It is important for almost all people to be able to communicate in such a way that they are correctly understood, listened to and heard. Therefore, it is important to know ways to overcome barriers.
There are always at least two people involved in communication. Everyone simultaneously influences and is affected.
Let us conditionally separate these functions and highlight the speaker (the one who influences) and the listener, understanding that everyone in communication is simultaneously or alternately both.
Efficiency can be managed...
There are never great things without great difficulties.
Voltaire [Marie Francois Arouet]
The need to overcome various life difficulties arises in our lives constantly. This is the kind of work that we are regularly forced to do. After all, it is simply impossible to imagine life without difficulties.
Difficulties always arise for everyone. It doesn’t matter where or how a person lives, he will constantly face certain difficulties in life, because they are inevitable. And since they are inevitable...
I have long been interested in the problem of overcoming fear, freeing ourselves from the chains that bind us to the instinct of self-preservation. So, Muzila is one of those few people who, having tested themselves in desperate situations, were able to eliminate fear from their lives forever...
While he and his comrades were fighting in South America, the people of the United States were closely following a conflict in a completely different part of the world. This conflict was called the Vietnam War. But in Bolivia it was...
The famous British writer Thomas Carlyle once said: “To the extent that a man conquers fear, he is a man.” Does this mean that fear is the catalyst for the degree to which we become “humanized”?
And indeed, if we look at our life through the prism of fear, it seems to me to be a blanket woven from many shreds of fear.
We constantly wage a conscious or “reflexive” struggle with our own fears.
Getting rid of some, displacing others, integrating with others...
A recent study asked the question: What do people prefer to do when they want to reduce or relieve stress? According to the Reuters news agency, worldwide, 56% of respondents said that they consider music to be the most effective tool.
In North America, music was ranked first by 64% of respondents, and in developed Asian countries - 46%.
As a rule, watching TV comes in second place, followed by taking a bath or shower. Tom Miller, head...
According to sociologists' research, the fear of death is one of the three most powerful fears that most people experience. Do you feel this kind of fear? Do you want to overcome the fear of death, so that you become neutral about this word and concept?
I believe that this is possible and should be done by everyone. The fear of death will simply dissolve and disappear.
Fear of death. Am I afraid of death? No, the word “death” does not make me afraid. I accept that anyone, including myself, can...
Poverty zone
Imagine yourself and millions of other people in a large prison. Here you are told what time to get up, what time to go to bed, when to work and what to eat, and you also have some time to walk a little and sort things out with local “friends” if you have nowhere to put your energy...
And behind the bars there are endless fields drenched in the sun. Complete freedom and endless fresh air.
I think the metaphor is quite clear to you. But many will now decide that I am calling for you to give up everything and free yourself from oppression...
“The boss will definitely fire me”, “my wife is disappointed in me”, “the doctor does not confirm the diagnosis, but I don’t believe him”... We all get nervous from time to time for various reasons. And when anxiety doesn’t subside, trying to calm down makes the situation worse. Cognitive psychologist Robert Leahy reveals the 12 worst ways to cope with anxiety.
1. You are looking for confirmation.
You worry that you don’t look good enough and you endlessly ask your partner, “Do you think I’m okay?” Do you feel like the pain in your chest...
While he and his comrades were fighting in South America, the people of the United States were closely following a conflict in a completely different part of the world. This conflict was called the Vietnam War. But Bolivia was worse in many ways than Vietnam. “There,” recalls Muzila, “if you got into trouble, you had to rely only on yourself. You couldn’t request air or artillery support, you couldn’t call helicopters and escape. In high altitude conditions, people quickly got tired of the lack of oxygen. Even in the base camp it was not possible to really rest, because almost every night it was bombarded with rockets and mortars. Moreover, no one knew about our participation in the war with the partisans in this corner of the world. My parents thought that I was undergoing training in one of the camps in the zone. Panama Canal," Tom laughs. "If I had been killed, the army would have told them that I died in a training accident. Or something like that."
The fighting became so intense that the Green Beret command at Fort Bragg reduced the 7th Special Forces' deployment from one year to five months. The order for this arrived in time. A week after the evacuation, Muzila learned that the camp they had left had been completely destroyed as a result of a powerful rebel fire raid. For five months in the mountain jungles of Bolivia, death awaited Muzilu. She lurked behind every rock, in every forest clearing. However, he returned from there without a single scratch. “There was a war of survival there,” he again plunges into memories. “Wolf pits, forest rubble, booby traps, snipers entrenched on the surrounding heights, and all that. The first days we took every step with great precautions. But soon we got tired of it, and we decided that if it’s death, then to hell with it You still can’t escape fate.”
It turned out, however, that giving up on the threat of death does not mean freeing oneself from the fear of it. Many people in extreme situations continue to act no matter what. Unfortunately, too often their condition can be expressed in the words: “the despair of the doomed.” But a person who recognizes himself as doomed is enslaved by fear and therefore not free. He is even physically constrained in his actions. Dr. Eric Best of the Institute for Humane Studies in El Segundo, California, says that a frightened person's body seems to shrink. He slouches, pulls his head into his shoulders, presses his arms to his body or one to the other. The same thing happens with the vital energy of the body. It’s as if she’s being pulled inside, opening access for death. Meanwhile, life is the process of radiating energy into the outside world, the process of using this world for one’s own purposes.
Dr. Best argues that from a psychological point of view, in order to overcome any type of fear, you must first admit to yourself that you are afraid. This is quite difficult, since it is human nature to drive away such thoughts from oneself. We must also understand what causes this fear. And when its nature becomes clear, develop the most appropriate way to overcome it. This method is completely individual for each person. But in any case, this is the path of logic, not emotion. Thought in the form of some idea must triumph over the feeling caused by the manifestation of animal instinct in a specific situation.
How did Musila find his way? For as long as he can remember, Tom has always strived to test his limits. At the age of ten, he took up water skiing, but the calmness of riding behind a boat did not attract him for long. After seven years of training, he was already racing at a speed of 160 km per hour, approaching the then American record of 171 km. And at such speed he sometimes deliberately fell! He fell in order not to be afraid of accidental falls... His karate classes under the guidance of master Tsutomu Oshima (Shotokan style) date back to the same period. It was Oshima who taught Tom to move from emotional perception of threatening situations to their logical analysis. Muzila, who recently celebrated his 40th birthday, recalls it this way: “Oshima told me more than once that even in the most desperate changes we must try to be objective and not succumb to emotions. We must look at everything as if from the outside, coldly analyze what is happening instead to follow your feelings."
