Industrial forestry. Principles of sustainable forest use

The term “forest use” or “forest management” means the use of all forest resources, all types of forest wealth.

The main forest management is engaged in the procurement and use of wood products: the main one is wood, the secondary one is live bait, bark, wood chips, stumps, bast. In Russia, this also includes the harvesting of birch bark, spruce, fir and pine. The main forest use is called industrial due to the large scale of work and its placement on an industrial basis.

Incidental forestry uses non-timber products, and its characteristics are similar to commercial forestry. A distinctive feature of the two types of environmental management is that industrial forest management is characterized by a wide range of environmental problems, and for secondary forest management, the problems associated with an excess of visits to forests and the excessive extraction of biological resources of the forest are especially significant.

Industrial forestry. The main direction of industrial forest management is timber harvesting. This is associated with the emergence of environmental problems in areas of mass logging.

One of the main consequences of timber harvesting is the replacement of primary forests with secondary forests, which are generally less valuable and often less productive. But this is only the first step. Logging triggers the mechanisms of profound economic changes in the region where forests are disappearing. These changes affect all areas.

The intensity of changes depends on the intensity of felling, and they, in turn, depend on a number of factors: the need for wood, transport accessibility of the logging area, and the equipment of work at the cutting site. The composition of species and the age of forests also influence the intensity of felling.

Adverse consequences are especially evident in cases where there is overcutting of wood (more is cut down than grows in a year).

When cuttings that lag behind in the rate of wood growth, there is undercutting, which leads to aging of the forest, a decrease in its productivity, and diseases of old trees. Consequently, overcutting leads to depletion of forest resources in some areas, and undercutting leads to their underutilization in others. In both cases, we are dealing with irrational use of natural resources. Therefore, foresters defend the concept of continuous forest management, based on a balance of deforestation and regeneration of forests and timber reserves. However, for now the planet is dominated by deforestation.

The emergence of environmental problems is associated not only with the scale of forest cutting, but also with the methods of cutting.

A comparison of positive and negative consequences indicates that selective logging is a more costly form and has less environmental damage.

Forest resources are renewable resources, but this process takes 80-100 years. This period is extended in cases where lands are severely degraded after deforestation. Therefore, along with the problems of reforestation, which can be carried out through self-regeneration of forest plantations and, for acceleration, through the creation of forest plantations, the problem of careful use of harvested wood arises.

But deforestation - a destructive anthropogenic process - is opposed by stabilizing anthropogenic activity - the desire for the full use of wood, the use of gentle methods of logging, as well as constructive activity - reforestation.

Forest cutting is the most important factor transforming nature, which destabilizes the integrity of forest cover, the composition and structure of ecosystems. During the logging process, not only wood is harvested, but also a significant transformation of the natural environment occurs, leaving a significant amount of wood pulp (low-quality and small-scale wood), as well as logging residues (branches and twigs, roots, etc.) in the cutting areas.
There is a transition of a significant part of organic carbon from phytomass to the detritus state; At the same time, a significant change occurs in the forest litter and the upper part of the soil profile.

Until the 1930s, timber harvesting in Russia was carried out in a gentle manner: manual felling in winter, horse-drawn skidding, and hauling logs to river banks for rafting. Subsequently, the construction of railways and roads partially replaced rafting with land transport of timber. The saturation of the forest industry with harvesting equipment, the emergence of multi-ton feller bunchers and other multi-operational logging machines could not but affect the state of the ecological potential of the felling areas left by loggers and the formation of new generations of forest stands.

Over the past 15 years, the volume of logging has decreased by more than half: in 1999–2004. About 120–130 million m3 of wood were harvested annually (below the 1913 level). At the same time, the area occupied by mature forests in Russia is constantly decreasing, although the total area of ​​forested land is increasing due to the overgrowing of uncultivated agricultural lands and work.

The greatest impact of forest felling on the ecological situation is observed in the center of the European part of Russia, in the Volga-Vyatka region. In the European part, the Urals, and Western Siberia, only islands of old-growth forests remain.

In 1990–2001 An average of 192.7 million m3 of liquid wood was harvested annually by all types of felling, of which 1.4 million m3 was left in the cutting area. However, the actual volume of cut down and unremoved marketable wood is much larger and, according to expert estimates, reaches an average of about 30 million m3.
Illegal logging is also a huge problem in forest management: in 2002, up to 35% of all timber in the European part of Russia and up to 50–70% in the Far East and the Caucasus were harvested illegally.

The forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industry - a complex of industries that includes wood harvesting from forests, its processing and processing - is one of the most water-intensive areas of production. The annual volume of water used by enterprises reaches 1600 million m3; up to 70% of water is used in repeated and recycling water supply systems. The contribution of these industries to the pollution of surface water bodies is 7.4%; in air pollution - 2.9% (of the total volume of industries).

The structure of wastewater discharge into surface water bodies is dominated by contaminated wastewater - 87.5%; normatively clean - 10.5%; normatively treated wastewater - 2%. The structure of discharges practically does not change, remaining practically constant from year to year. Industry enterprises discharge sulfates, chlorides, tannin, lignin sulfate, organic sulfur compounds, acetic acid, ammonia nitrogen, methanol, nitrates, phosphorus compounds, oils, formaldehyde, hydrogen sulfide, suspended solids, etc. into water bodies with wastewater.

The impact of industries is quite narrowly localized and manifests itself mainly in water consumption and discharge of polluted water. The pollution of such a large river as the Kama is associated with forest management.

The main sources of pollutant discharges into water bodies in the pulp and paper industry are 10 enterprises, responsible for approximately 70% of the industry's discharges.

On the engravings of the manuscript

LYAMEBORSHAI Sslman Khshshlovnch

BASIC PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF ECOLOGICAL FOREST MANAGEMENT

Specialty 03.00.16. - Ecology 03/06/03. - Forestry and forestry, forest fires and fighting them

dissertation in the form of a scientific report for the degree of Doctor of Agricultural Sciences

Moscow - 2005

The work was carried out at the All-Russian Research Institute of Forestry and Forestry Mechanization (VNIILM)

Scientific consultant

Official opponents:

Academician of the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Doctor of Agricultural Sciences, Professor Moiseev Nikolay Adeks*ndrovich

Doctor of Agricultural Sciences, Professor Obydenykkov Viktor

Ivanovich Doctor of Agricultural Sciences Professor Suik Vasily

Ivanovich Doctor of Agricultural Sciences, Professor Khlustov Vitaly Konsta ityanovich

Leading organization: FSUE "Tsentrlesproekt"

Protection will take place<»¿^2-» 2005 года в /В часов на заседании

dissertation council D 220.043.03 at the Moscow Agricultural Academy named after K.A. Timiryazev at the address: 127550, Moscow, Timiryazevskaya street, 49- Telephone, fax: 976 24 92

The dissertation, in the form of a scientific report, can be found in the scientific library of the Central Scientific Library of the Moscow Agricultural Academy named after. K.A. Timiryazev

Scientific Secretary. j --7

dissertation council ]/ ("¿¿¿^< Калинин Вячеслав

Aleksandrovich

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF WORK

The relevance of the research topic is due to the fact that modern forestry must be based on environmental, silvicultural and socio-economic criteria, ensuring continuous and sustainable forest management. The justification of basic environmental principles and the development of optimal forest growing programs and forest management regimes are intended to increase productivity, preserve biodiversity and the lifetime potential of forests, which is generally aimed at the sustainable development of economically involved biosystems and the successful functioning of the environmental and socio-economic spheres of society.

The purpose and objectives of the research are to substantiate the basic principles and develop methods of rational, environmentally sound forest management, aimed at the formation of highly productive tree stands, preservation of regenerative capacity, biodiversity and lifetime potential, designed to fully realize the ecological and socio-economic purpose of forest ecosystems. The essence of rational and environmentally sustainable forest management according to M.M. Orlov (1926) is to create a normative system that interprets what economic measures should be so that the forest fulfills social and environmental functions. In accordance with this, the following tasks were formulated:

1. Justification of the cutting age of the main forest-forming species in ecological forest management.

2. Optimization of forest cutting taking into account environmental requirements.

3. Optimization of reforestation according to the principle of bioecos - the most favorable target compliance of woody vegetation with environmental conditions.

4. Optimization of reproduction and use of forest resources through block programming.

5. Optimization of ecological forest management by forest groups and watersheds, ensuring maximum water flow into

WATER SOURCE.

6. Conducting environmental monitoring, control of sanitary conditions and determination of environmental damage to forest plantations during continuous forest management.

7. Development of forest management ethics standards.

The scientific novelty of the work lies in the fact that for the first time the scientific foundations and methods of ecological forest management were developed, based on the principles of continuity and inexhaustibility. New rules of formation of the size of forest resource bases have been identified, and a method has been developed.

about watersheds, forest monitoring through

continuity of forest management. The proposed methodological techniques for modeling forestry processes make it possible to justify at a qualitatively new level the amount of environmentally feasible forest management with forecasting current changes in the forest fund. For the first time, block programming was used to solve optimization problems of reproduction and use of forest resources, which makes it possible to purposefully conduct forest management and all forestry production. The proposed conceptual models and specific scientific and methodological methods for solving problems make it possible to objectively assess the ecological state of the forest fund and take measures for its conservation and sustainable functioning.

Validity and reliability of research results. The scientific principles, conclusions and recommendations formulated in the dissertation work are based on the results of numerous experimental studies and are provided with a large volume of systematic and statistically processed material. The validity and reliability of the conclusions and proposals, including the analytical system developed by the author for selecting design cutting areas and optimizing cutting ages, was carried out using a systematic approach to solving the problem of ecological forest management and confirmed by the results of many years of pilot production testing in the forestry of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

Practical significance and implementation of research results. Currently, the proposed subsystems of rational environmental and sustainable forest management have been introduced into forestry practice as important regulatory and methodological documents, namely:

“Determination of the target species composition of future forests of the experimental forestry enterprise Russian Forest” (1967). Compliance with the conditions for the formation of the target species composition allows increasing the productivity of forest stands by 20%.

"The analytical method for determining the estimated cutting areas" (1975) makes it possible to substantiate the rational design of more than 70% of the country's estimated cutting areas.

“Methodology for determining the size of forestry enterprises and the optimal structure of production” (1982) is recommended as a guide to justify the organization of the creation and effective functioning of complex forestry enterprises,

“Automated system for managing scientific research and development work” (1980) was introduced into the management of scientific activities of the USSR State Forestry Committee.

“Methodology for determining environmental damage from anthropogenic impact on forests” (1998) was approved by the Federal Forestry Service and the State Committee of the Russian Federation for the Protection of

environment. The technique has been tested and is used to determine environmental damage in the forest plantations of the museum - Leo Tolstoy's estate "Yasnaya Polyana" and the national park "Losiny Ostrov".

Approbation of work. Materials of scientific research Pronin conducted a pilot production test when designing the composition of future forests of the experimental demonstration forestry enterprise “Russian Forest” and when determining the estimated cutting area in forest management. The main provisions and results of the research were published in central and regional publishing houses and were tested at international, all-Union, all-Russian and regional scientific and practical conferences and symposiums: “Application of mathematical methods in forestry”, Ministry of Agriculture of the USSR, Moscow (1966); “Issues of mathematical programming in reforestation”, Ministry of Agriculture of the USSR, Moscow (1968); “Application of economic and mathematical methods in the forestry and woodworking industries”, USSR Ministry of Forestry, Petrozavodsk (1971); “Application of mathematical methods and computers in the national economy”, Institute named after. Plekhanov, Moscow (1975); “Issues of forest management, taxation and aerial photography methods,” State Forestry Agency of the USSR, LTA, Leningrad (1975); “Use of optimization methods in operational production management”, State Forestry Agency of the USSR, Moscow (1979); “Issues of application of mathematical methods and automated control systems in forestry”, Rosleskhoz, Pushkino (1994, 1997,1999); “New in Forestry Planning”, Prague (1996, 1997); “Ecology of a Big City”, Moscow (2001, 2002); “Ecological problems of historical heritage”, Borodino (2002, 2003); “Summer meeting on ecology”, Dubna (2004).

Basic provisions submitted for defense. The following main provisions are submitted for defense;

1. Determination of the optimal size of the area of ​​the forest resource base and development of a system of ecological forest management in them.

2. Functioning of subsystems for optimizing the age of felling, the size of ecological forest management, optimizing the reproduction and use of forest resources, forest management by forest groups and watersheds, forest monitoring based on the continuity of forest management, assessment of the sanitary condition of forests.

Personal contribution of the author. The research used data obtained by the author at all stages of the work: during the development of the program, collection, processing and analysis of experimental material, participation in the organization and conduct of pilot production testing of research results and their implementation in production.

Publications. Based on scientific research materials, the author has published 120 scientific papers, of which more than 50 are on the dissertation topic presented for defense, including 4 published works in recent years and the monograph “Basic principles and methods of ecological forest management.”

Organization of research. The work was carried out at the Department of Forestry of the Moscow Agricultural Academy named after. Timiryazev, at the All-Union Institute of Information and Design of the Forestry Industry, in the scientific part of the V/O "Lesproekt" and at the All-Russian Research Institute of Forestry and Forestry Mechanization within the framework of the scientific topics of these institutions. In addition, research was carried out within the framework of projects: 1.1.2. “To develop the basic principles and forms of organization of complex enterprises that ensure the full and rational use of forest resources on the basis of organizational and technical unity and mismanagement, logging and wood processing in sparsely forested areas” (1977); 1.1,3. “Develop recommendations for improving the forestry management system in sparsely forested areas” (1980); 1.3.3.2. “Develop a system for the distribution of material and technical supplies for the forestry industry” (1983), as well as under agreements: 1.1.11. “Develop guidelines for calculating environmental damage from anthropogenic impact on forest plantations of the L.N. Tolstoy’s “Yasnaya Polyaka” (1996, 1997); 23 “Assessment of environmental damage and the condition of forest plantations of the Losiny Ostrov National Park” (2001,2002,2003).

