliament and government. In the 1974 elections, leftist parties achieved success. But the government was again formed by the Christian Democratic Party and the SMSP.

The new ruling coalition turned out to be fragile. The country was experiencing significant economic and financial difficulties during this period, and there were disagreements between government parties on how to overcome them. In November 1975, the Socialists recalled their representatives from the cabinet, and the coalition was restored only in March 1976. The government decided to increase taxes and customs duties. However, disagreements between the parties persisted, and in November 1977 the Socialists again left the government cabinet. Early elections to the Grand General Council were called in May 1978, which were won by the left parties - SMKP, SMSP and the Socialist Unity Party (formed in 1976 by the left wing of the SDP). They won 31 of the 60 seats and formed the new government of San Marino. His program provided for broad reforms in various areas of life, but it was not possible to fully implement it. In an effort to expand its minimal majority in parliament, the ruling coalition also attracted Social Democrats to participate in the cabinet in September 1981.

Despite the difficulties, the left government managed to increase employment by 9% by 1983 and reduce the number of unemployed from 6% to 4.3% of the working population. A master plan for the socio-economic development of the republic was adopted, school and public administration reform began, and pension provision was improved. In May 1983, the SMKP, SMSP and the Socialist Unity Party (SUP) again won the general elections (32 out of 60 seats). In October 1984, the Grand General Council adopted a tax reform requiring all citizens to declare the amount of their income. The government sought from Italy a review of the radio and television restrictions imposed on San Marino. In 1985, a law establishing a state university was approved.

The political situation remained unstable, as the opposition Christian Democratic Party pursued a course of confrontation with the left coalition. The government was undermined by financial scandals in which representatives of SMSP and SEP were accused. On June 11, 1986 the government fell. For the first time in the history of the republic, on July 26, a cabinet of Christian Democrats and Communists was formed. The program was based on the “moral issue” (overcoming financial scandals), economic development and the fight against youth unemployment. The government remained in power after general elections in 1988, promising to modernize the structures of government institutions and promote development in the socio-economic field.

In October 1987, San Marino signed two agreements with Italy. In accordance with the first, one of the paragraphs of the 1953 agreement concerning radio and television was abolished. Under the second agreement, Italy allowed San Marino to have a state television center, but received the opportunity for 15 years to directly participate in its organization and activities on an equal basis with the Sanmarine side. Italy provided San Marino with special conditions for a loan of 12 billion liras for the creation of a television station and pledged to pay 6 billion liras annually for its maintenance.

In the early 1990s, the country's political scene changed again. In 1990, the SMKP decided to abandon Marxist ideology and transform into the Progressive Democratic Party (PDP); Left circles dissatisfied with this decision formed the Communist Revival party. In February 1992, the Christian Democrats changed their partner in the ruling coalition. They formed a new government with the participation of SMSP. The CDA and the Socialists won landslide victories in the 1993 and 1998 elections, while the influence of the former communists was declining.

In 1999, the government attempted to change the citizenship law. Parliament decided that in the future, Sanmarinian citizenship will be transmitted not only through the paternal, but also through the maternal line, and the 13 thousand Sanmarinians living abroad will have to formally declare whether they want to remain citizens of the republic. Such measures could double the number of voters. Dissatisfied with this, the opposition parties of the Progressive Democrats and the People's Alliance spoke out against the reform and initiated a referendum. The popular vote brought defeat to the government.

The elections to the Grand General Council in 2001 generally maintained the same balance of political forces: the ruling coalition of Christian Democrats and Socialists received 40 of the 60 seats, 12 went to the Democratic Party (former communists), 5 to the People's Alliance, 2 to the Communist Revival, and 1 – the far-right National Alliance.

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San Marino is a tiny state located on the map inside Italy. The territory of the modern republic was inhabited in ancient prehistoric times, but the first mention of the existence of the settlement dates back to 885, when the first inhabitants appeared on Mount Titano.

The Legend of Saint Marino

Back in 298, from picturesque Dalmatia, hiding from religious persecution, the young stonemason Marino ended up on the territory of the modern state. For a short time, the man had to work in Rimini on stone processing with his friends. Soon Marino was the first to open quarries on the mountain slopes of Titano, in which he built a shelter for himself.

