Development of geographical knowledge in the 19th century. History of Geography

History of Russian geographical discoveries XIX V. begins with a series of trips around the world, among which the voyages of Ya. F. stand out especially. Krusenstern and about. F. Lisyansky(1803-1806), V. M. Golsvnina(1807-1809 and 1817-1819) and F.F. Bellingshausen And M. P. Lazareva(1819-1821) (Fig. 8).

The voyage of I.F. Krusenstern and Yu.F. Lisyansky was the first Russian round-the-world expedition. The reason for its organization was the inconvenience of supplies and the need to protect possessions located in North America. The main objectives of the first Russian round-the-world expedition were: delivery of cargo from the Russian-American Company to the Far East and sale of furs from this company in China, delivery of Ambassador N.N. Rezanov to Japan and carrying out associated geographical research. For the expedition, two ships with a displacement of 450 and 350 g were equipped, respectively named “Nadezhda” and “Neva”. Ivan Fedorovich Krusenstern was appointed commander of the Nadezhda, and Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky was appointed commander of the Neva. The crews of both ships consisted of Russian military sailors recruited voluntarily. An astronomer participated in the expedition Horner, naturalists Tilesius And Langsdorf and MD Laband.

On July 26, 1803, the ships left Kronstadt. Having visited Copenhagen, England and the Canary Islands, on November 14, 1803, “Nadezhda” and “Neva” crossed the equator for the first time in the history of the Russian fleet. Having rounded Cape Horn, on March 12, 1804, the ships were separated during a storm and met again only in the Marquesas Islands, from where they reached the Hawaiian Islands together. Then their separate voyage began.

Kruzenshtern from the Hawaiian Islands headed to Petropavlovsk-on-Kamchatka, and from there to Japan, where, after a five-month wait, the Japanese refused to accept the Russian envoy. From Japan, Kruzenshtern passed through the Sea of ​​Japan, unknown to Europeans, then through the La Perouse Strait into the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and returned to Petropavlovsk. From here he headed to Sakhalin, exploring its eastern shores, then circled the northern tip of the island and descended south to the mouth of the Amur. Having encountered a strong current from the south and fresh water, Kruzenshtern came to the false conclusion that Sakhalin connects with the mainland south of the mouth of the Amur. Having visited Kamchatka again, Kruzenshtern headed to Macau (China).

Lisyansky headed from the Hawaiian Islands to the shores of northwestern America, where he described the shores and took furs. After this, the Neva headed to Macau. Along the way, to the west of the Hawaiian Islands, Lisyansky discovered an island named after him.

Having finished selling the furs, Kruzenshtern and Lisyansky sailed to their homeland through the Sunda Strait, the Indian Ocean, and around the Cape of Good Hope. Near the Cape of Good Hope, the ships separated and arrived separately in Kronstadt in August 1806.

The Krusenstern-Lisyansky expedition yielded enormous scientific and practical results. She marked the beginning of oceanographic research; During the voyage, numerous surveys were made in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean, many ethnographic observations were made, and large collections were collected.

Krusenstern and Lisyansky described their voyage. In 1809-1812 Kruzenshtern’s work “Journey around the world in 1803, 1804, 1805 and 1806 on the ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” in three volumes with an album of drawings and an atlas of maps was published.” In 1812, Lisyansky’s work “Journey around the world in 1803, 1804, 1805 and 1806 on the ship “Neva” with the appendix of an atlas of maps and drawings” was published.

Vasily Mikhailovich Golovin was a brave navigator, who completed two voyages around the world. He made his first trip in 1807-1809. on the sloop "Diana". Golovnin intended to sail into the Pacific Ocean around Cape Horn, but strong storms prevented the ship from heading west. Then Golovnin turned east with the goal of rounding the Cape of Good Hope. At the Cape of Good Hope, in connection with the war between England and Russia, the British detained the ship, although Golovnin had a pass from the English government. After a long wait, Golovnin decided to leave the British. Having carefully studied the winds and waited for their favorable combination, Golovnin cut off the anchor ropes and fled. Fearing pursuit, he headed south and then turned east - bypassing Australia from the south. Having stopped at the New Hebrides, Golovnin reached Petropavlovsk-on-Kamchatka. After arriving in Kamchatka, Golovnin sailed off the coast of northwestern America, and then began describing the Kuril Islands. During this work he was captured by the Japanese and remained a prisoner of war for more than two years.

Golovnin's second journey took place in 1817-1819. on the sloop "Kamchatka". This time he sailed into the Pacific Ocean around Cape Horn. After stopping in Petropavlovsk, Golovnin headed to Russian America, determining the astronomical position of a number of islands along the way. Having visited Kodiak, Novo-Arkhangelsk, off the coast of California, he visited the Hawaiian, Mariana Islands and Fr. Manila. Then Golovnin rounded the Cape of Good Hope and, visiting the islands of St. Helena, Ascension and Fiala, returned to Kronstadt through Portsmouth. Golovnin described his voyages in the works: “The Voyage of the Russian Imperial Sloop “Diana” from Kronstadt to Kamchatka in 1807, 1808 and 1809 under the command of Lieutenant V. Golovnin” and “A Voyage Around the World Made on the Sloop of War “Kamchatka” in 1817, 181.8 and 1819."