Continuing to talk about his youth, he recalls: “Sometimes while practicing karate, I had a very strange feeling. As if everything that was happening to me, I saw through the eyes of an outside observer. I call this feeling “detachment.” When I experienced it, all emotions really went away. I seemed to myself to be a robot, incapable of experiencing fear, doubt, pain, a robot effectively acting according to a program that comes from nowhere.” What Muzila learned from Oshima (and he managed to receive a black belt from him before the army) helped him in Bolivia to avoid the sticky shackles of fear. The method turned out to be quite simple. You must completely forget yourself so that fear has nowhere to sink its claws. And in this state, go straight into danger, focusing on what is around you, and not inside. Then it becomes possible automatically, without thinking about anything, but to respond promptly and correctly to what is happening.
Having experience in Zen psychotraining in karate, Musila was able to calmly look death in the eyes. Realizing the reason for his fear, he rose above it. Tom insisted that he be sent as a squad leader on all reconnaissance raids. “During these operations,” says Muzila, “each time I had a feeling of detachment familiar from karate. Thanks to it, I managed to somehow evade any danger. We were ambushed several times. Almost everyone died except me. And They shot at me too."
This ability to overcome fear by forgetting his “I” also saved him from sleepless nights after demobilization. “I know a lot of people,” notes Muzila, “who still remember what they had to endure in Vietnam, Afghanistan or other places. They were psychologically unprepared for the trials they had to go through. Therefore, they just can’t escape from their past, reliving the fear of death again and again in nightmares. To forget, some turn to religion, others use drugs or alcohol.”
After military service, Musila graduated from the University of California, where he studied Asian religious beliefs and parapsychology. Now he works as a teacher at the same university, and in addition he heads two karate schools. Continuing to comprehensively study the problem of fear, he tests his theories on himself, climbing mountains, practicing skydiving and participating in the search for the legendary Bigfoot (the American equivalent of Bigfoot). Lately he has also become interested in walking barefoot on hot coals.
The main thing in all these “exploits” is that he performs them alone. He doesn't do this because he doesn't like company. On the contrary, Tom is a cheerful and sociable person. He simply believes that dependence on external factors (be it people, weapons, technical devices, sedatives, etc.) has the most negative effect on anyone who wants to forget about fear forever. Deep down in the soul, a person then continues to hope that at a critical moment someone (or something) will help him. And he needs to learn once and for all that he must rely only on himself.
“Every time I climb, it’s different from the previous ones,” says Muzila, “because I always push the load to the limit of my capabilities. At first, I’m just overcome with fatigue. It seems that I no longer have the strength to climb higher and higher. Somewhere at an altitude of about 4 km above sea level, due to lack of oxygen, hallucinations begin. They are joined by suffering from the cold. It is necessary to go through this in order to approach the limit beyond which ordinary strength really ends. awakens that internal energy that exists in each of us, but does not manifest itself in any way in everyday life. It seems to me that my feelings in the mountains are close to what Buddhists call “enlightenment”, and Taoists call “merger with Tao.”
Explaining how he decided to walk barefoot on the burning coals, Muzila again remembers his karate teacher. Master Oshima showed him exercises through which one can train the psyche not to perceive pain. “Since childhood, I heard that fire burns the skin,” Tom tells me. “Indeed, there are many cases when a person, trying to walk across a fire, gets terrible burns. But this is only because he is not psychologically ready for such a test. If your mind and feelings protest, it’s better not to do this. Getting down to business, I hardened the skin on my soles as much as I could and instilled in myself the firm confidence that there would be no burns, that I could walk on fire.” In short, the whole secret is to be able to control your psyche, and through it, your body.
There is a secret after all. Dr. Best, who received his degree in 1976 for analyzing systems that arise at the intersections of different sciences, argues that there is as yet no satisfactory physiological or biophysical explanation for the phenomenon of walking on hot coals. Only one thing is clear: with the help of his mind, a person somehow changes for a short time the physical characteristics of certain parts of his body. It is fundamentally important that this self-control mechanism allows one to successfully resist not only fire, but also many other traumatic influences - chemical, mechanical, mental, etc.
Fearlessly going into the unknown - this is the main idea that inspires Muzila to search for a mysterious creature nicknamed Bigfoot. Every two to three years he travels to the northwestern states (Oregon, Idaho or Montana) where this creature lives. Indian legends are full of stories about him; Many whites saw it, including today. It is pitch black, three meters tall and weighs half a ton. To tear a person in half is a mere trifle for Bigfoot. Naturally, Muzila wanders through the most remote places completely alone. It is just as natural that he is unarmed. “In the mountains, I have to settle down for the night in the most incredible places,” he says. “And what’s most interesting is that very often I have the feeling that someone from the thicket is looking at my back. And sometimes I find fresh traces of Bigfoot. Impression It's like we're playing hide and seek with him...
Like Dr. Best, Muzila agrees that a person must first admit to himself his fears, and then analyze them. He needs to ask himself how justified his fears are, and whether there is at least some benefit from fear. However, Muzila believes that it is very difficult for an ordinary person who has not undergone special psychological training to perform mental operations of this kind. And even having realized that there is no reason for fear, that fear is stupid or useless, he still will not get rid of this feeling. Some will try to run away from their fear somewhere or hide from it in something. Others will completely surrender to him, will whine and complain, explaining and justifying all their actions with fear. Still others will enter into a struggle with him, sometimes quite successfully, but they will never be able to forget about him.
What is fear? According to Tom Musila, this is false evidence, an illusion that becomes a psychological reality. Or, in other words, it is an erroneous emotion (arising when faced with a specific situation) that a person makes true for himself. Therefore, he concludes, in order to free yourself from fear, you need to change your very style of thinking. YOU MUST PERCEIVE REALITY AS AN ILLUSION AND ALWAYS UNCONDITIONALLY BELIEVE IN YOUR SUCCESS. But both will not come by themselves. This requires training in controlling your senses and using your mind properly.