Living in the mountains, Marino began to preach the Christian religion. This continued for more than 12 years, after which in 301 he united a small number of believing residents on the top of Mount Titano. Marino knew how to heal and heal people, thanks to which he received the glory of a Saint. The number of his followers increased every day. Many believers arrived at the top and built their homes around the cell of their teacher. This is how a small monastery was formed in the mountains, which was named after Marino. And after the miraculous healing of the son of the local Donna Felicissima, Marino received Mount Titano as a gift, where an entire settlement was already located. Saint Marino was later given the title of deacon and devoted the rest of his life to serving the church. On September 3, 366, Saint Marino died, while uttering his famous phrase: “I leave you free from other people.” This day is considered the founding of the state of San Marino and is celebrated today with special solemnity, and Marino himself is revered by every resident of the country.

Middle Ages period

For a long time, the settlement on Mount Titano defended its interests, defended rights and freedom. Even in 951, the fortification of the monastery helped protect Duke Belengar II from the armed forces of Emperor Otto. The powerful walls of the community have more than once coped with attacks from different peoples.

Since the year 1000, government in San Marino has been carried out by a council of heads of families, which was called the “arengo”. This council performed legislative, executive and judicial functions. Since the 13th century, the power of the people's assembly was replaced by the general council. At this time, the Council of the Twelve was created, and starting from the mid-13th century, captain-regents appeared, who were vested with the powers of the head of the country. At the end of the 13th century, Nicholas IV recognized the Republic of San Marino. The state acquired complete freedom in 1351.

During these years, San Marino actively expanded its possessions, increasing its territory at the expense of the lands of neighboring states. During this period, the state found itself between two warring neighbors, choosing the side of the County of Montefeltro, San Marino came into conflict with Pope Innocent IV, a supporter of Rimini.

Late Middle Ages

These times were difficult for San Marino; there were more than one attempts to conquer the state. During the reign of Malatesta in Rimini, San Marino was exposed to the greatest danger. To avoid unfavorable consequences, the leaders of San Marino had to sign an agreement with the King of Naples, Alfonso V. This alliance made it possible to capture the enemy’s castle, Fiorentino, which has since belonged to San Marino. Since 1462, as a result of military operations, some more lands were annexed to the territory of the state - the settlements of Montegiardino, Serravalle and Faetano.

Historical events during the Renaissance

The 16th century was marked by new attempts by church ministers to gain power over the state, but all this turned out to be unsuccessful. So, in 1543, a hostile army of 500 people tried to capture the republic at night, but the attempt was unsuccessful, as the opponents got lost in the Titano mountains. This great day of bloodless victory is now considered a national holiday.

In October 1600, a constitution was adopted in the republic, and 30 years later Pope Urban III recognized the independence of the state, while the country was exempt from customs taxes.

But since San Marino continued to provide asylum to various fugitives, conflict situations with the pope arose more than once.

New time The period of Napoleon's revolutionary wars had virtually no effect on the independence of San Marino. Napoleon himself recognized the state in 1797.

The Congress of Vienna also bypassed the independent state. Therefore, from the mid-19th century, San Marino gained popularity among a mass of emigrants who intensively sought to hide in the country from political repression and persecution. Even during the unification of Italy, General Giuseppe Garibaldi hid in the mountains and was surrounded by four armies. Also, the internecine wars in Italy of 1859-1860 bypassed the integrity of the state, and in 1862 a treaty of friendship was concluded with neighboring Italy, which was revised several times - in 1939 and 1971. In this document, the principles of good neighborliness were agreed upon and approved.

San Marino in the 20th century and now

The First World War was marked for the Republic of San Marino by an alliance with the Entente, even a small number of Sanmarinos fought on its side. Before the outbreak of World War II, a pro-fascist organization became the leading party in the state, and in 1942 local residents formed an anti-fascist secret movement, which won on July 28, 1943, 3 days after the destruction of fascism in Italy itself. The war years were marked by the neutral position of San Marino, the features of which were preserved during this difficult time: thousands of refugees from Italy received shelter in a hospitable state.

In 1944, the republic was occupied by Nazi Germany for several weeks. And the British air bombing on June 26 took the lives of many residents of the republic.

In 1951, the Italian authorities declared a blockade of the state, through the desire to open a casino and begin the construction of a large television and radio station. San Marino had to retreat from its intention.

The year 1956 for San Marino was marked by the acquisition of a free economic zone with a reduced level of taxes. Also, the end of the 20th century for San Marino became a period of active assertion of its independence and sovereignty, as well as the establishment and maintenance of business relations with many European countries and the United States. Since 1988, the state has become a member of the Council of Europe, and in 1992 joined the UN.

In 2008, San Marino and the capital of the state were included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, as confirmation of the independence of the state since the Middle Ages.