In the past, the forests of the European part of Russia occupied vast territories. For example, based on materials from M.A. Tsvetkova (1957) The Tambov region in 1696 had a forest cover of 40.5%, which by 1870 had decreased to 29.3%, and by 1914 to 16.2%. In the Oryol province, forest cover fell from 31.1% to 17.2%, in the former Chernigov province from 36% at the beginning of the 18th century to 15% in 1914, in the Kyiv province from 30% to 15%, in the Poltava province - from 27% to 5 %, Kharkov - from 21% to 8%.

Issues of ecological forest management were not on the agenda at that time, and, as a result, after 1870, due to the extensive exploitation of forests, they suffered significant damage.

During the Soviet period, the use of concentrated clear-cutting turned many forest areas into wastelands, and flooding of forest lands became a widespread phenomenon, which affected the deterioration of the environmental situation.

Among the numerous types of raw materials, wood ranks second in terms of volume of use in the world after coal. According to scientists, its consumption in various areas of production will only increase. The proportion of wood subjected to mechanical or chemical processing is constantly increasing. Deep processing of wood is becoming increasingly widespread, allowing in most cases the transition to waste-free technologies. In some industrial

In developed countries (Japan, USA, Sweden, etc.), the level of processing of wood raw materials is approaching 100%. And naturally, the closer the wood is harvested from the places of its processing, the less losses there are. In our country, losses are still quite large, and this in turn leads to additional volumes of logging.

We allow large losses of wood raw materials during its processing. For example, waste in sawmilling is 30-35%, in the production of sleepers - 23%, plywood - 55%, in the match industry - 65%. By introducing rational methods of processing waste and turning it into finished products, it becomes possible to use wood raw materials comprehensively, which leads to environmentally waste-free production.

Of particular importance is also the rational use of non-timber forest resources. More than 160 species of fruit trees, shrubs and berry plants grow in our forests, the share of which in the total harvest in the country as a whole is about 5%. Forestry has great potential for a sharp increase in the procurement of food products and medicinal raw materials.

Forests are a large base for hunting - a source of meat, furs, antlers, etc. Many forest areas of the country are promising for the development of beekeeping - not only a rich source of honey, but also a means of ensuring high yields of crops pollinated by insects.

Thus, the forest is a source not only of wood, but also of many valuable food products, technical and medicinal raw materials, procured by various departments and the local population.

Tourism should become one of the important components of the recreational use of forest areas. Considerable funds are required to develop part of the forest fund territory for these purposes. And although our tourism and recreation industry is developing quite intensively, removing significant areas of the forest fund from economic circulation, the monetary investments allocated for the conservation and development of forests are insignificant.

To develop tourism, it is necessary to improve the rental forms of relations between forestry enterprises and the tourism industry. Forestry enterprises, in turn*, must actively promote the resort places of our country and find sponsors for the tourism industry to ensure the improvement of resort and tourist bases.

Currently, about 2,000 large cities, industrial centers and other settlements in our country have ecologically clean green areas where forests can be used for tourism.

Numerous studies by Russian and foreign scientists, doctors and architects convincingly show that properly selected and intelligent

planned forest plantings have a positive effect on aesthetic feelings, creating a favorable background for human mental and emotional activity.

Research in recent years has revealed a direct dependence of the morbidity rate of the urban population on air pollution, therefore the creation of conditions for recreation of the urban population in forests and forested park areas will help improve the health and working ability of people.

In order to achieve environmental use and reproduction of forest resources, it is necessary to move to other methods of establishing norms and standards for the reproduction and use of forest resources.

1. OPTIMUM SIZE OF FOREST RESOURCE BASE WITH CONTINUOUS AND SUSTAINABLE FOREST USE

The methodological side of ecological and continuous sustainable forest management has essentially not been developed. This, in turn, does not allow specialists to have a proper understanding when designing forestry and forestry activities.

The organization of forestry based on the principle of continuous, sustainable and ecological forest management ensures the fulfillment of two interrelated but contradictory functions: extraction of forest products and improvement of the forest environment. Such an organization of forest management and restoration of forest resources requires determining the size of the object in which all indicators would have optimal parameters.

One of the factors of ecological forest management is the size of the raw material base. Too large - it is difficult to manage, small - it develops slowly and often becomes a brake on technical progress. V.A. Polyakov (1978) rightly points out that the problem of optimizing the size of enterprises affects current and future activities. When determining the optimal size of enterprises, two aspects of activity related to forest growing and forest use are taken into account, the possibilities of rational organization of forestry and forestry production, their technology and technical equipment are considered, environmental issues and the optimal period for resource development are resolved.

Thus, optimizing the size of enterprises is the beginning of long-term planning for the industry.

Today we do not know what principles guided our predecessors when determining the size of forestry enterprises. For example, no one will prove that in the Moscow region it is necessary to have 29 forestry enterprises. Why is the taiga area of ​​the Komi Republic of 38 million hectares divided into 33 forestry enterprises, and the Republic of Karelia (14.8 million hectares) into 28 forestry enterprises. IN

In the Volgograd region there are 34 forestry enterprises on 556 thousand hectares, and in the Samara region there are 16 forestry enterprises on 600 thousand hectares.

No correlation was found between the size of 1360 enterprises in sparsely forested areas and a set of economic indicators. This indicates that the size of forestry enterprises is established largely without theoretical, economic and environmental justification. The issue of the optimal size of enterprises in different economic and natural conditions should be resolved based on the following theoretical premises.

It is known that as the concentration of production increases to certain limits, the costs of forestry and forestry production decrease hyperbolically as the concentration of production increases (Lyameborshchai, 1983). This pattern can be expressed by the following formula:

where: 2п - costs of forestry and logging production per 1 hectare of forest area, rub.

A is the degree of cost reduction;

b - cost reduction limit;

B - size of the forest resource base with sustainable and ecological forest management, thousand hectares;

P is the ratio of forested area to total (in fractions of a unit);

rdp - forested area, thousand hectares,

Transport costs D of an enterprise increase parabolically as production concentration increases and are described by a formula of the form: r, = C

where: C is the degree of increase in costs.

The sum of production and transportation costs in optimized

enterprises is described by a mathematical expression of the form:

2 = 7p + g, = - + C&7P (4)

Thus, the final formula for determining the size of the forest resource base, where the principle of continuity and inexhaustibility of use will be observed, is as follows:

5 = TP ^(1+0.555*)^/, (5)

lbr - forest supply, ha/person; - average growth, m"/ha;

Рм - terrain (С= 1+0.006Р);

P, - the share of participation of mountainous terrain in the landscape of the calculation object,%;

Xr = I - potential estimated cutting area, in a first approximation is assumed to be equal to the average increase (a value that regulates the implementation of one of the principles of ecological forest management), m^ha;

b - forest cover, in%;

M - stock of mature forest stands, m3/ha;

Total forest area.

An example of calculating the area of ​​forest raw material bases is presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Area of ​​timber resource base with continuous and sustainable forest management by region

Yes Region Indicators Size of forest resource base, thousand hectares

I3/ha R. fraction units. ha/person 1, % M, I?) th

1 Arkhangelskaya 1.08 0.73 41.00 36.9 116 1707

Novgorodskaya 2.71 0.71 7.40 56.8 91 1246

3 Vladimirskaya 4.12 0.86 1.86 46.4 138 694

4 Moscow 3.74 0.88 0.76 40.2 130 225

5 Kirovskaya 3.35 0.92 7.24 57.7 128 2416

6 Voronezhskaya 3.25 0.82 2.12 9.5 94 164

Based on the above formula 5, it is possible, with a confidence probability of 0.95, to determine the area of ​​the raw material base with continuous, sustainable and ecological forest management. After determining the optimal size of an object where it is possible to conduct farming on the principle of continuous and sustainable forest management, the problem of rational and environmental use of its multi-purpose resources arises,

1.1. Systematization of ecological forest management in raw material bases

Ecological forest management requires overcoming outdated forest management methods, increasing the role of factors aimed at intensifying the developed forest industry, and developing methods of forest management design with an environmental focus.

Systematization of ecological forest management during design must be ensured by compliance with the following conditions:

1. The use of forest resources should not lead to deterioration of the forest fund;

2. The implementation of one type of use should not lead to a decrease in the overall effect of integrated forest management;

3. The method of reforestation should be focused on the priority type of bioecosystem.

By definition M,M. Orlov, forest management and reforestation in the flax is not an organized process of a certain social connection between the forest and people, whose activities are aimed at the continuous and non-exhaustive use of forest resources. The subject of this system is the community of people, and the object is the forest. The connection between subject and object is carried out through collective work. Therefore, the process of organizing integrated forest management and forest reproduction begins with joint land management, urban planning and forest management design.

Since human interaction with the forest often leads to undesirable side effects, design should concentrate efforts on finding those economic impacts on the forest that lead to the desired results and improvement of the forest environment and, first of all, on the implementation of expanded forest reproduction. This provision, although it is the basic principle of the use of land and forest resources, has not yet been introduced into the practice of forest management design.

The organization of expanded reproduction of land and forest resources, its intensification is ensured by the following areas of economic activity:

1. The impact of land drainage on the growing conditions of agricultural crops and forests;

2. Introduction of soil-improving herbaceous, tree and shrub species and their replacement;

3. The use of special methods of soil cultivation and forest cutting;

4. Accelerating the restoration and formation of tree stands with the preservation of undergrowth during logging;

5. The use of logging methods that ensure the fastest regeneration of the main species and timely afforestation of cleared areas, burnt areas, and wastelands;

6. The use of breeding material when planting forest crops based on bioecosystems;

7. Caring for the forest, especially at the mole stage;

8. Improving the quality of forests through the introduction of fast-growing valuable tree species.

These measures are well known for forest management, but in design practice they are not used to the extent required.

When designing logging and wood processing, the organization of expanded forest reproduction should follow the path of intensifying the harvesting and use of wood and forest by-products, by improving the methods of cutting, tapping forest, collecting berries, mushrooms, medicinal and technical raw materials,

Figure 1 shows the system of rational and ecological forest management of the raw material base.

Obyesh continuous, "eistochitvpkho and ashpskicheshugo leahtopyeowenda

System of rational and logical forest management aannoge ebvkm

Subsystems -*

Resumption

Business units

Solid

Nesyaposhnav -1-

Age ru<жи

Natural Soofanenne of adolescence Sand crops

Determination of breed composition

LTA group

Standard of use -1

Management monitoring!

Continuous forest management

Optimization of reproduction and management of forest resources

Etjayaesogkvteomiya

Impact of damage due to anthropogenic impact

Rice. Okgsia ecopognches^fgolssouse

Rational and environmentally sound use of forest resources in the context of growing diverse material and cultural needs of society is one of the most important national tasks, the solution of which determines the well-being and health of present and future generations of society. Therefore, the development of a system for the rational and environmental use of forest resources should become the basis for modern forestry.

As is known, one of the main problems of ecological forest management is the intensification of forest management and

reforestation based on improving forestry and forest exploitation methods. Optimization of ecological forest management regimes requires taking into account a large number of limiting conditions and a dozen criteria. Unfortunately, to date, forestry specialists do not have specialized software products for solving multicriteria optimization problems that would allow solving this problem in its multifaceted understanding. Therefore, general theoretical and methodological techniques should be sought mainly in the development of a system of rational and sustainable forest management, where at each stage one of the components of the subsystems for optimizing economic activity must be solved, without losing connection with the overall goal.

Thus, it is quite obvious that the solution of problems should be oriented towards the one proposed by G.F. Morozov the principle of continuity and inexhaustibility of forest management; P = B, that is, “cutting and renewal are synonyms.” Each complex model, such as optimizing the cutting age and the size of the estimated cutting area, as well as other models, must maintain this basic principle in a complex of economic impacts.

The work of V.G. is devoted to the problem of rational use of forest resources. Anisochkina, V.V. Antanaitisa, N.P. Anuchina, L.S. Berga, M.I. Bochkova, P.T. Voronkova, V.G. Grebenshchikova, V.F. Darakhvelidze. V.V., Zagreeva, V.V. Komkova, G.N. Korovina, G.B. Kofmana, Lyameborshai S.Kh., H.A. Moiseeva, A.G. Moshkalea, V.K. Niggol, V.G. Nesterova, N.I. Kozhukhova, S.A. Rodina, H.H. Svalova, S.N. Svalova, V.V. Stepina, V.I. Sukhikh, A.B. Tyurina, N.H. Feldman, A.N. Fedosimova, O.A., Kharina, G.F. Hilmi, B.J.C. Khlustova, A.G. Sholokhov, and many other authors. These works form the basis for the development of a system of rational and ecological forest management.

2. DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM AGES FOR FOREST FELLING

Until today, for all major tree species, final fellings are approved by orders of forestry authorities without any economic or environmental justification. For example, from 1978 to 2003, the same so-called

“optimal” cutting ages for pine stands of III and higher quality class in the North-Western, Central, Volga-Vyatka, Ural, Volga and Central Chernozem regions are 101-120 years, and for IV and lower quality classes -121-140 years,

In a market economy, the cutting age must be optimized for each leased forest area.

When determining the age of forest cutting on a leased property, the total reduced costs that best meet both the economic and environmental requirements for forest plantations and the sustainability of forest management are taken as optimization criteria. The optimal cutting age in this case will be considered the age that most fully satisfies the requirements of society and the tenant at the lowest cost of forest growing and forest exploitation per unit of production.

Total present costs (TLC) can be expressed by the following formula:

SDR = (C + EK) in + (C + EK)z + (C + EK) tr (6)

Where: C - production cost, rub. K - capital investments, rub. E - efficiency coefficient; c - cultivation index; z - workpiece index; tr - transportation index. The presence of the mentioned information allows us to criterion-wise calculate CIT3(t) using formula 7. For example, the calculation of SPZ (t) for pine stands of class III is derived from the indicators presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

Information material and calculation of SPZ (t) in pine forests of quality class III

Indicators Values ​​of indicators at the age of stands

50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

M(l), MJ/ni 274 352 383 426 463 494 520 542 558

V(t),MJ 0.21 0.31 0.45 0.59 0.74 0.90 1.01 1.20 1.33

crom, rub./m3 12.66 11.69 11.12 10.77 10.58 10.52 10.44 10.45 10.45

where: M, is the stock of the forest stand, .“7 hectares; V, - average volume of the whip. m.