Martial arts provide rich opportunities for such training. After all, for those who deal with them, fear is an eternal problem. Fear of pain, fear of missing a blow, fear of losing a fight, doubts about whether you can adequately withstand a real attack. And at the same time, nowhere are there such carefully developed methods of self-control as in the traditional martial arts of the East...
Without any bravado, Muzila claims that he now does not know the very concept of fear. “It seems to me that I have experienced everything that a person can experience; there is simply nothing to scare me anymore,” he admits. “I realized: what is important is not what is happening or can happen, but my attitude towards this or that event. The danger may be very real, the situation may seem hopeless, and everyone around will be scared, but not me. I got it. Whether I’m in an ambush, hanging on the edge of a precipice, or repelling an attack by bandits, I feel neither fear nor any other emotions. I only think about how best to act.”
In his opinion, you should always think only about how to win, and not about the possibility of defeat. A person may lose, may even die, but there should not be a single thought about this in his mind until his very last breath. “You should never give up,” he told me when I said goodbye, “even if “your” bullet found you. Anyone who can change their thinking in this way will truly forget about fear forever.” Tom Musila's words reminded me of Ernest Hemingway's famous saying: "Man can be destroyed, but he cannot be defeated!" Now I know what the true meaning of this phrase is.
Overcoming is a set of techniques that can be successfully transferred to professional activities. Using techniques for overcoming psychological defense, a person can have an acceptable (from the point of view of law and morality) impact on another person included in the system of professional relations. The process of overcoming the psychological defense of a certain person is not a forcible imposition of one’s will, but rather providing assistance in solving complex life problems.
The structure of the actions of a specialist who overcomes the psychological defense of a partner in professional communication can be represented by a system of the following operations. 1.
Identify the objective and subjective components of a professional situation that can influence the content and form of psychological defense of a communication partner. 2.
Prepare arguments and tactics aimed at destroying the psychological defense of a mistakenly taken position. 3.
Enter into psychological contact with your communication partner, and then offer to consider the current situation together and carry out a multifaceted systemic analysis of its components. At the same time, it is advisable to show this situation from the positions of different people interested in its resolution. It is advisable to demonstrate options for solving the problem and highlight their positive aspects. In this case, the partner becomes confident that he himself has come to a solution to his problem.
Demonstration of arguments aimed at overcoming an erroneously constructed defense system must be carried out consistently and with the utmost tact. In this case, you can successfully use the “small steps” technique, i.e. gradually, from evidence to evidence, analyze the situation, giving the partner time to comprehend the analysis process.
This will allow him to gently lead him to solving the problem in objectively justified forms. Providing assistance in the processes of overcoming psychological defense can not only neutralize the partner’s negative attitude, but also rebuild it into a positive fixed attitude for long-term contact interaction.
Let's once again recall the well-known, but not always used communication reserves: -
do not abuse criticism, do not judge other people; -
complain less often; -
persuade, not command; -
maintain a positive attitude; -
smile! A smile is a kind of facial gesture
disposition, a sign of friendliness, openness to communication; -
do not express doubt in a conversation if this will lead to a negative reaction; -
do not reject human relations in business communication; -
do not provoke negative responses; -
hire a partner as an employee; -
know how to end a conversation positively; -
avoid verbal accusations, verbal irritants; -
do not look for the guilty and do not blame anyone; -
do not formulate proposals as demands, rather express how you feel when a demand is not met; -
express clearly and specifically the essence of the matter;
do not draw unambiguous conclusions, it is better to offer several options for resolving a conflict situation so that the partner can independently choose the most suitable and profitable option for himself. This opens up prospects and new possibilities for solving the problem.
More on the topic Overcoming psychological defense:
- Chapter 6 Psychological security of an entrepreneur. Methods of psychological protection
- MECHANISMS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROTECTION OF PERSONALITY IN LAW ENFORCEMENT PRACTICE
- MECHANISMS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROTECTION OF INDIVIDUALS IN LEGALLY SIGNIFICANT SITUATIONS
- 27. Methods of psychological defense in intrapersonal conflict.
- § 7. MORAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF A LAWYER WITH HIS CLIENT. SOLIDARITY OF DEFENSE
- § 1. DEFENSE IN RUSSIAN CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS. THE CONCEPT OF PROFESSIONAL DEFENSE OF SUSPECTS, ACCUSED
Many researchers talk about the typicality of stress for teaching activity due to its saturation with such stressors as social assessment, uncertainty, and everyday routine. The manifestations of stress in a teacher's work are varied and extensive. Thus, in foreign studies, as noted by Rean A.A., frustration, anxiety, exhaustion and burnout are primarily highlighted. In domestic studies, the list of stress reactions of teachers includes up to 14 different manifestations.
Of great interest is how these people cope with such an abundance of stress, what are the factors and strategies for overcoming them.
Considering the categories of stress resistance (Rean A.A.), “frustration tolerance” (Mitina L.M.), social tolerance (Povarenkov Yu.P.) in relation to teachers, they characterize them as a professionally important quality of a teacher’s personality and factors in overcoming professional difficulties.
Research also describes motivation for professional activity as a factor associated with overcoming difficulties. For example, the predominance of internal motivation over external motivation and the connection between motivation and stress resistance (Rean A.A.), or satisfaction with the profession, reflecting awareness of the correctness of the choice and its adequacy to the orientation of the individual (Kuzmina N.V.).
The teacher’s self-esteem, which specifies the attitude towards oneself, is described as an important regulator of stress resistance. The optimal structure of teacher self-esteem, according to A.K. Markova, is one in which there are minimal differences between current and reflective self-esteem and maximum differences between retrospective and actual, between actual and ideal self-esteem.
It becomes obvious that it is necessary to study not only the factors of stress resistance, but also the process of overcoming difficulties itself. The list of factors is very diverse; it is necessary to indicate in what situation these factors were updated, because they can be both a source of overcoming a difficult situation and its result, if the situation is typical, often repeated, etc. The assumption arises that the chosen strategy for professional development, the stage at which the specialist is, the nature, typicality and atypicality of difficulties in a given context, the internal orientation towards self-improvement can very much determine the characteristics of overcoming difficult situations, including various types of stress. In our study, we will try to compare the features of preferred strategies of coping behavior with work experience, which, in our opinion, reflects both the stage of professional development and the motivational aspects of this development.