The bottom line of this table shows the value of the SPZ depending on the age of the forest stands; cultivation costs were assumed to be 5.8 rub.m3, the cost of logging work according to the TEP was 3.27 rub.7m3 (at 1975 prices), the removal distance was assumed to be 20 km and the capacity of the logging enterprise was up to 150 thousand m3/year.

In order to determine the need for assortments by grade, it is necessary to present them as a percentage. In percentage by. The area occupied by these plantings is also expressed in terms of quality. Then the calculation

carried out by the method of solving the transport problem of linear programming (Lyameborshai, 1972,1973).

In general, the mathematical model for solving the transport problem is expressed as follows:

p"Х.Ё,6***-*" tah

under conditions:

where: w - number of assortments; l - number of grades; Su -

output of the I-th assortment according to the ]-th grade; Xts - the quantity of the 1st assortment that can be produced in

]-that bonitete; a) - the size of the area according to quality class, %; C is the need for the ^¡-th assortment, %;

It is required to find the cutting age at which the requirements of consumers are satisfied with the lowest total costs. This problem is solved using linear programming methods (simplex method). The mathematical model of the problem is criterion-represented by an expression of the form:

^ = h O "*") (12)

Provided: 1

Z-Ts^H^Ъ, (15)

j= 1,2,3,.....D1 i = 1,2,3,......,m.

where: ay - standard output coefficients of the i - type of assortment in the j - volume of log;

bj is the size of the area according to the i-th assortments; X; - volume of assortment according to j-th grades;

Cj - SDR for j-th volumes of the log.

As a result of solving these problems, an optimal age for timber cutting was obtained that satisfies consumer requirements with the lowest costs for cultivation, harvesting and transportation. According to the studies conducted, it was determined that with changes in consumer requirements for raw materials, the age of cutting may also change. For example, for pine forests of quality class III, it can vary from 70 to 120 years depending on the target orientation, respectively, pulpwood or sawlog.

3. STANDARDING THE SIZE OF FOREST USE, TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT OF ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

Since the fifties of the last century, K.K. devoted his work to rationing the estimated cutting area. Abramovich, N.P., Anuchin, I.M. Bochkov, V.D. Volkov, P.T. Voronkov, V.V. Zagreev, V.V. Komkov, H.A. Moiseev, A.G. Moshkalev, BJC. Nigol, V.A. Polyakov, N.H. Svalov, S.G. Sinitsyn, M.M. Trubnikov, (Lyameborshai, 1973, 1974, 1999), etc. However, none of the calculated cutting areas led the farm to continuous and sustainable forest management. In solving this problem, more than 100 formulas proposed by different authors on this issue were analyzed. As a result, they came to the conclusion that all of them are derived from one or two age formulas used in forestry in many countries of the world for more than 200 years. Therefore, the task was set - to develop a system for selecting age formulas in accordance with the requirements for rationing the estimated cutting area.

3.1. Main factors in modeling the estimated cutting area

It is known that the standardization of the size of the estimated cutting area, taking into account environmental requirements, is carried out: by planning, qualitative assessment and the possibility of regulating the ages of cutting, the condition of plantings, the safety stock and the process of ripening of forest stands on the farm.

The size of the estimated cutting area (L), taking into account environmental requirements

(Lyameborshai, 2003) in quantitative and qualitative terms, can be expressed as a function of the cutting age (U), the state of the forest

fund (C), safety stock ($) and rate of maturation (P). In general, the size of forest use can be expressed by a functional of the form:

1. = g(u,unit>) (17)

The nature of the required function, as mentioned earlier, is very complex, and at present we can only talk about solving particular and simplified examples.

The ecological condition of plantings improves after cutting down overmature stands. The period of their cutting down (T) is determined taking into account the following factors: economic loss from the conservation of stocks of overmature plantings, the rate of replenishment of these resources due to the ripening of forest stands (¿), the need of society for wood (b), the presence of mature and overmature forest stands (Rep + Pper) .

The mathematical model of the dynamics of the stock of mature and overmature forest stands is approximated by a differential equation of the form:

¿(P + p\i(

After integration, we obtain the following analytical equation for the cutting time (T) of mature and overmature forest stands; ? . M^Cl

where: M^ is the stock of ripe and overmature forest stands, m3/ha.

An experimental test showed that the value of T, under different conditions of the forest fund, is expressed by the following formula:

where: and is the age of felling, years;

Kz - age of middle-aged forest stands, years;

Kz - age of young animals (II age class), years;

P-percentage of accumulation of mature and overmature forest stands

I is the number of decades in the age class.

The value of T is always less than or equal to the age of felling and. Thus, as mature and overmature forest stands accumulate above the norm of a normal forest, the given formulas can be used to determine the period for their felling.

3.2. Definition of safety stock

The safety stock is a necessary amount to normalize the amount of forest use and maintain proper environmental conditions in the forest.

The safety stock in forestry, in addition to its ecological function, should serve as a regulator of the uninterrupted supply of wood to society. In this regard, the insurance stock of a growing mature forest depends both on the presence of ripe and overmature forest stands, and on the rate of their ripening. Safety stock can be determined by the formula:

^+^+0.25^(^-0.25)

where: S - safety stock, % of the estimated cutting area; - stock of mature plantings, m3;

Afv - stock of ripening plantings, m3;

Mfreserve of overmature plantings, m1;

L*, - total reserve, m3;

R - revision period, years.

The safety stock determined in this way regulates the constant use and placement of cutting areas in accordance with the felling rules, while at the same time preventing the accumulation of overmature stands.

3.2. Determining the rate of ripening of wood

The ripening of tree stands is a dynamic process of transition of a stand from one state to another until the tree stand reaches the age of ripeness. The progress of this process depends on many factors, the main of which are the distribution of plantings by age groups and the age of felling by species.

The construction of a mathematical model of this process is as follows.

We assume that homogeneous plantings of five age groups grow on an area S (ha): 1-20 years old, 21-40 years old, 41-80 years old, 81-100 years old and 101 years older.

At time t years, the areas occupied by the indicated groups of plantings are equal to S"i(t), S"2(0, S"3(t), S"4(t), S"i(t).

The distribution of S"(, S"2......S"5 is carried out by age categories

according to cutting ages. In this case, the entire forest stand by age groups must total a constant area. Therefore, there will be an equality of the form:

S"](t) + S"2(t) + S\,(t) + S"4(t) + S"5(t) - C - const (22)

The change in area depending on the size of forest felling will be expressed by differential equations:

<Я1=х: У) Л 20

¿3, .5,(0 5,(0 L 20 20

¿Б-^Ш-Ш (23)

¿5, = 5,(0 5,(0 L 20 20

where: 5,(0 = ^

hf - the rate of felling of mature forest. After simple calculations, we obtain an equation for the annual determination of a mature forest of the form:

5}<0 = (ЛГ, - Кг) (27)

*[ K*RYash + *>„) ]K1-^sr+0.2( (28)

where: - age limits of the troupe, age, years;

Rdp - forested area;

Roe - total area;

Рм1, Рм2, Рт Рi,. - respectively, the area of ​​young stands of the first and second age classes, middle-aged, ripening and mature forest stands.

The meaning of these equations is that they are used to analyze the distribution of forest stands by age groups, as well as the provision of mature forest within the revision period, taking into account the rate of their ripening. Using the above inequalities and in accordance with the diagram (Fig. 2), it will be possible to choose one or another formula under which all the conditions for the calculated cutting area are met, based on the norm of normal forest (N) at different cutting ages.

From the above formulas and diagram it follows that, in addition to areas and reserves, in order to establish the value of the calculated cutting area for main use, when calculating it on a PC, all the requirements for entering the following additional information are met:

r is the number of decades in the age group;

E is the number of decades at the cutting age;

K1 + K; - duration of age classes depending on the age of felling.

All these values ​​are derived from the age of the felling and are calculated on the basis of an algorithm specially developed for these purposes.

Figure 2. Scheme for selecting formulas for the estimated cutting area for main fellings

use.

3.4, Standardization of forest use volumes or selective and

gradual felling

Issues of organizing forest management while preserving the environmental functions of the forest must be resolved in a complex manner, taking into account many factors for preserving the environmental functions of the forest. For example, it is impossible to ensure an increase in forest productivity if the productivity of forest soils is undermined. It is impossible to change the species composition if the growing areas do not meet the requirements of the species, and it is impossible to preserve the environmental functions of the forest during forest management if the cutting area is not restored in time with forest crops.

It has not yet been clarified what constitutes the use of forest resources while preserving the environmental functions of the forest, how complex and diverse it is? It is not clear how to organize and in what combination two seemingly opposite directions should be located, such as the preservation of the environmental functions of the forest and sustainable forest management.

The problem of organizing forest management while simultaneously preserving the environmental functions of the forest can only be solved if sustainable forest management is based on the achievements of modern forest science, i.e. on dividing forests for each catchment into protection categories, determining optimal cutting ages and establishing reasonable sizes of the estimated cutting area. These are the basic conditions on the basis of which it is possible to organize sustainable forest management while preserving the environmental functions of the forest.

In the forest fund, not all trees can be designated for the main felling. In many categories of protection, final felling is prohibited. Therefore, now that forest management, simultaneously with the economic organization project, creates a departmental data bank, it is possible to develop a system for grouping and analyzing forest taxation data of any department.

In order to justify sustainable forest management based on the methods of main felling, it is necessary to group all the crevices depending on the categories of protection where main felling is and is not allowed. Such grouping schemes have been developed and presented in Figure 3.

As can be seen from the diagram, it follows that the main information source for the grouping is the forest taxation data of each section.

So, forest management and preservation of the environmental functions of the forest is a test of forest management techniques and rules. But with these techniques and rules we answer only one question of the forest management triad, namely:

Figure 3. Scheme of grouping forest plantations according to main felling methods

To the questions “How to chop?” “When to chop?” and “How much to chop?” give the answer to the age of felling and the size of the estimated cutting area.

Clear cuttings can be carried out in all forests in the interests of preserving and strengthening the water protection, water regulation, protective, sanitary, hygienic, aesthetic and other useful functions of the forest. Unfortunately, clear cutting is currently the most common practice in our forests. Selective gradual, two- and three-stage are less than 5%.

Gradual three-stage felling is carried out in highly productive forest stands, where there is no second layer of main species, but there is their undergrowth. The repetition period for three-stage gradual felling is 10 years.

Selective felling is used in plantations where there is no second tier, and the undergrowth of the main species occurs in clumps. The repetition period for selective felling is 20 years. The cutting intensity in the first round is 20% of the area or 40% of the stock.

Estimated cutting areas for reserves for gradual and selective felling are calculated in the same order as for the clear-cutting form of forest management.

The cutting area by area is determined by dividing the total stock by the amount of wood cut down from 1 hectare.

When selective felling, the estimated cutting area is calculated in two ways;

a) if taxation descriptions contain data on the areas requiring selective felling and the percentage planned for felling at one time, the estimated cutting area for the stock is determined as the frequent division of the total stock planned for felling by the amount of wood obtained from 1 hectare ;

b) in the absence of data in forest management materials on areas designated for selective felling, according to taxation descriptions or the results of tables of age classes, the distribution of areas and stocks of mature and overmature forest stands is carried out by completeness. Guided by regional logging rules for such forest stands, the percentage of wood stock subject to felling is established.

The calculated cutting area for stock during selective felling should not exceed the calculated cutting area for uniform use for a given farm.

4. OPTIMIZATION OF FOREST RESTORATION BASED ON BIOECOS

The bioecological approach to growing tree species in accordance with growing conditions was developed using mathematical modeling and applied for practical purposes by Professor V.G. Nesterov, and was later specified in his works

followers of V.G. Atrokhina, V.F. Darakhvelidze, A.M. Borodina, V.V. Stepnna, SH Lyameborshaya, etc.

To improve the system for determining the species composition of forest-forming species in accordance with the requirements for growing conditions, a systematic approach was used.

As is known, the resistance of forest stands to unfavorable conditions is determined, first of all, by the compliance of environmental factors with the requirements of tree species. This provision is the basic principle of bioecological cultivation of forest crops. Consequently, in order to create sustainable plantations in various soil and climatic conditions, it is necessary to know the requirements that tree species make at various stages of their development to environmental conditions. Knowledge of these requirements, as well as the corresponding environmental conditions, provides a true and reliable basis for creating stable and durable tree stands.

The factors influencing the species composition of the future forest are numerous, but we will focus only on those that are the most important, namely: biological - B, climatic - K, soil - P, agrotechnical - A, economic - E and non-productive functions of the forest - N. Thus, the species composition of future forests can be represented by a functional of the form:

U = / (B,K,P,A,E,N) (29)

Y - species composition of future forests.

The type and nature of the required function is complex. It is necessary to give each of the elements B, PG, K, A, E, N a numerically significant value. Moreover, each of the 6 elements is itself a function of a complex of independent variables.

Thus, biological factors are determined by heredity, water metabolism of plants, gas exchange, nutrients, etc. Climatic - average temperatures, amount of precipitation, influx of solar radiation, etc. Soil - average size of soil particles, density, soil moisture, humus content, chemical composition of the soil , its temperature, moisture conductivity, etc. Agrotechnical - methods of planting, caring for crops, etc. Economic - production costs, profit, the need of the national economy for certain species and assortments, etc.

It is also necessary to take into account the non-materialized functions of the forest - its sanitary-hygienic, landscape-aesthetic, water-protection, soil-protective role, etc. The optimal variant of the species composition can be achieved only by considering all the mentioned factors and elements in combination. To do this, it is necessary, first of all, to determine the value of each factor of a given system in numerical terms, and also to establish its connection with the optimal set of tree species in the forest stands.

Considering the presence of relationships between m and the expected age of the culmination of current growth and the maximum manifestation of life processes in all tree species, it is possible to compare them with each other according to any vital indicators. A number of studies have been conducted to determine the desired indicators.