Let us consider how the process of psychological overcoming difficulties, including stress, is presented in psychological literature.
Works devoted to the study of the phenomenon of coping behavior have appeared in foreign psychology since the second half of the 20th century. In the work of German authors, the term "bewaltigung" (overcoming) is used. Domestic researchers interpret the concept of “coping behavior” as coping behavior or psychological overcoming. Coping behavior implies an individual way for a person to overcome a difficult situation in accordance with its significance in his life and with personal-environmental resources, which largely determine a person’s behavior.
This process has different traditions of understanding. For example, in the psychoanalytic approach, coping is understood as aimed at results opposite to psychological defense, but fundamentally having the same ego processes (A. Freud). The second approach defines coping as personality traits that allow the use of relatively constant options for responding to stressful situations. In the third approach, coping acts as a dynamic process, which is determined by the subjectivity of experiencing the situation and many other factors.
The phenomenon of psychological overcoming is considered in a broad sense - as an element of life orientation;
In a narrow sense - as a phenomenon of self-regulation and regulation of behavior; self-regulation of activity and behavior, regulation of functional states.
Lazarus R. and Folkman S. defined psychological coping as cognitive and behavioral efforts of the individual aimed at reducing the impact of stress. An active form of coping behavior, active overcoming, is the purposeful elimination or weakening of the influence of a stressful situation. Passive coping behavior, or passive overcoming, involves the use of a different arsenal of psychological defense mechanisms that are aimed at reducing emotional stress rather than changing a stressful situation.
R. Lazarus identified three types of strategies for coping with a threatening situation: ego defense mechanisms; direct action - attack or flight, which is accompanied by anger or fear; coping without affect, when there is no real threat, but potentially exists.
According to S. Folkman and R. Lazarus, coping performs two main functions: regulation of emotions (coping aimed at emotions); managing problems that cause distress (problem-focused coping).
Both of these functions are carried out in most stressful situations. Their quantitative ratio depends on how stressful situations are assessed. Assessment of what is happening plays an important role in the process of human evolution; the intensity and nature of the emotions that a person experiences when encountering problems depends on it. There are two types of cognitive assessment - primary and secondary.
The initial assessment allows a person to decide whether a given situation is threatening or whether it can be classified as a situation of change that does not contain a threat to his well-being. It allows you to assess the strength of stress and compare the possibility of harm caused by it with individual capabilities.
The secondary assessment complements the primary assessment. It determines what methods can be used to influence a negative event and its outcome, that is, the process of choosing mechanisms and resources for coping with stress. With its help, a person decides what he can do in a given situation. A cognitive assessment of the situation is followed by the development of mechanisms to cope with stress.
Lazarus R. and Folkman S. distinguish, depending on the interpretation of the situation either as inevitable or as overcome through activity and struggle with it, two types of coping behavior.
Goal-directed behavior to eliminate or avoid a threat (fight or retreat), designed to change the stress connection with the physical or social environment, is considered as active coping behavior.
Passive coping behavior is an intrapsychic form of coping with stress, which is a defense mechanism designed to reduce emotional arousal before the situation changes.
A. Nezu, T. Dzurilla, M. Goldfried were the first to describe the process of resolving social problems or the coping process. This was a theoretically important point in the study of the formation of active coping behavior - problem-solving strategies. Active problem solving is a cognitive-behavioral process that results in the development of an individual's overall social competence.
The authors identified five components of the coping process: orientation to the problem, connection of cognitive and motivational components for general familiarization; defining and formulating the problem, describing it in specific terms and identifying specific goals; generation of alternatives, development of numerous possible solutions to the problem; choosing the optimal solution to the problem; implementation of the decision with subsequent verification and confirmation of its effectiveness.
A. Billings and R. Moos identify three ways of coping with a stressful situation: assessment-oriented coping - overcoming stress, which includes an attempt to determine the meaning of the situation and put into action certain strategies: logical analysis, cognitive reappraisal, etc.; problem-focused coping is coping with stress aimed at modifying, reducing or eliminating the source of stress; emotion-focused coping is coping with stress, which includes cognitive and behavioral efforts through which a person tries to reduce emotional stress and maintain affective balance.
At the same time, the authors believe that it matters what tasks a person faces, the nature of these tasks will determine the chosen strategy. Thus, they identify five main tasks that need to be solved during turning points in life or crises: 1) determining the meaning of the situation and understanding its meaning for oneself personally; 2) confronting the situation and responding to its demands; 3) maintaining relationships with family members, friends, and other persons who may be useful in overcoming the crisis and its consequences; 4) maintaining emotional balance through managing upset feelings; 5) maintaining a positive self-image and maintaining a sense of competence and mastery.
Having analyzed studies of coping behavior, A.N. Demin noted the “mosaic nature, the wide variety of research,” he drew attention to the existence of “a continuum of research approaches, at one pole of which are causal, and at the other, process-oriented schemes.”
Causal ones are based on the formula “initial factor - result”. Results are divided into short-term and long-term. The former include situational effectiveness, current emotional experiences and physiological changes. Short-term effects are embodied in the quality of social functioning (features of fulfilling social roles, achieved social status), level of life satisfaction (well-being, moral well-being, etc.), and state of health. Processual schemes gravitate towards the phenomenological tradition; they pay special attention to transitions from one phase of behavior to another, which allows not only to identify procedural factors, but also to understand the individual uniqueness and logic of the development of coping.
The most promising is the study of the content of overcoming life's difficulties, based on the combination of process-oriented and causal schemes, taking into account the specifics of the situations that initiate it.
This author understands overcoming as such ways of regulating one’s behavior by an individual that provide an accessible level and form of problem solving in a given difficult situation and directly or indirectly prepare successful outcomes in future situations through the optimal correlation and use of personal and environmental resources.
Indicators and ways to study coping with stress.