Determining nutritional resources in the soil, for example, involves analyzing mineral elements in a half-meter layer (the layer containing more than 80% of active roots). As a result of chemical studies in this layer, for example, on medium-turf, medium-podzol and medium-loamy soils on a moraine, 518 kg of nitrogen, 850 kg of potassium and 230 kg of phosphorus were discovered per 1 hectare of forest area.

The variation of nutrients in this soil layer is small. According to agrochemical research in agriculture, as these elements are found in the soil, it is necessary to establish the degree of soil saturation with fertilizers that affect the increase in crop productivity. These elements, as N.P. points out. Remezov (1953), become more stable when the soil is occupied by forest plantations, because the circulation of substances occurs. Thus, the identified amount of nutrients in the soil will be considered a conditionally constant value.

Determining the species composition in accordance with the requirements for soil conditions requires establishing the amount of nutrients required for the growth of 1 m3 of wood. Consequently, by determining the coefficients of removal of nutrients from the soil by different tree species, it is possible to determine the amount of nutrients that they absorb annually from the soil.

For these purposes, the amount of mobile mineral nutrients per 100 g of dry matter was determined in 90 models of different breeds at the age of the culmination of the current increase in all parts of the biomass. The amount of mineral elements per 100 g of dry matter was recalculated tenfold per 1 m3 of stem wood. Thus, the coefficients of removal of mineral elements from the soil for all tree species were obtained (Table 3).

Table 3.

Coefficients of removal of nutrients from the soil by tree species per growth of 1 m3 of stem wood

Batteries Coefficient values ​​for tree species

liven-nitsa pine spruce birch oak aspen linden

Nitrogen 1.3 1.7 2.1 3.8 6.7 3.2 5.9

Phosphorus 1.1. 0.6 1.1 1.0 1.4 0.8 0.8

Potassium 0.8 1.1 1.8 1.5 4.4 1.8 3.4

It was revealed that the coefficients of removal of nutrients from the soil for homogeneous plantings growing on different soils and under different climatic conditions have a constant value. For example, the nitrogen removal coefficient for pine, obtained on the basis of chemical studies of biomass carried out by different researchers at different times, was set at 1.7 ± 0.16 kg, with an error within the required accuracy. This confirms that the coefficients of removal of nutrients from the soil are constant and can be successfully used as standard indicators when programming the optimal rock composition.

Water consumption per 1 m3 of stem wood was determined according to the method of L.A. Ivanova (1962). For this purpose, a trial plot was established in the 3rd quarter of the Khatunsky forestry of the OPL “Russian Forest”. The studies were carried out at an air temperature of +23 C0 in sunny and windless weather,

As a result of the calculations, average data on water consumption for transpiration by species were obtained: pine - 14.3 tons of water per growing wood; spruce - 13 - t/.m1; birch - 28.5 t/.m1; oak - 56 t/l""; aspen - 25 t/l3; linden - 39.6 t/l3 and larch * 10.8 t/l"\

In addition to the indicated coefficients, to determine the optimal species composition of tree stands, it is desirable to have numerical values ​​of indicators characterizing the sanitary and hygienic role of tree species, soil-protective properties, efficiency of solar radiation use, frost resistance, windiness, etc.

To determine the sanitary and hygienic role of tree species, N.GT data were used. Tokina (1974), N.G. Krotova (1960). Based on them, it is possible to establish the time required for the destruction of environmental pathogens by different tree species. For example, for pine it is 28 minutes, for larch - 16, for spruce - 34, for birch - 19, for oak - 3 6, for aspen - 26, for linden - 40 minutes

In order to master the methodology for optimizing the species composition of future forests, based on economic and mathematical methods and PCs, we compiled many tasks to determine the species composition of future forests of the experimental forestry enterprise “Russian Forest”.

The tasks were formulated as follows. The contours and area of ​​each soil type (ha), nutrient resources per unit area (kg/ha), water resources (mm/ha), economic indicators for each breed (RUB/ha), resource consumption coefficients for each breed were known. per 1 m3 of growth for each factor. It was necessary to determine the species composition of future forests for each soil type that would ensure the greatest current increase in tree stands at the age of culmination in the given soil and climatic conditions. The mathematical model of problem 1 is physically represented by the expression:

R-X^X^tas (30)

given that:

] = 1,2,3 „„ p, I = 1,2,3, t

where: C/ - maximum increase from the designed rock composition;

X) - share of the growth of the species in the composition of the designed forest crops;

ay is the standard consumption coefficient of the 1st (natural) resource by breed;

qi.br natural and labor resources by ¡ factor; n is the number of breeds taking part in the problem; t is the number of factors.

Table 4.

Information bioecological matrix (medium soddy, medium podzolic, medium loamy soils on moraine)

Factors Key unknowns Limitations

X, X1 x. X, X* X,

X, and 0 0 0 0 0 0 24.8

X, 0 0 0 0 0 0 43.0

Xt 0 0 V 0 0 0 0 57.0

Х„ 0 0 0 5.8 0 0 0 46.0

X» 0 0 0 0 6.7 0 0 45.0

x13 0 0 0 0 0 3.2 0 43.5

Х„ 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.9 51.8

Chi 1.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 11.7

Xts 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 8.3

x„ 0 0 1.1 0 0 0 4 16.8

Chi 0 0 0 1.0 0 0 0 6.8

Chi 0 0 0 0 1.4 0 0 53

0 0 0 0 0 0,8 0 6,2

X» 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.8 3.3

x„ 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 19.5

X» 0 1.1 0 0 0 0 0 36.6

X « 0 0 1.8 0 0 0 0 65.0

x3! 0 0 0 V 0 0 0 24.8

X™ 0 0 0 0 4.4 0 0 32.0

0 0 0 0 0 1,8 0 32,4

Xa 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.4 39.0

Xtr 10.8 14.3 13.0 28.5 56.0 25.0 39.6 225.0

0,075 0,09 0,14 0,08 0.04 0.06 0,07 1,40

X>, 0.09 0.07 0.09 0.05 0.08 1.10

P -1 -1 -1 -1 -I -1 -1 Maximum gain

X[- larch;

x* - birch;

Cotton_aspen;

x8, x<>, xy, x12, x13, x14 - nitrogen consumption by rock; x”, X (2003) reports that the Greek government immediately after the war, when hundreds of well-known springs in the country began to dry up, gathered scientists of all specialties to discuss the environmental problem that had arisen. A decision was made to preserve and increase forests, urgent measures were taken to regulate the number of goats, the main pest of forests, and decisions were also made on the management of agriculture, forestry and municipal services in watersheds.

Thanks to the implementation of decisions taken, since 1947 the country's forest cover has increased by 12% and currently stands at 35%. Hundreds of springs appeared in Greece, and the environmental situation improved.

China has allocated 84 billion US dollars for watershed management for the first five-year plan of the 21st century. Thus, world experience convincingly shows that in sparsely forested areas of our country it is necessary to switch to watershed management.

The unit of economic activity in a watershed is the area from which the small river collects water.

The determining ecological principle of farming in these conditions should be the principle of continuity and inexhaustibility of the flow of water of the required quality into the water source. This is the main goal of optimizing integrated management of watersheds. It is not by chance that she is like this. After all, the availability of clean fresh water directly

human life and the socio-economic level of any region depend. Without a sufficient amount of water resources, the development of human society is impossible, especially in industrialized countries, where one person requires more than 500 liters of fresh water per day.

If we consider a watershed as an object of a comprehensive system of measures to maintain the balance of clean water, then optimization of the rational use of natural resources will depend on its two components - soil and vegetation.

Forests of a large catchment area for ecological forestry are divided into the following functional categories:

Protective forest strips along the banks of rivers, lakes, reservoirs and other water bodies;

Protective forest strips protecting the spawning grounds of valuable commercial fish;

Anti-erosion forests;

Protective forest strips along railways, highways of federal, republican and regional significance;

State protective forest belts;

Tape burs;

Forests in desert, semi-desert, steppe, forest-steppe, mountain areas, which are important for protecting the natural environment;

Forests of green zones of settlements and economic facilities;

Forests of resort sanatorium protection districts;

Forests of water supply protection zones;

Specially valuable forest areas;

Forests of scientific or historical significance;

Natural monuments;

Walnut forests;

Forest fruit plantations;

Tundra forests;

Forests of natural reserves;

Forests of national parks;

Forests of natural parks;

Reserved forest areas,

In turn, optimal surface runoff without the occurrence of erosion processes will be formed only with a rational structure of agricultural and forest lands (covered and not covered with forest), as well as lands used for housing, utilities and transport. Therefore, planning activities in the catchment should

carried out by land management, forest management and urban planning organizations together with hydrologists. In addition, the participation of economists will be required to assess the economic feasibility of the measures taken.

Until now, people, carrying out economic activities in the watershed, have mainly influenced it according to their personal or industry interests. Therefore, in world practice, the role of non-departmental long-term optimization of soil condition under the influence of water conservation, forestry and engineering-biological measures has emerged.

At the same time, in our country, the use of natural resources is still based primarily on the sectoral principle or on the enrichment of individuals, which has led to many negative consequences. If we analyze the historical path of forestry, we can see that over the past 50 years, during the construction of hydroelectric power stations, environmental factors were not taken into account; millions of hectares of forest were flooded, which subsequently became sources of water pollution and fish poisoning. Another millions of hectares were given over to power lines and new cities, without any calculations of efficiency and losses.

Livestock farming, especially pasture-stall farming, has a great influence on the state of the watershed, which contributes to soil destruction, environmental pollution with waste products (manure),

As a result of the departmental approach, the development of many cities is accompanied by the destruction of adjacent rural and forest lands. Thus, every industry consumes natural resources without thinking about the environmental consequences,

From the above it follows that as the scale and number of types of targeted human impact on the nature of the watershed increases, the problems of maintaining the balance of clean water become more complex. In this regard, the role of optimization of economic activities, taking into account all possible natural, environmental and economic factors, is increasing.

The impact of dynamic processes occurring during management activities on any watershed can be determined using a model that involves factors that reflect physical and chemical changes that contribute to maintaining an optimal ecological state. Quantitative parameters in a watershed include three types of balances: water, biological and biochemical.

So, theoretically, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of water in a catchment are determined as functions of the parameters of the catchment at time I:. Changes in the state of the watershed, and accordingly, the quality and quantity of water, can theoretically be described by differential

an equation where the differential of a function of many variables is equal to the sum of its partial differentials with respect to these variables:

W - water resources;

B - biological resources;

O - nutritional resources,

Equation 36 serves only as a theoretical framework for optimizing processes in a watershed. It is not suitable for establishing a specific characteristic of the state of water.

To organize a drainage basin as an economic object, a set of agricultural, forestry and hydrological techniques is required, ensuring in the future optimal structural changes in agricultural, communal and other lands. This means the integrated use of natural resources, which, along with the production of wood and non-wood products, preserves and develops all other components.

As noted by O.V. Chubaty and N.A. (1984) Voronkov, the method of managing watersheds involves compliance with agronomic, silvicultural and sanitary-hygienic requirements, depending on the condition and structure of the areas. The system of such management helps to solve the problem of preserving the entire complex of beneficial environment-forming influence of the forest with the simultaneous rational use of forest resources and ensuring a constant balance of clean water in the river. However, according to Yu. Odum, the reasons for the disturbance of the water balance in the catchment area cannot be detected if we consider only water as an object. Water resources suffer due to poor management of the entire catchment area, which is taken as an economic unit. The provision of production, executive and regulatory bodies with the analytical materials necessary for the implementation of water and soil conservation measures will make it possible to maintain and improve the environmental conditions of the catchment area.

7. UPDATED AGE DYNAMICS OF TREE STANDS, ECOLOGICAL MONITORING OF FORESTS WITH CONTINUOUS

FORESTRY

The Forest Code of the Russian Federation (1997, Article 69) outlines the development of forest monitoring in order to organize a system of observations, assessments, forecasts of the state and dynamics of the forest fund for the implementation

public administration in the field of use, protection, protection of the forest fund, forest reproduction and strengthening of their environmental functions.

The objects of economic activity in the forest are forest areas of forestry enterprises. They represent plantings of different species, age, quality and completeness. In addition, among the forested areas there are areas that are not occupied by forest. The task of forestry is not only to preserve and improve their condition, but also to increase their productivity and restore areas not covered by forest.

Forest management determines the economic activity of an enterprise through reasonable calculations. These calculations constitute the main content of forest management as a scientific discipline. The main task of forest management is to establish scientifically based forest management, including the amount of annual forest felling, as well as the use of other types of utilities.

Continuous forest management, considered as a method, is an automated system for annual updating of the forest fund, taking into account natural temporary changes in the growth and development of plantings and impacts occurring due to economic activities and climatic factors.

Continuous forest management should function on the basis of multifactor models and programs for PC calculations. The basis for continuous forest management is a database of taxation indicators for areas covered and not covered with forest.

7.1, Updating taxation indicators of forest plantations

In forest areas where economic activities are carried out, natural annual changes occur in the growth and development of plantings due to the time factor. However, a reliable method for accounting for current changes in the forest fund of an enterprise has not yet been created.

Modeling a system for updating forest stands is a description of mathematical models of the growth of forest stands in height, diameter and stock, taking into account their completeness. Quantitative descriptions of the progress of planting growth in domestic and foreign literature began at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries (SigarrasM908,1911; Tkachenko 1911; Orlov 1926; Tretyakov 1927, etc.).

It was these works that created the prerequisites for updating the age-related dynamics of growth and development of forest stands.

According to our research, forecasting the growth dynamics of tree stands is best done on the basis of relative values ​​- growth rates, defined as the ratio of a taxation indicator taken at any age to the value of this indicator at a fixed age.

To determine the growth indices of forest plantations, more than 4,000 trees were examined and measured in 60 permanent sample plots,

The dynamics of growth indices of any taxation indicator is determined by the following mathematical model:

^(1) = ae (37)

where: ¿ш (1) - growth index of the 1st indicator by age (I); a - coefficient, depending on the breed and taxation indicator, is described by a family of curves that decrease with increasing age;

B is an adjustment factor that changes over periods of growth. The predicted values ​​of taxation indicators for growth indices are determined using the above mathematical model,

Ll,(1o) - growth index of the 1st taxation indicator at initial age; K^O - correction factor of the 1st taxation indicator depending on the completeness and age of the tree stand.

The correction factor for adjusting the stock for the 1st breed depending on completeness is determined by the formula:

(u+s)P,)P, (38)

where KP)(0 is the reserve coefficient ■ of the rock; a, b, c are regression coefficients;

age of the forest stand in dynamics, years; P - relative completeness of the forest stand, units.

The proposed equations are compiled for plantings of the highest and lowest productivity. It was revealed that the theoretical values ​​of growth indices are close values ​​for any quality class. For example, the growth index of pine stands with the highest productivity at 100 years of age is 100.18, and for the lowest productivity it is 100.57. The difference is only 0.39%.

Growth indices for height, diameter and stock of pine, spruce, birch, aspen, alder, oak (seed and coppice origin), linden, ash and larch plantations were calculated (Lyameborshai S.Kh. 1997) for periods of growth and productivity. As an example, models of growth progress in height, diameter and stock of pine plantations are given (Table 7).

Table 7.

Parameters of predictive models of growth dynamics of the main taxation indicators of pine stands by age periods

Average tree stand height, m

period from 5 to 50 years period from 51 to 75 years period from 76 to 100 years period from 101 to 165 years Н=5.7374еадвд - 13.8524 Н=3.8135е°"7b(") + 9.9369 Н= 2.b084e + 34.7662 N= ],41640e °"7K<) +65,825

Average tree stand diameter, cm

period from 5 to 35 years period from 36 to 65 years period from 66 to 165 years (,) +29.9868

Growing stock, m"1 per 1 ha

period from 5 to 30 years period from 31 to 65 years period from 66 to 100 years period from 101 to 135 years period from 136 to 165 years M = 4.384be - 16.8399 M = 5.7414e °"7|p(1 ) - 29.8223 M=3.4419е<,"110(,)+ 14,1656 М=1,9683е Мп(1) +51,2201 М=1,1498е 0,7,л(")+76,6014

So, the growth indices of taxation indicators of forest plantations can be determined using the given mathematical models. It should be noted that the highest limit of the age of approximation is the age limit of model trees. Using mathematical models, it is possible to predict taxation indicators up to the age of natural ripeness.

Forecasting and updating of taxation indicators is carried out as follows. Let us assume that it is necessary to determine the average height, average diameter and stock of pine stands at 50 years of age, when it is known that these indicators in a 40-year-old stand are 23.6 m in height, 13.2 cm in diameter, and 202 me/ha in stock. The indicator values ​​calculated using the corresponding models will be equal to height 16.37 m, diameter 16.46 cm, reserve 258.23 m3/ha

Thus, it is possible to update the taxation indicators of any department, quarter, forest district, forestry enterprise to the age of natural ripeness of the forest stand.

7.2. Updating taxation indicators of areas covered and not covered by forest under anthropogenic impact

To update the forest fund, taking into account economic activities, the development of multifactor models and calculation programs on a PC is of great value in order to identify and evaluate negative and

positive environmental consequences of forest management in various conditions and justification of a set of measures for their improvement. In order to quickly take into account changes occurring in the forest fund, it is necessary to regularly carry out forest management work and create forest fund data banks on the basis of this information with annual updating.

The creation of a data bank should be carried out by carrying out a basic forest management with the creation of a departmental data bank and maintaining a data bank of the forest fund of enterprises based on materials from repeated forest management.

Maintaining a data bank and recording current changes in the forest fund is carried out by specially created updating groups, whose responsibilities should include:

a) organizing the collection of information, conducting technical training with personnel collecting data on certain activities,

b) providing performers with relevant instructions and input information forms, acceptance and control of the accuracy of completed forms for current changes in the forest fund,

c) making changes to the data bank and updating the taxation data of the departments taking into account the changes that occur.

The forest fund updating group must periodically conduct a tax assessment of individual areas where doubts arise about the reliability of the information.

In addition to economic changes, changes that occur as a result of natural and climatic factors must also be entered into the data bank.

If an economic or organizational event is carried out over the entire area of ​​the allotment, then the forest fund updating group must adjust the regulatory and reference information taking into account the specifics of farming.

Based on temporary changes in the course of growth and under the influence of economic activities, at any time it is possible to obtain updated information about the forest fund and give a new description of taxation descriptions, totals of area and reserves by quarter, characteristics of plantings excluded from the calculation of main use, the commodity and assortment structure of the forest exploitation fund, characteristics of areas by types of reforestation, characteristics of the distribution of forested areas by groups of age classes, quality and density of forest stands, and other information.

Based on updated information, it is possible to annually adjust all planned activities, and especially the estimated cutting area.

The main documents reflecting changes in the forest fund based on ongoing forestry activities are:

Taxation description of the latest forest management;

Acts and work sheets for acceptance of silvicultural works;

Acts of allotment of forest seed plots;

Acts of transferring forest crops to forested areas;

Acts on write-off of dead crops;

Reports of surveys of changes occurring during natural disasters (windfall, snowfall, windfall, waterlogging of areas, etc.);

Book of forest pests and diseases;

Book of registration of forest fires;

Materials for the allocation of cutting areas;

Statement of material and monetary valuation of cutting areas;

Certificates of inspection of harvested timber and felling sites;

Book of forest maintenance fellings;

Materials for tapping coniferous stands;

The act of transferring plantings to tapping;

The decision of government bodies and state institutions to transfer areas from one category of forest to another, to change boundaries, etc.

7.3. Assessment of the ecological state of the forest environment

In forest management design, a necessary condition for making optimal decisions is the ability to predict the environmental consequences of past management. As is known, chemical fertilizers and drainage, seemingly aimed at increasing forest productivity without taking into account their impact on the environment, lead to a deterioration of the ecological situation leading to the death of birds and animals, the disappearance of many species, mushrooms and berries, changes in water regime, and migration of waterfowl. , increasing the risk of forest fires.

The deterioration of the condition of plantings from unjustified measures in the forest is expressed in a decrease in completeness, undesirable changes in the vertical and horizontal age structure and species composition, the development of erosion processes, and a decrease in the overall productivity and viability of plantings.

Thus, economic activity in the forest without maintaining the ecological balance leads to negative phenomena that worsen the condition of the forest fund. Of course, during the exploitation of forests it is impossible to avoid the negative impact on plantings, but if environmental rules are observed, it can be reduced to a minimum. However, it is difficult to accurately determine environmental damage, since it depends on the combination of a large number of overlapping factors that vary over time and in intensity - soil, biological, forestry,

technical, technological, as well as climatic and geographical nature.

Despite these difficulties, science has resolved a number of issues of this problem. The task of modern researchers is to collect all the developments and, on their basis, build a model for assessing the negative environmental consequences of forest management.

Many Russian natural scientists have long defended the idea of ​​a connection between an organism and its environment. K.A. Timiryazev not only experimentally proved its presence, but also established the biological conditionality of this connection. A.A. Nartov’s work “On sowing forests” examines the relationship between the species, the quality of the forest and the soil. M.K. Tursky noted that a particular place may have a high quality factor for one breed and low for another, more demanding on soil and climatic conditions. In 1899 G.F. Morozov wrote: “In forestry, the measure of soil quality is the planting itself, or rather, its elements such as stock, average growth or height.” A.A. Krvdener in 1916 expressed the connection between the growing conditions of plants through bonitet. With the introduction of the bonus scale M.M. Orlov’s designation of bonitet as an indicator characterizing the production of a forest stand through soil fertility became obvious.

The need for an accurate assessment of the relationship between forest plantations and their growing conditions is still felt. P.S. devoted his works to this topic. Pogrebnyak (1954), V.N. Sukachev (1961), D.V. Vorobyov (1953) and others. I.I. studied this issue in particular detail. Smolyannikov (1960). He showed that soil fertility cannot be characterized by any one characteristic; a fairly complete system of them is required to reveal the reasons for the formation of forest stands of one or another productivity. However, the main factor determining the influence of the main components in a particular geographical area is the soil.

In order for soil fertility to remain unchanged, it is necessary to protect it from water erosion. In the case of soil depletion and transition from one state of depletion to another, the life span of forest plantations decreases accordingly.

The optimal ecological state of the forest fund is the state in which the socio-economic functions assigned to the landscape most closely correspond to its natural properties. This is a task in which it is supposed to find a compromise solution that allows maximum use of the beneficial properties of the landscape in relation to a separate factor, without disturbing the ecological balance.

However, the ecological state of the forest fund is not a frozen concept. It may change over time and under the influence of economic activity.

To bring a landscape out of an unsatisfactory state, it is often enough to reduce the impact of one or another factor.

Interim assessments of the ecological state indicate the extent of deviation from the optimal one and are a timely warning of the deterioration of the forest environment, a kind of signal for prescribing measures to normalize the environmental situation. Based on the above, an automated system for assessing environmental damage has been developed.

7.4. Assessment of environmental damage due to anthropogenic impact on forests

The problem of protecting forest resources from technogenic and recreational impacts and assessing the environmental condition and damage from violation of forest management rules affects a complex of socio-economic, political, and cultural relations in society.

One of the most pressing tasks of the state is the decisive suppression of environmentally destructive forms of exploitation of forest resources, as well as the timely elimination of damage from anthropogenic impact.

Damage from anthropogenic impact is divided into two categories: damage from emissions of toxic elements from factories, factories and vehicles and damage directly caused by an individual or group of people (cutting down trees, destruction of certain landscapes by development, damage to plantings by fire due to the fault of visitors, etc.). Damage caused directly by a person or group of people is determined by replacement cost.

Damage from emissions of toxic elements into the atmosphere entails air and ground pollution and contamination of the soil layer. To assess the damage from emissions, a methodology for determining it was developed, tested on the forest plantations of the JI.H. museum-estate. Tolstoy "Yasnaya Polyana". The plantings created mainly during the writer’s lifetime were subjected to industrial emissions from the Shchekino chemical plant. In addition, according to calculations carried out using the developed methodology (Lyameborshai), the life of oak plantations was reduced by 150 years, birch - by 20 years and linden - by 50 years. The deterioration of forest plantations continues today. The main reason is industrial emissions (sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, ammonia, etc.), which in the first years of the plant’s operation were tens of times higher than the maximum permissible concentrations.

The assessment of environmental damage is a measure of the actual change in the taxation indicators of plantings compared to the background state. This assessment is made by comparing the dynamics of natural

growth of plantings with similar indicators of plantings growing under technogenic pressure.

The main information sources regulating the solution of such problems are the Sanitary Rules in the Forests of the Russian Federation and the Sanitary Rules in the Forests of the Moscow Region (Table B).

I Tree stand without signs of weakening; the needles and foliage are green, shiny, the crown is dense, the growth of the last year is normal for this breed and age

II Weakened plantings with needles and foliage that are lighter than usual, a crown that is weakly lacy, the growth of the last year, reduced by more than half compared to similar plantings without signs of weakening, defoliation 11 - 20%, discoloration 2-10%

III Plantings are very weakened; the needles and foliage are light green or grayish-matte, the crown is lacy, the current year's growth is reduced by more than half compared to normal, local death of the trunk is observed, defoliation 30-50%, dechromation 10-15%

IV Drying trees; the needles and foliage are yellowish or yellow-green, the crown is noticeably sparse, the current year’s growth is barely noticeable or absent, dryness or deadness is possible, defoliation 60-70%, dechromation 20-25%

V Dry trees of the current year; needles, foliage - gray, yellow or brown, branches are still preserved, bark is sparse, but preserved or only partially crumbled, defoliation 80-100%, dechromation 60-70%

VI Dry trees from previous years; needles and foliage fell off, branches broke off, most of the branches and bark fell off, defoliation 100% and dechromation 100%

To identify the category of sanitary condition, trial plots are established with the number of trees of at least 100 specimens of the main tier. When counting, all trees are assessed according to their sanitary condition and the average amount of damage to the plantings is found.

The arithmetic average of the percentage of damaged trees on the trial plot (L) serves as the initial information for determining

The main questions when calculating the amount of damage from technogenic impact on the forest were to determine how many gradations of ecological state can be distinguished in the forest for the timely elimination of the causes causing deterioration of the ecological state.

In the forest, when visually determining the ecological state of the forest, two types of plantings are distinguished: normally stable and disturbed, non-decaying. But this is clearly not enough to make the right decision in a timely manner to eliminate possible causes of environmental problems. Research of the forests of the museum-estate L.N. Tolstoy “Yasnaya Polyana”, according to the instructions of the European Union on forest monitoring, perhaps with a certain degree of convention, the first two categories of sanitary condition were divided into 4 categories. At the same time, it became possible to distinguish 8 ecological states in the forest.

The first state represents healthy plantings, the second characterizes normal stable plantings with minor damage (relating to 1.3 sanitary state with discoloration of no more than 3%), in which the damage from the influence of various factors is small and they can be restored to their original state without much expense. The third state characterizes relatively weakened plantings, belonging to the 1.6 sanitary state, where discoloration reaches 6%, They gave the characteristic - quickly turning into stably stable. The fourth state characterizes weakened stands, slowly turning into stable ones.

The last four states (related, respectively, to the III, IV, V and VI sanitary conditions) characterize severely weakened plantings. They are assigned characteristics - slowly turning into an unstable state, turning into an unstable state at an average speed, quickly turning into an unstable state, unstable or decayed stands. Converting these plantings to stable ones requires the involvement of significant material, monetary and labor resources.

The division of plantings into eight qualitative categories, in our opinion, is very acceptable for the timely detection of the negative impact of factors on the forest, especially since each state corresponds to a certain sanitary condition.

Stable-sustainable (s,) are considered those plantings whose growth in growth phases corresponds to the growth of reference ones growing in similar conditions in the same growth phases, without any impact.