With the development of coping theories, various methods for studying it have appeared. The authors of the questionnaires most often proceeded from the need to study: 1. individual, specific situational coping strategies; 2. strategies divided by main areas of mental activity (cognitive, emotional, behavioral); 3. basic strategies of coping behavior, including cognitive, behavioral and emotional options for responding to stress and combined from individual situation-specific coping strategies according to the principle of activity-passivity of coping with stress; separate situation-specific coping strategies and basic coping strategies, for which the questionnaires included scales aimed at studying both and types of strategies
In 1978, L. Perlin and K. Schuler first used the interview method to measure the coping behavior of adult subjects. They identified three coping styles corresponding to the main areas of mental activity: behavioral responses that change the situation; responses that change the meaning or assessment of the situation; responses aimed at controlling negative feelings.
R. Lazarus and S. Folkman created the “Coping Methods” questionnaire (1980), consisting of 118 items, which subsequently, in various modifications, became one of the most popular tools for measuring coping behavior. The methodology defines 8 types of situation-specific coping strategies: confrontation, self-control, seeking social support, withdrawal-avoidance, planned problem solving, positive reappraisal, taking responsibility.
In subsequent years, various versions of questionnaires were developed to study coping behavior. A. Billings and R. Moos created a questionnaire with which they identified three types of coping: evaluation-oriented; problem-oriented; aimed at emotions [A. Billings and R. Moos, 1984]. E. Heim proposed a methodology for studying the characteristics of coping behavior, differentiated by the main areas of mental activity, in which more than 25 situation-specific coping strategies were identified. These strategies were divided into three groups: more adaptive, less adaptive, and having an uncertain impact on adaptation.
One of the most extensive coping questionnaires was created by J. Amirkhan based on empirically identified coping strategies. He proposed grouping all the variety of such strategies into three large blocks: 1) a problem resolution strategy is an active behavioral strategy in which a person tries to use all his available personal resources to find possible ways to effectively resolve a problem; 2) the strategy of seeking social support is an active behavioral strategy in which a person, in order to effectively resolve a problem, seeks help and support from his environment: family, friends, significant others; 3) an avoidance strategy is a behavioral strategy in which a person tries to avoid contact with the reality around him and avoid solving problems.
So, we have looked at the process of psychological overcoming difficulties and will focus on the classical theory of R. Lazarus and S. Folkman. In our work, we will use the definition of coping they formulated: “coping is the cognitive and behavioral efforts of an individual aimed at reducing the impact of stress.”
To diagnose this process, we use the methodology developed by these authors, which allows us to reflect such coping strategies as confrontation, self-control, seeking social support, withdrawal-avoidance, planned problem solving, positive reappraisal, and taking responsibility.
As a result of the theoretical analysis, we saw the specifics of a teacher’s work and reflected possible difficulties in work that could be potential stressors. Having analyzed the concept of “work experience,” we showed how it is related to the concepts of professional development and highlighted the need to take into account both formal and informal features in this concept. So in our work we will measure experience through three parameters: work experience, qualification category and self-assessment of focus on self-development. In constructing our research, we assume that in the process of accumulating work experience, teachers’ preferences regarding the chosen coping strategies will change, which will indirectly indicate differences in the goals and stages of professional development. Various motivational states and the nature of the tasks being solved will determine the assessment of one’s own capabilities and limitations and the result of assessing the stressfulness of the situation, and will also influence the choice of coping strategy.
When considering the problem of the effectiveness of psychological overcoming traumatic events, we should dwell, first of all, on the criteria of effectiveness.
There are several criteria for the effectiveness of coping.
Personal criterion. There is a noticeable decrease in the level of neuroticism of the individual, expressed in a decrease in depression, anxiety, irritability and psychosomatic symptoms.
Adaptation criterion. A reliable criterion for the effectiveness of coping can be considered a weakening of the feeling of vulnerability to stress and an increase in adaptive resources.
The identified criteria for the effectiveness of coping rarely appear in their pure form: for example, the solution to effectiveness at the personal level “pulls” the other two criteria with it.
Conditioning by gender role stereotypes. The female type of overcoming difficulties is predominantly emotional, the male - instrumental, by transforming or reinterpreting the external situation.
The effectiveness of basic coping strategies.
Effective Strategies: Really transforming the situation, or at least reinterpreting it. Changing the situation is not so much a remaking of the external world as a change in attitude towards this world, which leads to a change in the situation. A fragment of reality becomes a situation (here it is better to use the term “event”) only when it is included by the subject in his life path.
TO controversial strategies include emotionally expressive forms of coping. The general position is as follows: expressing feelings is a fairly effective way to overcome stress. Psychologists and teachers are taught to pay attention to a person’s behavior in grief. Thus, affective behavior is a sign of recovery, isolation is an alarming sign. However, there is an exception to this provision. Open display of aggressiveness due to its antisocial orientation is not effective. At the same time, restraining anger is a risk factor, as it violates a person’s psychological well-being.
A risk factor is the strategy of self-blame
1. Basic concepts of crisis psychology: “crisis”, “event”, “crisis event”, “psychological trauma”.
2. Two approaches to describing personal development: age-related patterns and age-related characteristics (dynamic principle).
3. The concept of experience as the basic unit of the inner life of the individual.
The concept of psychological overcoming (coping strategy).
The effectiveness of basic coping strategies.
Literature
Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K.A. Life strategy. – M.: Mysl, 1991.-229 p.
Bokhan T.G. Ontogenetic approach to the problem of overcoming critical situations in domestic and foreign research // Siberian Psychol. magazine - Tomsk, 1999. - Issue 10. - P. 40 - 45.
Vasilyuk F.E. Psychology of experience (analysis of overcoming critical situations) - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1984.
Kartseva T.B. The concept of life events in psychology // Personality psychology in socialist society. Personality and her life path. – M.: Nauka, 1990.
4. Kolodzin B. How to live after mental trauma. - M., 1992.
Liverhood B. Crises of life. Life chances. - Kaluga: Spiritual knowledge, 1994
Nartova-Bochaver S.K. “Coping behavior” in the system of concepts of personality psychology // Psychological Journal. - M. 1997. - T. 18, - No. 5.-S. 20-51.