State C corresponds to the normally stable development of plantings and is taken equal to one. The state of any ecological level, depending on the impact, will vary from

ones to zero.

A commercial forest is considered to be normally stable when the plantings, aged from one year to the age of felling, are evenly distributed over the area of ​​the farm. However, with intensive farming, such distribution is only a theoretical prerequisite.

For plantings that perform water-protective and soil-protective functions, according to our research (B.S. Chuenkov, S.Kh. Lyameborshai, V.N. Giryachev), the vertical age structure of the stock of forest generations, taking into account the dynamics of phytomass, transpiration, consumption of nutrients and carbon sequestration (according to A.S. Isaev, G.N. Korovin, V.I. Sukhikh and others), received the following distribution: the supply of young animals of the first age class is 2%, the second is 19%, middle-aged 39%, ripening - 21%, ripe and overmature forest stands 19%. Only forest stands of different ages can be characterized by such indicators. To solve this problem, the linear programming method was used.

For the Central Economic Region, normally stable plantings are considered to be those in which the area of ​​mixed forests occupied by coniferous species is at least 60%. Plantings that have damage from fig insect pests of no more than 10% of the total area are also considered to be normally stable. Forest management in these forests is considered normal provided that the cutting does not exceed 5% of the estimated logging area. At the same time, the area of ​​swampy burnt areas and clearings over 20 years should not be more than 5%. Plantings are considered mature when 80% of the trees are older than or equal to the age of felling.

Stable biogeocenoses are always mixed (I„), the optimal ratio of such mixing is 0.4,

Variation area: 0.4 yit< 0,4

where: Рм - the presence of deciduous species in young growth of the first and second age classes%;

rl| - presence of deciduous trees throughout the entire farm area, %,

In our conditions, the criteria for assessing the ecological state of an ecosystem are the indicators given in Table 7, which reflect the degree or measure of remoteness of one state from another and allow us to rank plantings according to the level of change in anthropogenic impact on the forest.

Table 7.

Classification of the ecological state of plantings according to the degree of damage, reduction in growth by stock and sanitary condition

Item No. Ecological state of damage and reduction Sanitary

planting growth by stock condition

1 Stably stable 0-4 0 1.0

2 Rapidly turning into stable stable 4.1 - 10 2.3 1.3

3 Transitioning to stable stable at an average speed 10.1 - 20 11.6 1.6

4 Slowly turning into stable stable 20.1 -30 16.2 N

5 Slowly turning into an unstable state 16.2 - 53 46.4 Ш

6 Transitioning to an unstable state at an average speed of 53.1 - 60 69.6 IV

7 Rapidly becoming unstable 60.1 -67 92.8 V

8 Decayed plantings 67.1 - 90 100 VI

The amount of environmental damage from technogenic and recreational impacts in physical and monetary terms, in different directions of economic losses, can be represented in the form of the following mathematical expression:

where: 7=1,2,3......p, is the type of damage,

U; - damage from a decrease in forest productivity (loss in growth, changes in assortment structure), rub./ha;

Уг - damage from reduction of secondary use reserves, rub./ha;

Uz - damage from a decrease in the anti-erosion function of the forest, rub./ha;

U4 - damage associated with the costs of restoring degraded

plantings, rub./ha,

Y, - economic damage associated with the aging of plantings, rubles/ha;

U6 - damage from recreation, rub./ha.

Environmental damage from a decrease in forest productivity - U1 is defined as the difference between the stock per I hectare that was before the technogenic impact in the plantings under study and the actual stock. Thus, the change in the assortment structure of the forest stand (RUB/ha) is also determined.

Environmental damage from a decrease in side use -U2 is defined as the difference in economic estimates of reserves of side use before and after technogenic or recreational impact on the forest according to the formula:

where: E„, - economic assessment of the reserve per 1 hectare of resources of that type of by-product use before and after the impact of negative factors on the forest, rubles/ha.

Environmental damage from a decrease in the anti-erosion functions of the forest -U5 is defined as the difference between the cadastral value of 1 hectare of land before and after soil erosion (RUB).

Environmental damage associated with the costs of restoring degraded plantings - U4 is determined only for specially protected forests and is established as the amount of costs for the “treatment” of degraded trees, soil restoration, etc. (RUB/ha).

Economic damage associated with the aging of plantings -U takes into account the impact of aging in the deterioration of sanitary condition from the second half of the age of natural ripeness (rub./ha).

The age of natural ripeness (Ser) is determined by the formula:

C(p = bl (42)

where: - age of quantitative ripeness for the i-th breed, is defined as:

t = _ -Ш-¿-mpah (43)

where: Sv - stock of plantings per 1 hectare at age (m3/ha);

Y, (g) is the predicted growth index of breed I at time - r;

GA/")-growth index of 1 breed at age^;

Y, (/ -1) - growth index of 1 breed at (I-1);

Damage from recreation - U6 is determined using the same equation as when assessing technogenic impact.

7.5. Loss of plant productivity due to recreational loads on the forest

Of particular importance at the present stage is the problem of protecting forest landscapes located near cities and towns, where recreational loads are very high. If the flows of recreationists are not regulated in a timely manner, then such landscapes may collapse and die over time (Lyameborshai, 1995). In this regard, the problem of optimizing recreational loads on forest landscapes arises.

Determining the strength of the influence of anthropogenic impact on the forest environment requires the development of standards that determine the sustainability of forests. They must take into account changes in the state of the forest environment, in which the oscillation from the central position would not go beyond the acceptable state. Environmental standards must be defined in such a way that the ecosystem within these boundaries is in accordance with the specified parameters.

Since field studies of recreational loads are carried out on a limited scale, many standards are based not on mass material, but on data from single observations, or are taken from different sources without taking into account typicality.

Since recreational load is characterized by the degree of direct influence of people (visitors) on a specific landscape, it is expressed by their number per unit area in a certain period of time. There are optimal and destructive (destructive) loads, which are determined by the degree of impact on the ecosystem and are characterized from weak, not leading to significant changes in the landscape, to catastrophic, during which the ecosystem is completely destroyed.

The daily destructive load of different landscapes is not the same. Pine forests are the most sensitive to it, blueberry spruce forests are twice as resistant, and birch forests are four times more resistant. For example, the Polish researcher A. Kostrovsky established that the maximum weekly attendance for dry forest is 46 people per 1 hectare, for fresh forest from 50 to 90 people, for fresh meadow from 124 to 196. The permissible load according to A. Kostrovsky is determined by as the maximum number of people who, moving without a break for 8 hours on 1 hectare of a given landscape, lead the grass cover to the beginning of degradation. Later, clarifications were made to this definition, in particular, it was noted that an acceptable type of degradation can be considered one in which, on the entire trampled area of ​​3 m2, there is at least one area of ​​1 dm2 where the grass cover is completely destroyed. At the same time, it is quite obvious that the degree of load is influenced by the terrain. Landscapes where the relief angle is more than 12% should be excluded from recreational use.

The mechanical properties of soils also affect the magnitude of the permissible load. For example, on sand, the influence of recreants is more destructive than on loam.

The stability of a natural territorial complex is understood as its ability to withstand recreational loads up to a certain limit, beyond which there is a loss of its ability to self-heal. V.P. Chizhova and E.D. Smirnov provides the following standards for the maximum permissible number of vacationers in various types of natural complexes in the central zone of the European territory of Russia (Table 8).

Table 8

Standards for the maximum permissible number of vacationers in various types of natural complexes per 1 hectare

Soil types and recreation methods Groups of forest types

spruce forests dry spruce forests wet pine forests dry pine forests wet birch forest and dry birch forest and wet

Gently undulating loamy rabbis: - for short-term rest - for long-term rest 30 11 20 7 35 12 25 9 50 18 37 13

Flat plains composed of loams with layers of forests - during short-term and long-term rest 20 7 12 4 25 9 15 5 37 13 25 9

Many studies are based on the concept of the stages of recreational digression. In total, there are five stages of digression, characterized by the following changes in forest landscapes:

1. Human activity has not made any noticeable changes to the forest complex;

2. Human recreational impact is expressed in the stability of a sparse network of paths, in the appearance of herbaceous plants of some light-loving species (initial phase), and destruction of litter;

3. The path network is relatively dense, light-loving species predominate in the herbaceous cover, meadow grasses are also beginning to appear, the thickness of the litter decreases, forest regeneration is still satisfactory in the intra-path areas;

4. Paths entangle the forest in a dense network; there are few actual forest species in the herbaceous cover, there is virtually no viable growth (5-7 years), litter is found only fragmentarily near tree trunks;

5. Complete absence of undergrowth and regrowth, isolated specimens in the trampled area are weeds and annual grass species;

The limit of stability of a natural complex, i.e. the limit after which irreversible changes occur is between the III and IV stages of digression. Accordingly, the maximum permissible load is taken to be the one that corresponds to stage III of digression. Irreversible changes in the natural complex begin at stage IV, and the threat of death of forest plantations appears at stage V of digression.

Table 8. Standards for the maximum permissible number of vacationers in various types of natural complexes per 1 hectare

To determine the maximum permissible loads, we carried out field surveys on 20 trial plots established in the Yauzsky forest park “Losiny Ostrov”. The survey results are shown in Table 9.

Table 9.

Indicators of recreational load in forest plantations __ Yauzsky forest park

w sample area Miieralization, % Stage of digression Soil compaction by category, kg/cm Loss of growth, %

trail network of the recreation area under PODOG leca (control

1 12.40 GU 6.00 5.00 3.60 9.60

2 6.00 w 7.00 - 3.70 4.00

3 3.60 p 8.16 - 3.10 2.40

4 1.20 c 3.00 - 2.30 1.20

5 0.30 I 2.40 3.60 1.80 0.80

b 2.10 11 3.36 4.80 2.45 1.60

7 10.70 IY 4.55 4.77 2.37 8.00

8 0.57 I 2.50 - 1.74 0.90

9 0 1 - - 1,82 0

10 0.60 I 2.66 - 1.60 0.91

P 3.46 II 326 - 1.90 2.35

12 4,42 11 4,10 4,20 2,32 3,20

13 2.00 AND 6.80 7.00 1.67 2.00

14 1,62 11 4,66 - 2,20 1,62

15 1.28 11 4.20 3.95 2D0 U8

16 0.85 I 3.24 - 1.80 0.85

17 US c 2.95 - 1.80 1.28

18 2.44 II 2.80 4.60 2.25 2.50

19 1.20 c 5.26 5.0 1.74 1.20

20 0.96 and 2.00 - 1.71 0.96

From Table 9 it follows that the loss of growth directly depends on the degree of mineralization of the ground cover, which, in turn, determines the stage of digression and soil density. These factors are derived from the degree of recreational load.

The pattern of decline in growth depending on recreational load is best approximated by economic-statistical models, which reveal not how the system achieves a certain state, but the processes of its functioning. Economic-statistical models, like any other models, are a simplified version of the process being studied. Formally, economic-statistical models represent one or another system of equations that links together indicators that characterize the most significant properties of the process from the point of view of the stated goal. The selection of these properties and the development of a logical scheme for communication between the CI&T are carried out informally. The inadmissibility of replacing functional connections with correlation ones is proven mathematically.

The statistical regression model is designed to describe the objectively existing relationship between growth loss and the degree of soil mineralization and the number of recreants affecting mineralization. The equation is:

P=0.335+ 0.021 M, + 0.033 MtH,+ 0.024 I* + 0.0001 Chr2 (44)

P - loss of growth, %;

M,-mineralization of the ground cover,%;

Chr - the number of recreants per 1 hectare per year, the coefficient of determination (16 = 0.898), the significance of the numerical coefficients of the equation ((^Ni = 2.0) indicate the reliability of the results obtained. Knowing the impact of digression on the state of plantings, it is possible to calculate the permissible number of recreants. On the other hand, the stage of digression is directly related to the percentage of mineralization of the ground cover. Thus, the number of recreants (Nr) can be determined depending on the percentage of mineralization of the ground cover using the following equation of the form:

H„ = 24.37+ 12.29l/, -0.35L/„g (45)

The coefficient of determination (KZ-0.887) indicates that in 88.7% of cases the regression equation reflects the possibility of determining the number of recreants from the degree of soil mineralization. The solution to the problem was not completed entirely correctly, since the independent variable should be the number of recreants, and the dependent variable should be the degree of soil mineralization.

If it is possible to determine the number of recreants, then the percentage of mineralization can be determined using an equation of the form:

MP= -0.64+0.024,+0.0007U, 3 (46)

The above equations allow us to establish the amount of growth loss from tourism.

After carrying out many calculations and analysis of environmental damage for each factor without taking into account the loss of secondary use, we obtained the results shown in Table 10.

Table 10.

Specific loss of growth in stock and caused environmental damage in

forest plantations

1 2 3 5 10 20 30 60 80 90 1,55 3,5 5,6 9,0 17,4 34,0 49,4 86,0 97,8 100

The presented results of environmental damage from loss of growth indicate the manifestation of a pronounced regular change.

Based on this pattern, an integral formula for determining environmental damage in rubles was obtained for tree stands of different age structures, pure and mixed in composition with the presence of economic activity, or technogenic impact, recreational load, etc.

Y, ^M^.EtP + X^ (47)

Economic losses from aging are determined by:

M\ is the stock of plantings of the same species without anthropogenic impact,

T - forest tax rates for the ¿-th species, rub./m3; 1g1 - age of quantitative ripeness according to the stock of the i-th breed, quality before anthropogenic impact, years;

Tf - the actual age of the rock in question, provided that (fa 3.5^,;

b^- cost of by-products before the impact of anthropogenic factors, rub./ha;

Ъш - actual cost of by-products, rubles.

Loss of growth, % Environmental damage, %

7.6. Distribution of damage between polluting enterprises

environment

As is known, the impact of industrial emissions on forest plantations depends on the volume of harmful substances emitted into the atmosphere and on the distance to the object of influence. Therefore, environmental damage (in %), according to the data obtained and according to the observed environmental stages, is distributed among the culprits in proportion to the volume of emissions divided by the distance to the object using the formula:

g-^yzg100" (49)

where: K, - the volume of emissions from the /-th enterprise according to the posts

meteorological service; Р„ - number of days with the direction of the winds bringing emissions

enterprises per object; £„ - distance in km. from the object to the /th enterprise.

8. ETHICS OF ECOLOGICAL FOREST MANAGEMENT

Forest management as a mirror reflects culture, the level of scientific and technical support, the state’s concern for the future of forests, the environmental well-being of society and its continuous provision of forest resources.

In this regard, it is necessary for the state to pursue a more active environmental policy. In our research (Lyameborshai, 2003), an attempt was made to formulate rules and norms of human behavior during forest management, be it logging, picking mushrooms, berries, or recreation.

Ethics is a philosophical doctrine about morality, about the rules of human behavior in all cases of life. Ethics also refers to the norms and set of moral rules for how people treat each other and the world around them.

Ethics of ecological forest management in a broad sense is the environmentally oriented behavior of people in all areas of contact with nature, in a narrow sense - compliance with legal norms for the rational use of forest resources.

The ethical topic includes two interrelated aspects: the ethics of human behavior in the forest and the ethics of using forest resources. The first one seems obvious, a person in the forest must be disciplined,

do not make fires in prohibited places, do not throw burning matches or unextinguished cigarette butts, do not damage trees with an ax or other sharp objects, do not dig unnecessary holes, do not throw garbage in recreation areas, etc. The basics of forest management ethics are also quite simple. This is compliance with technological discipline, moral approach and legal norms when harvesting forest crops. It consists in the development of the forest area according to the methods and rules of felling in accordance with the Forestry Legislation.

Citizens are obliged to comply with fire safety rules in forests, to prevent breaking and felling of trees and shrubs, damage to forest crops, littering of forests, destruction and destruction of anthills and bird nests, and also to comply with other requirements of the legislation of the Russian Federation. The developed rules of forest management ethics are fully set out in the monograph “Basic principles and methods of ecological forest management” (Lyameborshai, 2003).

To substantiate the ethical standards for the use of forest resources (wood, mushrooms, berries, hunting fauna), special research is needed, which, together with legal norms and environmental policy of the state, will constitute the ethics of forest management.

Conclusions and offers

1. The optimal size of the forest resource base is determined by a set of economic indicators (costs of cultivation, harvesting and transportation), silvicultural indicators (average growth for the enterprise, average stock of mature stands), geographical indicators (terrain, forest cover of the territory) and social factor (forestry availability of the population) .

2. Optimization of felling ages within the enterprise is determined by the minimum amount of reduced costs, including the costs of growing, harvesting and transporting wood,

3. The size of the estimated cutting area is determined systematically, taking into account the dynamics of the stock of mature and overmature forest stands, the availability of safety stock, the rate of ripening of forest stands using mathematical expressions of the weight type.

4. The target species composition of forest stands is formed taking into account the greatest compliance of tree species with ecological (soil) conditions, criteria based on the target function with a maximum of the current increase in the stock at the age of the culmination of the increase. The target species composition increases the productivity of forest stands by an average of 20 percent.

5. Optimization of reproduction and use of forest resources is an economic category that allows for a complex process of managing production in blocks. The block system is functioning

hierarchically; region - enterprise - forestry - homogeneous growing conditions - forest taxation department. As a result, we obtain optimal volumes of forest development, intermediate and main use, as well as processing of wood raw materials.

6. Ecological methods of forest management should be used taking into account the characteristics of all types of land (agricultural purposes, forestry, urban planning) and balanced in biological, chemical and water areas.

7. Forecasting the growth and development of plantings as the main element of updating the forest fund is carried out using a system of models taking into account age stages of growth.

8. Taking into account current changes during continuous forest management forms the basis for predictive changes in both plantings and environmental conditions.

9. The assessment of environmental damage due to anthropogenic impact on forest phytocenoses is carried out according to the integral indicator of the formation of forest stand productivity - the loss of current growth, by-products and environment-forming functions of the forest. Compensation for damage caused by industrial enterprises should be carried out differentiated, taking into account the remoteness of the enterprise from the forest site, the volume of emissions, and wind direction.

10. An algorithm has been proposed for calculating the size of the forest resource base, taking into account a complex of economic, forestry, geographical and social indicators while observing the principle of continuity and sustainability of forest management.

11. An algorithm for selecting design cutting areas by area and stock is proposed, taking into account environmental, economic and silvicultural factors.

12. A new method for optimizing cutting ages has been proposed, taking into account the need for assortments and the potential output of assortments while minimizing the amount of reduced costs for forest growing, harvesting and transportation of wood.

13. A new way of monitoring the state of forests and updating the forest fund of naturally formed forest stands and under the influence of economic activities has been proposed.

14. A methodology has been proposed for optimizing the reproduction and use of forest resources based on block programming of the hierarchical subordination of optimization objects.

15. A new methodology for assessing environmental damage from anthropogenic impacts on forest ecosystems has been proposed.

16. A new approach to forestry and forest management in watersheds is proposed based on the balance of biological, water resources and nutrients.

List of main publications on the topic of the dissertation:

Monographine

1. Basic principles and methods of ecological forest management/S.Kh. Lyameborshai/VNIILM 2003,296 p.

2. History and condition of the forests of Losiny Island / V.V. Nefediev, V.M. Zhirin, S.Kh. Lyameborshai, M.S. Shapochkin, A.B. Shatalov, S.P. Eidlina, M./ “Prima Press-M” 2000, 132 p.

3. Miku i gjelber Tirana, /Selman LameborshajV Shtypeshkronja Mihal Duri I960, f, 175.

4. Optimal determination of the size of forest use / S.Kh, Lyameborshai / Publishing house, VNIPIEIlesprom, M:, 1975, 30 p.

5. Forestry, forestry and wood processing industries in the socialist countries of Europe / S.Kh. Lyameborshai, I.I. Syaksyaev/ Express information, Ed. VNIPIIlesprom, M:, 1980, 20 p.

6. Guidelines for calculating environmental damage from anthropogenic impact on forest plantings of the Leo Tolstoy Museum-Estate “Yasnaya Polyana” / S.Kh. Lyameborshai / Pushkino, - Publishing house, VNIILMD997,41 p.

7. Solving economic problems of reforestation and forest growing on the basis of bioecos / S.Kh, Lyameborshai / J. Forestry, Na 4, 1971, - P, 54-59.

8. Ways to improve forest management / S.Kh. LyameborshaY, V J\ Sudarev/ J. Forestry Industry//1972, No. I, P, 18-19.

9. Economic and mathematical methods in determining the optimal ages for forest cutting, / S.Kh. Lyameborshay / J. Forestry, 1972, No. 8, pp. 41-44.

10. Efficiency of complex enterprises in Transcarpathia, /S.Kh. Lyameborshchai / J. Forestry Industry, No. 10, 1972, pp. 24-25.

11. Use of mathematical methods to justify the timing of cutting down ripe and overmature plantings / S, Kh. Lyameborshay / J. Economics and management, M:, 1973, -X”4, pp. 9-10.

12. Improving forestry management in group I forests / S.Kh. LyameborshaY/J. Timber industry, M:, 1973.6, pp. 16-17.

13. Method for selecting calculation formulas for determining the size of forest use using a computer / S.Kh. Lyameborshay / J. Forestry No. 12, 1973, pp. 38-42.

14. Use of mathematical methods to justify the timing of cutting down mature and overmature plantings/S, Kh. Lyameborshai, F.M. Zolotukhin/ J. Economics and management No. 4, 1973, P. 9.

15. Streamline forestry management in forests of the first group / S.Kh. Lyameborshai / J. Forestry Industry, 1973, No. 6, P. 21.

16. On the issue of creating and systematizing technological maps in forestry / S.Kh. Lyameborshai, F.M. Zolotukhin / J. Forestry No. 10, 1976, pp. 53-62.

17. On the problem of improving the estimated cutting area / S.Kh. Lyameborshai / J. Forestry No. 8, 1982, pp. 48-51.

18. On the size of a business object with continuous, inexhaustible use, /S.Kh. Lyameborshai/Lesnoy Zhurnal, No. 4, Arkhangelsk: 1983, pp. 112-115.

19. Development of infrastructure in forestry / S.Kh. Lyameborshai, G, N. Rukosuev/ J. Forestry, No. 4, 1983, pp. 4-6.

20. Optimization of reproduction and use of forest resources / S.Kh. Lyameborshai / J. Forestry, 1985, - 9, pp. 24-27.

21. Assessment of the ecological state of the forest environment during forest management in lowland forests / S.Kh. Lyameborshai / J. Forestry 1995, No. 5, P. 1921.

22. Systematic approach to the organization of forest management, / S.Kh. Lyameborshai / J. Forestry, 1988, No. 8, pp. 26-28.

23. Optimization of the species composition of forest crops / S.A. Rodin, S.Kh. Lyameborshai/J. Forestry, 1998, No. 4, pp. 23-24.

25. Determination of environmental damage to forest plantations under anthropogenic impact, / S.Kh. Lyameborshai, S.A. Rodin / J. Forestry, // 2002, No. 6, pp. 36-42.

26. Assessment of the ecological state of the forest and calculation of environmental damage from technogenic and recreational impacts on the forest/S.Kh. Lyameborshai, O.V. Syryamkina/J. Forestry Information 2004, No. 12, pp. 18-26.

27. Methodology and program for determining environmental damage to forests / S.Kh. Lyameborshai, A.S. Pugaev/ J. Forestry, 2005, No. 4, (in press).

Communications in scientific collections and at conferences

28. From the experience of optimization of forestry / V.G. Nesterov, S.Kh. Lyameborshai / Reports of TSKhA, M: No. 119, 1966, pp. 263-268.

29. Application of mathematical methods in forestry / V.G. Nesterov, S.Kh. Lyameborshai / Abstracts of reports of the All-Union Conference on the problems of introducing MM and COMPUTER in agriculture M: 1966, pp. 61-63.

30. On models of future forests of the OPL “Russian Forest” / V.G. Nesterov, S.Kh. Lyameborshai / Reports of TSHA No. 124, 1967, pp. 263-269.

31. On the issue of mathematical programming in forest growing / V.G., Nesterov, S.Kh. Lyameborshchai, V.V. Lazarenko / Report “Introduction of MM and COMPUTER in agriculture TSKhA, M:, 1968, pp. 65-66.

32. On the issue of mathematical programming in reforestation / S.Kh. Lyameborshay / Sat. Proceedings, Use of computers in agriculture, ~M: 1968, pp. 68-70.

33. Calculation of the coefficients of removal of nitrogen and ash elements by different tree species / S.Kh. Lyameborshay / TSHA Report No. 133, M. 1968, pp. 411-415.

34. Modeling and obtaining numerical solutions for the size of forest use on a computer, /A.A. Kolyvagin, M.M. Trubnikov, S.Kh. Lyameborshay / Collection: Application of EMM and COMPUTER in the forestry and woodworking industry, Petrozavodsk, 1971, pp. 205-210.

35. Development of a forest management model / S.Kh. Lyameborshay / Sat. Scientific works VNIPIEIlesprom, No. 4, M; 1973, S. 170-179.

36. Rules for determining the age of felling - the path to the rational use of forest resources, / S.Kh. Lyameborshay / Sat. VNIIPIEM Lesdrome-M. 1974, No. 6, pp. 35-51.

37. Some issues of forest management regulation / S, Kh. Lyameborshay / Sat. Department of Economic Cybernetics E.I. them. Plekhanov. M. 1975, pp. 35-47.

38. On the organization of permanent forestry enterprises with expanded reproduction of the forest fund, /S.Kh. Lyameborshay / Sat. n. Proceedings of VNIPEIlesprom M: No. 10, 1975, pp. 150-158.

39. Systematization of calculation and technological maps for forestry activities for searching information on a computer, / S.Kh. Lyameborshai, V, A. Matyulina / Sat. Forest inventory inventory and aerial photo methods // No. 22 Leningrad, 1975, P. 131-141.

40. Multidimensional grouping of forestry enterprises for the study of economic patterns in them, / S.Kh. Lyameborshai/ M:, TsNIIME, 1979, pp. 23-25.

41. Model for optimizing the structure of production in forestry enterprises, / S.Kh. Lyameborshay / Sat. VNIITslesresurs, - M:, 1979, P. 2332.

42. Economic and mathematical methods for determining the specialization of forestry enterprises, /S.Kh. Lyameborshay / Sat. The use of optimization methods in operational production management, Ministry of Agriculture of the USSR, M:, 1979, pp. 48-51.

43. New solutions for OASU, /S.Kh. Lyameborshai/ M:, VNIILM, 1989, P. 6972.

44. Ecological forest management, /S.Kh. Lyameborshay / Sat. Multi-purpose forest management, M:, VNIILM, 1994, pp. 53-57.

45. Tree growth indices and their application in predicting taxation indicators of forest plantations, / S.Kh. Lyameborshai / Sat. The problem of organizing multi-purpose forest management. ~ Pushkino: VNIILM, 1997, pp. 77-83.

46. ​​Mathematical model of rational use of forest resources, /S.Kh. Lyameborshai / Sat. The problem of organizing multi-purpose forest management. Pushkino: VNIILM, 1997, pp. 19-21.

47. Mathematical models of multi-purpose forest management, / S.Kh. Lyameborshai / Sat. Multi-purpose forest management at the turn of the 21st century, Pushkino: VNIILM, 1999, pp. 102-112.

48. Forest management and conservation of environmental functions of forests, / S.Kh. Lyameborshai / Sat. Multi-purpose forest management at the turn of the 20th century, Pushkino: VNIILM, 1999, pp. 51-69.

49. Mathematical models of multi-purpose forest management, / S.Kh. Lyameborshai, M.S. Shapochkin/ Sat. Multi-purpose forest management at the turn of the 21st century, Pushkino: VNIILM, 1999, pp. 102-112.