Pergamenshchik L.A., Goncharova S.S., Yakovchuk M.I. Overcoming psychological trauma. - Moscow: NIO, 1999-55.p.
End of work -
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In crisis psychology
Course of lectures Minsk 2002 Course of lectures “Introduction to crisis psychology” the first attempt in Russian psychology to osm
Subject and tasks of crisis psychology
The modern socio-economic and cultural situation of human development largely contradicts the usual ways of constructing behavioral strategies based on natural (biological)
System of basic concepts of crisis psychology
2.1. Crisis event Analysis of the concepts “crisis”, “extreme situation”, “event”, “crisis event”. The concept of “Crisis” (from the Greek
Mental trauma
A special place is occupied by events that have a traumatic nature for the human psyche: a threat to one’s own life, physical injuries. The concept of “psychological trauma” does not have a clear definition
Grief as a process of experiencing
Grief is the process of experiencing the state of loss, the death of loved ones. The grieving process is described as a phenomenon consisting of three stages: the first stage involves shock and refusal to believe in
Anthropological disaster
Until recently (the end of the 20th century), the concept of “anthropological catastrophe” was more often the object of attention of science fiction writers. They predicted what would happen to a person if he trusted
Anthropological catastrophe as loss of personal integrity
The philosopher's language is complex and metaphorical, and to explain his thoughts he uses parables and allegories, which in turn require clarification. Metaphor “black hole” M. Mamardash
Descartes' principle
The basic principle of Cartesian philosophy can be expressed by the formula “Cogito ergo sum” - I think, therefore I am, a phrase that he laid as the basis of human possibility.
Existential direction in psychology and philosophy as a theoretical basis for crisis psychology
Why was this particular direction in psychology chosen as the theoretical paradigm (basis) of crisis psychology? Crisis psychology considers a person in a situation of crisis of his fundamentals
Basic principles of existential psychology
The focus of existential psychology is the category of personality. This is its fundamental difference from other psychological approaches and theories. It is known that behavior
Existential analysis
Existential analysis is based on the following principles of consideration and definition of personality: a) dynamic, b) basic problems of existence, c) intrapersonal conflict between
Characteristics of existential anxieties
The fourth topic reveals the content of the concept of existential anxiety and provides a taxonomy of basic anxieties. The psychotherapeutic theory of anxiety today is in difficulty.
Anxiety of fate and death
This pair of existential anxieties is the most fundamental, the most universal and the most inescapable. Any attempts to prove its inconsistency are futile. Even
Anxiety of guilt and condemnation
In existential psychology, “guilt” has a different meaning than in traditional psychology, where it is designated as an emotional state associated with the experience of wrong.
Guilt
There are several points of view on the problem of guilt. The understanding of guilt goes back, like much in modern practical psychology focused on psychological
Anxiety of emptiness and lack of meaning
An increasing number of people are gripped by a feeling of aimlessness and emptiness, or, as V. Frankl defined this state, an existential vacuum. The founder of the third Viennese school, V.
The relationship between fear and anxiety
Anxiety and fear have a common ontological basis, but they are different. Fear has a specific object. This object can be seen, encountered, analyzed,
Anxiety tends to turn into fear
In the events of life, situations often arise when anxiety tends to turn into fear. Why does this inevitable desire pursue a person throughout his life? Man is a creature
Psychotherapeutic theory of neurotic anxiety
Today, there are psychotherapeutic theories that explain the origin of neurotic anxieties, anxieties that arise as a result of random incidents in human life. All these t
Basics of logotherapy
Man is more than the psyche: man is the spirit of V. Frankl The foundations of logotherapy were laid by V. Frankl, the founder of the third Viennese school, human
Characteristics of meaning
Let us characterize the concept of “meaning” as V. Frankl understands and interprets it. The meaning is relative insofar as it relates to a specific
Value system for a meaningful life
So, meaning is unique and inimitable; a person himself is responsible for searching for his own meaning. This is what the scientist who wrote the book “Man’s Search for Meaning” thinks so, but this did not stop him from giving a meaningful
Doctrine of Free Will
Logotherapy is based on two fundamental anthropological characteristics of human existence: the ability to self-transcendence and the ability to self-detachment.
Existential vacuum
The absence of meaning gives rise to a state in a person that V. Frankl calls an existential vacuum. It is the existential vacuum that is the cause that generates on a large scale
Logotherapeutic theory of neuroses
First of all, let's define three pathogenic response patterns. The first pathogenic pattern of response, V. Frankl called phobia or fear of expectation
Methods of helping a person in a situation of noogenic neurosis
Let us note the main psychotherapeutic strategies in working with a client in a situation of loss of meaning in life. The therapist’s “mood” When a psychologist deals with
Discerning meaning (rethinking)
V. Frankl called for catching a certain general pattern, a semantic pattern in the tragic events of life’s path. Great ingenuity is required from the psychologist. Let us cite one of the cases of V. Frankl, who
Dereflexion
The dereflection strategy is quite simple. She invites the patient to distract himself from his own “I”, from his dysphoria, from the source of his neurosis and switch to preserving part of his own personality.
History of the theory
The modern understanding of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was finally established by the 1980s, but information about the impact of traumatic experiences is limited.
Etiology
The etiology of PTS, according to most researchers of this issue, is based on mental trauma, an event that can cause mental stress. In all cases, the event that became
B. Caused by man
accidents: a) in transport (road, rail, water, air); b) in industry; c) explosions (chemical, in mines, military warehouses); d) fires
Symptoms
Diagnostic criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder are most fully represented in the DSM-III-R and DSM-IY classification of diseases. A. Event. Post-traumatic
Epidemiology
The prevalence of traumatic stress depends on a number of factors: the frequency of traumatic events, the geographic regions in which natural disasters occur especially often
Analysis of diagnostic methods
The main tool for differential diagnosis of the entire range of disorders according to DSM-III-R criteria, including PTS, is the method of structured clinical interview - SCI
Traumatic stress and the collapse of basic illusions
The psychological state of people after a disaster has common characteristics that go beyond the scope of psychological states. Thus, the victims develop victim attitudes.