50. Problems of conservation of forest plantations of the Losiny Ostrov National Park in the zone of influence of the Moscow Ring Road, / M.S. Shapochkin,

B.V. Kiseleva, S.Kh.Lyameborshai/ Ecology of a big city, Issue, 5, M: 2001, pp. 127-130.

51. Recreational use of landscapes of the natural museum-reserve “Kolomskoye” / S.Kh. Lyameborai, S.Yu. Tsaregradskaya / Ecology of a big city, Issue, 6, M: 2002, pp. 148-151.

52. Complex methodology for studying the influence of recreation on the ecosystems of urban and suburban forests / M.S. Shapochkin, V.V. Kiseleva, S.Kh. Lyameborshai, O.V. Syryamkina / Scientific works of the Losiny Ostrov National Park, Issue 1 (to the 20th anniversary of the organization of the national park) Edited by V.V. Kiseleva, - M.: "KRUK - Prestige", 2003, P - 12-29.

53. Optimization of recreational loads in the natural landscape museum-reserve “Kolomenskoye” / S.Kh. Lyameborshai, S.Yu. Tsaregradskaya / Environmental problems of the discovery of historical heritage, Materials of the Seventh All-Russian Scientific Conference (Borodino November 18-21, 2002) Moscow, 2003 P. 341 -347.

54. Sustainable forest management / S.Kh. Lyameborshai / “Ecology and sustainable development” Proceedings of the first International Summer Seminar, Dubna, 2004,

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All-Russian Research Institute of Forestry and Forestry Mechanization 141200, Pushkino, Moscow region, st. Institutskaya, 15 tel.: (8-253) 2-46-71 fax: 993-41-91

Forest management- a set of forms and methods of using forest resources. Previously, it was considered from the point of view of removing a certain amount of mature wood from forest phyticenoses, which in size and quality satisfies the need for construction timber, lumber, raw materials for the wood chemical industry, etc. Recently, multi-purpose forest management has been considered, when wood harvesting is associated with other functions of forest ecosystems (water protection and regulation, protection, sanitary and hygienic, etc.).

Types of forest use (according to the Forest Code of 2006)

1. timber harvesting;
2. preparation of resin;
3. harvesting and collection of non-timber forest resources;
4. harvesting food forest resources and collecting medicinal plants;
5. management of hunting and hunting;
6. farming;
7. carrying out research activities, educational activities;
8. implementation of recreational activities;
9. creation of forest plantations and their operation;
10. cultivation of forest fruit, berry, ornamental plants, medicinal plants;
11. carrying out work on geological study of subsoil, development of mineral deposits;
12. construction and operation of reservoirs and other artificial water bodies, as well as hydraulic structures and specialized ports;
13. construction, reconstruction, operation of power lines, communication lines, roads, pipelines and other linear facilities;
14. processing of wood and other forest resources;
15. carrying out religious activities;
16. other types

Main use of the forest carried out in forests that have reached the age of maturity, i.e. such an age at which the wood being cut meets the requirements of the industry. The main purpose of the main use of the forest is timber harvesting. Harvesting can be carried out by clear-cutting, gradual and selective felling of forests. There are restrictions on forest groups, tree species, cutting area, logging intensity, timing, etc.

One of the main consequences of timber harvesting is the replacement of primary forests with secondary forests, which are generally less valuable and often less productive. There are more than a hundred types of felling, including concentrated, clear-cutting, narrow-cutting, conditionally clear-cutting, etc. In monoculture forest plantations, clear-cutting (concentrated) logging is practiced, the obligatory condition for which is to ensure the restoration of felled areas with economically valuable species within a specified time frame, the preservation of undergrowth, the promotion of natural regeneration and the creation of forest crops. It is considered necessary to leave clumps of at least 15-20 trees per 1 hectare for self-afforestation. Gradual felling, when the tree stand is cut down in 2-3 steps, frees up space for the successful growth of the younger generation, located under the canopy of the old forest. The return period may vary. In monoculture deciduous forests with spruce undergrowth, it averages 20 years.

· Ripe, low-value, diseased plants are selected, healing occurs, and the composition of the forest is improved.

In forestry, the most widely used term is calculated cutting area, which determines the annual size of the main use of the forest. This is a potentially possible, scientifically based annual rate of wood use based on continuity and inexhaustibility of use. The existing concept of turnover of cutting areas determines the period during which the undergrowth left on a cut down cutting area will reach marketable ripeness. It is believed that for spruce the turnover period of the cutting area is 100 years.
1.Environmental impact of industrial forest management (clear, selective, sanitary felling, reforestation).
The emergence of environmental problems is associated not only with the scale of forest cutting, but also with the methods of cutting. A comparison of positive and negative consequences indicates that selective logging is a more costly form and has less environmental damage. Forest resources are renewable resources, but this process takes 80-100 years. This period is extended in cases where lands are severely degraded after deforestation. Therefore, along with the problems of reforestation, which can be carried out through self-regeneration of forest plantations and, for acceleration, through the creation of forest plantations, the problem of careful use of harvested wood arises. But deforestation - a destructive anthropogenic process - is opposed by stabilizing anthropogenic activities - the desire for the full use of wood, the use of gentle methods of logging, as well as constructive activities - reforestation.
The term “forest use” or “forest management” means the use of all forest resources, all types of forest wealth.
Forest management

Industrial by-product

The main forest management is engaged in the procurement and use of wood products: the main one is wood, the secondary one is live bait, bark, wood chips, stumps, bast. In Russia, this also includes the harvesting of birch bark, spruce, fir and pine. The main forest use is called industrial due to the large scale of work and its placement on an industrial basis.
Incidental forestry uses non-timber products, and its characteristics are similar to commercial forestry. A distinctive feature of the two types of environmental management is that industrial forest management is characterized by a wide range of environmental problems, and for secondary forest management, the problems associated with an excess of visits to forests and the excessive extraction of biological resources of the forest are especially significant.

Clear cuttings

· Large areas are being exposed, the natural balance is being disrupted, and erosion processes are accelerating.
· Biocenoses are completely destroyed, flora and fauna are degraded.
· Growth is destroyed, conditions for self-healing of forests become more difficult.
· Complete clearing of the cutting area makes it easier to plant and care for forest crops.
Clear cutting - main cutting
Upper logging site in clear-cutting for use or reforestation, in which the entire tree stand in the cutting area is cut down in one step, preserving individual trees and shrubs or groups of trees and shrubs for forest reproduction. Clear cutting is permitted only if forests are regenerated in forest areas provided for timber harvesting.
Some clearcuts are associated with the construction of roads, pipeline routes, power lines, and clearings. In this case, cutting down forests of any age is allowed.
Concentrated felling is clear cutting carried out on an area of ​​50 hectares or more. In such fellings, the temperature amplitude increases more than in narrow cuttings, and in the taiga zone frosts are possible in any month. The risk of young tree growth being damaged by the cockchafer increases.
Narrow cutting is a clear cutting in which the width of the cutting area does not exceed 100 m. In narrow clearings, the snow cover is higher, it melts more slowly, and the soil does not freeze as deeply as in wide clearings. They are overgrown with grass more slowly, seeding is better, and the tree canopy closes faster.
Selective felling (thinning)
· Work on targeted reforestation is becoming more difficult.
· During felling and transportation, the forest floor and other trees are damaged, the hydraulic regime of the territory and the habitat of plants and animals is disrupted.
· Ripe, low-value, diseased plants are selected, healing occurs, and the composition of the forest is improved.
· Mainly landscapes, biocenoses, typical flora and fauna are preserved.

Sanitary cabin
Sanitary felling is carried out with the aim of improving the sanitary condition of the forest, during which individual sick, damaged and drying trees or the entire forest stand are cut down.
Sanitary felling is aimed at improving the health of plantings by removing dead trees and trees infected with forest diseases and pests and is prescribed when the sanitary condition requires surgical intervention, where conventional types of thinning are not planned in the near future.

Sanitary fellings are divided into two types: selective and clear.

Selective sanitary felling is felling carried out with the aim of improving the sanitary condition of plantings, during which dead, drying out, disease-affected, pest-infested trees, as well as other damaged trees are cut down.
To one degree or another, the tasks of selective sanitary felling are a priority and are solved during all types of thinning, as well as partial clearing for final use. Timely and high-quality (without negative impacts on the forest) thinning significantly prevents the need for special sanitary felling. However, if, due to thinning, especially mechanized, violation of silvicultural and sanitary requirements (damage to trees, soil compaction by technical means during other forestry activities), the sanitary condition of the plantings sharply deteriorates, selective and sometimes clear sanitary felling is required.
Clear sanitary cuttings are sanitary cuttings carried out to completely replace plantings that have lost their biological stability as a result of massive damage to trees by harmful insects, diseases, fires and other unfavorable factors. Despite the commonality of reasons that necessitate all sanitary cuttings and the general goal of forest care, in contrast to selective cuttings aimed at improving and preserving plantings, clear sanitary cuttings are pursued to a certain extent the opposite goal - replacing diseased plantings and, thereby, improving the health of the forest generally.
Clear sanitary felling is prescribed in plantings:
- dead;
- so weakened as a result of the influence of various factors that their loss in the near future is inevitable;
- affected by stem pests and diseases with such a ratio of current and total mortality and a forecast of changes in the condition and number of pests in the coming years that it is impossible to preserve them through measures available to forestry, including forest protection;
- where selective sanitary felling will lead to a decrease in density (fullness) to a level below critical, at which it is impossible to ensure acceptable productivity and efficiency in fulfilling target environmental functions;
- such fellings are prescribed in plantings that are dead, with the presence of increased current mortality, as well as heavily weakened, windfall, windfall, disease-affected, infested with stem pests and other damaged trees, when harvested, the density (completeness) of tree stands will decrease below 0.4 - in pine and birch forests , and below 0.5 – in spruce forests.
The basis for prescribing and carrying out clear sanitary felling is the materials of a forest pathological examination. Areas planned for clear sanitary felling are inspected by a special commission under the leadership of the chief forester of the State Forestry Institution or protected area with the participation of a forest protection specialist. In the absence of materials characterizing the condition of the plantings, as well as when checking the quality of the forest pathological examination, trial plots are established with a count of trees and their assessment by condition categories. On each trial plot of each plot, at least 100 trees must be taken into account, the total area of ​​the trial plots must be at least 2% of the total area in plots up to 100 hectares. In areas of more than 100 hectares, it is allowed to establish trial plots in the most characteristic places, which are determined on at least three routes for every 100 hectares, with the addition of visual forest pathological taxation of plantings in areas where trial plots were not laid.
The intensity of changes depends on the intensity of felling, and they, in turn, depend on a number of factors: the need for wood, transport accessibility of the logging area, and the equipment of work at the cutting site. The intensity of felling is also influenced by the composition of species and the age of forests. Adverse consequences are especially evident in cases where there is overcutting of wood (more is cut down than grows in a year).
When cuttings that lag behind in the rate of wood growth, there is undercutting, which leads to aging of the forest, a decrease in its productivity, and diseases of old trees. Consequently, overcutting leads to depletion of forest resources in some areas, and undercutting leads to their underutilization in others. In both cases, we are dealing with irrational use of natural resources. Therefore, foresters defend the concept of continuous forest management, based on a balance of deforestation and regeneration of forests and timber reserves. However, for now the planet is dominated by deforestation. Upholstered furniture store: where to buy a leather sofa.
The emergence of environmental problems is associated not only with the scale of forest cutting, but also with the methods of cutting.
A comparison of positive and negative consequences indicates that selective logging is a more costly form and has less environmental damage.
Forest resources are renewable resources, but this process takes 80-100 years. This period is extended in cases where lands are severely degraded after deforestation. Therefore, along with the problems of reforestation, which can be carried out through self-regeneration of forest plantations and, for acceleration, through the creation of forest plantations, the problem of careful use of harvested wood arises.
But deforestation - a destructive anthropogenic process - is opposed by stabilizing anthropogenic activities - the desire for the full use of wood, the use of gentle methods of logging, as well as constructive activities - reforestation

Forest restoration

Artificial restoration Natural restoration

Artificial reforestation is the creation of forest crops in areas that were previously forested. It is divided into: preliminary, when planting or sowing is carried out under the canopy of the plantation several years before it is felled; accompanying, when planting or sowing is carried out during the process of non-clear cuttings or after their completion; subsequent – ​​forest crops in cleared areas; reconstructive, when forest crops of economically valuable species are established in areas occupied by low-value plantings corresponding to given specific conditions. Forest planting. Forest planting is the creation of forests by planting forest planting material on a silviculture area. Sowing the forest. Forest sowing is the creation of forest crops by sowing seeds of forest species on a forested area.
Natural reforestation. Natural reforestation is the process of formation of a new generation of forest in a natural way. It allows restoration at a relatively low cost of labor, relying on the forces of nature. The forester purposefully uses this process in his work. Promote natural regeneration. Natural regeneration is promoted in a variety of ways. These include: preservation of undergrowth and young growth during final fellings, leaving pollutants, soil mineralization, clearing clearings of logging residues, draining and fencing areas.
Restoration and formation of forest after final felling in Yesenovichsky forestry. Sequence of actions when performing reforestation work. Collection of seeds of coniferous and deciduous species. In the second half of May, seeds are planted in forest nurseries to grow planting material. The nursery area is maintained. Weeding and mowing of weeds that inhibit the growth of planting material is carried out. The plots are being cleared of logging residues. Three to four years after sowing the nursery, the grown planting material is planted in cleared plots. For the first three years, the planted young animals are carefully cared for.

2. Can “off-road” be considered the best protection for pristine nature?
In order to answer the question, let’s first consider what impact road construction has on the environment. The environmental safety of a road is established using a set of environmentally significant indicators and their evaluation measures that determine the characteristics and properties of the road as a source of impact on the natural and social environment, as well as environmental components affected by the road.
The main types of impact of a highway on the surrounding natural and social environment are:
1. Withdrawal (consumption) of non-renewable natural resources
- Alienation of land area (permanent and temporary)
- Extraction of stone materials, sand, soil.
- Removal of soil and turf layer.
2. Physical presence of the object (construction and use of the object), impact on the landscape, hydrology, climate,
etc.................