The problem of developing responsibility in a post-traumatic situation
The problem of psychological assistance is a fairly well-known and at the same time little developed area in Russian psychology. The essence of psychological assistance to a person is that
Symptoms of the consequences of prolonged bullying
A history of abuse, especially in childhood, appears to be a major contributing factor to a person becoming a psychiatric patient. Large proportion (40-70%) of adults
Dissociation
During prolonged confinement and isolation, some prisoners develop the ability to enter a trance state, which usually occurs only in very hypnotizable people, including the ability
Survivor triad
There are people with a strong and secure belief system who can withstand all the hardships of long, harsh treatment and come out unscathed with unshakable convictions. However, such people
Pathological changes in relationships
Methods of establishing control over other people are based on the systematic, repeated infliction of psychological trauma. These methods are designed in such a way as to gradually instill in a person
Pathological changes in personality
Coercive control relationships produce pronounced changes in the victim's personality. All structures of this personality - attitude towards one’s own body, internal perception of other people
Phenomenon of terrorism
Main characteristics of terrorism. 1. No warning. A warning allows a person to take protective psychological or physical action 2. Serious threat
Social consequences of terrorism
Social consequences are various types of losses caused to an individual's property. A person is faced with the problem of the absence of a person or organization that would pay compensation. Confession
Phases of childhood grief
John Bowlby, a renowned psychiatrist and expert on loss and separation in children, describes 3 phases of childhood grief, similar to the 3 phases of mourning in adults. He calls phase 1 the protest phase,
Age-related characteristics of grief
1. Reactions to death vary depending on the age or developmental stage of the child. Psychologist Maria Nadi describes the following differences in children's reactions to death depending on n
Self-awareness and problems arising in grief
Why do we mourn? Is there purpose in experiencing grief? This process provides a person with the opportunity - albeit painful - to delve into his experience and integrate it into his
Normalization principle
The state after a psychological trauma requires great efforts from the individual in order to reach the usual level of life activity, since the person tends to confuse the unusualness of his reaction to the trauma with
Approaches to Correcting Traumatic Stress
An interdisciplinary approach is very important when working with post-traumatic conditions. Help can begin with the organization of self-help, with crisis intervention, with the fight for r
The essence of the strategic (preventive) approach
The essence of the preventive approach in psychotherapy of crisis conditions. Principles of the preventive approach: immediate assistance; proximity to the event site; setting for positive results
Crisis intervention, psychological assistance and support programs
Psychological assistance in a crisis situation is united by the term intervention, crisis intervention. Intervention means intervention. Crisis intervention is a psychological emergency
Psychological debriefing
Psychological debriefing is a form of crisis intervention, a specially organized discussion in groups of people who have jointly experienced a stressful, crisis event. Target
Program for overcoming childhood mental trauma
This program is based on the actualization, “calling out” of past psychological traumas, among which childhood traumas occupy a special place. Goal of the program: Reduce
How to form a support group
The group leader is the only person responsible for creating and assembling the group. A fair share of the work to maintain the existence of the group occurs in the period before the first meeting, and from the ability
Principles of working in a support group
The principles of work of a support group have some differences from the rules of work adopted in psychotherapeutic groups: 1. The principle of personal safety (in psychotherapeutic groups it has
Requirements for a group leader
There are general requirements for the personality of a group leader: sincerity, personal integration, patience, courage, flexibility, warmth, time management and self-knowledge.
Support groups for a child in grief
Children, meeting in a group with each other, get the opportunity to see their own experiences in others, as in a mirror, and to realize the connection between their feelings and the death of their loved ones.
Grief support group for adults
Here is the content of 10 support group sessions. Lesson 1.. During the first lesson, it is important to establish an atmosphere of personal safety. The atmosphere of peace is ensured by the following benefits:
Main directions and principles of psychological education
Many of the social factors have a positive impact on a person and contribute to his personal development. But among them there are those that have a negative effect on the individual.
Glossary
The system of basic concepts of crisis psychology is designed to describe the psychological state and characteristics of human behavior after a disaster or crisis event. Creation categorically
Transcendence
Anxiety is a feeling of fear and foreboding from the realization that there is no construct to explain events. Psychological (mental) trauma -
Test topics
for the course “Introduction to crisis psychology” 1. The essence of an anthropological catastrophe. 2. Anthropological catastrophe as a loss of personal integrity 3.
Words to describe feelings
Happy Angry Sad Carefree Furious Sour Sincere Disappointment
When to see a psychologist
(Memo for a person experiencing grief) Signs of distorted (pathological) grief Healthy grief Persistent thoughts about
Your grief has a beginning, a purpose, and an end.
Grief is a work that needs to be done. It's not the most enjoyable job you'll ever have. But remember, have you always had to do pleasant work in your life? Wash dirty
You are responsible for your life even when grief has visited it
So, we have decided that the event that happened is not your fault. You are not responsible for the crisis event in your life. What you continue to be responsible for is your life, which is now not the same
Asking for help is not always a sign of weakness
It is important to remember that working through grief is not done alone. To get out of sadness, despair, depression, you need support, you need other people. Man h
Strong, wise and mature
Do's and Don'ts DO NOT hide your feelings. Show your emotions and give your friends the opportunity to discuss them with you
The ritual of crying as a form of psychotherapy
Crying as a mandatory ritual technique is prescribed to a person in strictly limited life situations. These situations are very different and, at first glance, there is no visible connection between them (n
A. Traumatic event
And here are the condemned at the execution site. “Several drums suddenly struck from both sides, and Pierre felt that with this sound it was as if part of his soul had been torn away. He lost the ability to think and coo
B. Pierre’s sensations (symptoms)
Together with the sound of the drum, it seemed to Pierre that “as if part of his soul had been torn off.” He lost the ability to think and comprehend; he could only see and hear. But Pierre would not have been able to see what was happening.
Psychotherapy session
After a terrible event, Pierre Bezukhov is transferred to a barracks for prisoners of war. “Silently and motionless, sitting against the wall on the straw, Pierre opened and closed his eyes. But as soon as he closed his eyes, he saw
Session 1. Response
It has been established that the most difficult thing for a person who has experienced trauma is to be able to speak out, to tell someone about what happened to him, to react. Reacting as fair
Step 2. Removing uniqueness
P.K. Continued to speak in the same pleasant voice: “Eh, falcon, don’t worry: endure for an hour, but live for a century! (In this situation, sometimes it is not what the therapist says that is important, but how he says it
Session 2. Search for resources in the past (regression)
Searching for resources in the past, or the “regression” method, consists of looking through a previous life in order to search there for reliable, stable “anchors” that you can cling to and thereby make meaningful decisions.
Session 3. Personality reconstruction
P.K. (about children) Well, there will still be young people, God willing. If only I could live in the council... P.B. It doesn’t matter now. P.K.Oh, dear man
Stages of recovery of Pierre Bezukhov
I. Four weeks later, Pierre is still a prisoner. He is no longer the same: the expression in his eyes has become firm and calm. The change affected primarily his gaze. "The former was more dissolute
Children's understanding of death
Children's understanding of death follows mental development and is formed gradually. Lack of understanding usually occurs in children under 5 years of age. "Yun wants us to prepare a room for Agnes in the new house."
Children's reactions to grief
When children learn about a death, they, like adults, may experience feelings of unreality and doubt. And then they don’t show any strong feelings at all. Sometimes their reaction is expressed
Anxiety
Four-year-old Andreas has not let his parents out of his sight since his sister died. He protests strongly when others look after him, even if they are people he knows intimately.
Sadness, longing
Grief is not measured in tears, and children do not grieve as long as adults. But they can continue to think about the dead for a long time and feel sadness and longing. Children are very bored, and the child may have
Parents' reactions
Children's reactions to death reflect not only their own grief and sadness, but also the reactions of their parents. It is painful for a child to see his parents cry and not take care of him as usual.
Give specific information
Regardless of whether the death comes suddenly or not, the information a child receives and the conversations that are had with him or her are critical to how the child copes with the disaster.
Allow children to be present at farewell ceremonies and funerals
Our experience shows that children are not traumatized if they see the deceased or attend a funeral. Often children's fantasies about death and the deceased can be worse than reality
Concrete questions
“Does the baby have to crawl to the sky?” “Is it cold down in the grave?” Children often ask questions that are difficult to answer. By asking detailed
Play to understand better
Children often imitate a funeral procession. They bury animals and insects, which helps them understand what happened to the deceased. They can also draw graves with a cross or draw other things like
Help your child understand
- Take time to talk to your child about difficult things. - Answer your child’s questions, even if he repeats them over and over again. - Go through how events unfolded,
Make the loss really tangible
- Let the child see the extent of it. - Allow the child to attend the funeral. - Do not hide your thoughts and feelings from your child. - Often remember the departed,
Reduce your child's guilt
- Have a serious conversation with your child if he shows guilt. - Reassure the child that nothing he thought or did led to the death.
Scientific retreat
An event is a trigger for personality development. Depending on the modality, strength, and uniqueness of the event, the perception and experience of the event and the nature of its impact on the individual occur. This is the case with
The first stage of overcoming. Finding the culprit
At the very beginning of overcoming a person tries to find the culprit in the tragic event, but the first searches, as a rule, do not give reliable results. That is why, after several stages, the victim
Model of suffering
N Stage name Function Duration 1. Shock, psychological whirlpool Information
P. Tillich
Practical psychologists know very well how important it is to “see” behind the request what really worries the client. And here the psychologist faces many tasks: formulating the problem, choosing strategies
Event
The bank official was detained and is awaiting trial. The writer never once mentioned either the reasons for the delay or the future trial of the official Joseph K. Is it by chance that the writer allocated
Introduction. Making contact
- Joseph K.! A powerful, well-placed voice thundered, the call sounded clearly, there was nowhere to escape from it. After this call, Joseph pondered for a long time how to evade the encounter.
Setting the distance
Then everything went into the open, and K., partly out of curiosity, partly out of a desire not to delay the matter, ran up to the pulpit with quick, sweeping steps. He stopped at the first row of pews, but is sacred
Acquaintance
-You are Joseph K.! - said the priest. “Yes,” said K. For some time the name had been a burden to him, but it was nice before: first introduce yourself and only after that make an acquaintance.
Defining Positions
“You are the accused,” the priest said very quietly. Yes, said K., “they let me know about it.” For Joseph, it is not so much the reality of the essence of affairs that is important, but rather what is
Preliminary diagnosis
The entire subsequent model of psychotherapeutic conversation is built on the dialogue between an aggressive (outwardly) therapist and a very obedient client. The form of the conversation bears little resemblance to a calm interaction of interest
Identifying the problem (first violation of the rules)
T. - What do you intend to do next in your business? K.- I will continue to look for help. There are probably countless opportunities that I have not yet taken advantage of.
Darkness and silence
The priest bowed his head low towards the balustrade. It seemed that only now the vault of the pulpit began to crush him. And what bad weather it is outside! It was no longer a cloudy day, it was deep night there
Decision-making
Feeling something unpleasant for himself, K. quickly began to make excuses and look for the reason for the silence and darkness in his fate. In an apologetic tone he tried to break the priest’s silence, “You’re angry.”
Screaming as a sign of desperation (Second rule violation)
Is it possible to assume that in a normal psychotherapeutic process the therapist will shout at the client? I do not take into account extremely rare exceptions (Alekseychik). And vdr
Getting closer as moving away
K. - Won't you go downstairs? You won't have to read sermons anyway. Come down to me. T. - Now I can go down. First I have to talk to you from a distance. Otherwise
Psychotechnology of forgiveness
“Love your neighbor as yourself,” states the text of the New Testament. Why should you love yourself? This Christian commandment is unpopular, primarily because among neighbors it is often
Step one. Forgive a loved one
How to learn to forgive? Of course, we need to start learning the art of forgiveness not from enemies, but from something easier. For example, in order to forgive your husband or wife, daughter, son or closest neighbor
Step four. Self-awareness
The consequence of the previous step is not obvious and is not immediately accepted by a person. But let's think: who have I treated and treated throughout my life in exactly this way? This person is me.
Love Formula
What parent would not want to say: “I love my children always, no matter what, even their bad behavior.” But, alas, like all parents, I cannot say this always and sincerely, gender