In 1819-1821 the first Russian south polar expedition took place on the sloops “Vostok” and “Mirny” under the command of Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev (Fig. 8), which was marked by the greatest geographical discovery XIX c. - discovery of the sixth continent - Antarctica. The ships set sail on July 4, 1819. In the area of ​​South Georgia, the expedition discovered a number of islands (Annenkov, Leskov, Zavadovsky islands, etc.). Then the ships headed to the land of Sandwich, and it turned out that it was an archipelago, called the South Sandwich Islands.

On January 16, 1820, at 69°21" S, navigators approached the shores of Antarctica very close and noted signs of land. This day can be considered the date of the discovery of the sixth continent. On January 21 and February 5, ships again observed signs of the proximity of land and saw icy barrier. Further, following to the east, the ships arrived in Jackson (Sydney).The expedition then sailed across the Pacific Ocean, and many islands were discovered in the Paumotu group. After returning to Sydney, the ships again went out in search of the Southern mainland. They headed south, and having reached the floating ice, they sailed east, bypassing the Antarctic continent. The voyage took place in difficult conditions, however, despite the difficulties, the expedition sought to penetrate as far south as possible on January 10, 1821 at 68°. 57" S. w. and 90°46" W. Petra Island was discovered I, a January 17 - Land of Alexander I. Next, the sloops headed to the South Shetland Islands, previously mistaken by the Englishman Smith for a protrusion of the Southern Continent, from where they headed for Rio de Janeiro and arrived in Kronstadt on June 24, 1821. In total, over 91 thousand were completed. km routes, and the sailors walked around the entire Antarctic continent.

A description of the remarkable voyage on the ships “Vostok” and “Mirny” was published under the title “Twice explorations in the Arctic Ocean and voyages around the world during 1819, 1820 and 1821, carried out on the sloops “Vostok” and “Mirny” under the command of Captain Bellingshausen commander of the sloop "Vostok". The sloop "Mirny" was commanded by Lieutenant Lazarev." The description consisted of two volumes with an atlas of maps and views.

The works of the first Russian Antarctic expedition were highly appreciated by scientists. The Soviet people appreciate the merits of the navigators who discovered Antarctica.

Russian Geographical Society. IN during the second half XIX and started XX centuries Russian geography has achieved great success, which was mainly due to the activities of the Russian Geographical Society.

The Russian Geographical Society was organized in 1845. The goal of the society was “the collection and dissemination in Russia of geographical information in general and especially about Russia, as well as the dissemination of reliable information about our fatherland in other lands.” According to the charter, the society was divided into four departments: 1) general geography, 2) Russian geography, 3) Russian statistics, 4) Russian ethnography. Tsarevich Konstantin became the chairman of the society, while the actual leader was Fedor Petrovich Litke.

F. P. Litke (1797-1882) - admiral of the Russian fleet, was a major geographer and traveler. With the rank of midshipman, he took part in V. M. Golovnin’s voyage on the Kamchatka. In 1821, Litke was appointed head of an expedition to describe Novaya Zemlya, which did not yet have accurate maps. On the brig Novaya Zemlya, Litke made four voyages to the shores of Novaya Zemlya. During this time, the western and southern shores of the island and the Matochkin Shar Strait were described.

In 1828, Litke published the book “Four-fold voyage to the Arctic Ocean, made on the brig “Novaya Zemlya” in 1821-1824,” which was highly praised by scientists. Litke's descriptions were distinguished by accuracy and great objectivity.

In 1826-1829 F.P. Litke was the commander of the Senyavin sloop, which circumnavigated the world, during which significant scientific work was carried out in the North Pacific Ocean. In Kamchatka, the most important points of the coast were identified and the heights of many hills were measured; the islands are described in detail: Karaginsky and St. Matthew and the coast of Chukotka from Cape Dezhnev to the mouth of the river. Anadyr; the Pribilof Islands and many others have been identified. Much work was carried out in the Caroline Archipelago. Litke's own observations of terrestrial magnetism and gravity, as well as daily observations of weather and water temperature, were very important. The naturalists of the expedition collected rich collections in zoology, botany, mineralogy and ethnography. Litke gave a description of this voyage in the book “A Voyage Around the World on the Sloop of War “Senyavin” in 1826-1829.”

F. P. Litke led the Geographical Society until January 17, 1873. After him, the head of the society became P. P. Semenova-Tyan-Shansky(1827-1914), who played a major role in the development of Russian geography. Regarding the activities of P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, the famous Soviet geographer L. S. Berg wrote: “There are three types of geographers: travelers, regionalists and organizers. Pyotr Petrovich Semenov-Tyan-Shansky was both one and the other, and the third.”

In 1856-1857 Semenov-Tian-Shansky made a scientific expedition to the Tien Shan, marking the beginning of a comprehensive study of nature and human activity. During the expedition, Semenov-Tyan-Shansky studied the mutual connections between various components of nature and human activity, and also found patterns in the connections of elements of nature, highlighting vertical belts and types of terrain. In addition, he compared the nature of the territory under study with other areas, widely using the comparative method. The results of this journey were presented in the book “Travel to Tien Shan”.

Semenov-Tyan-Shansky considered geography as a complex of sciences, which included cartography, physical geography, anthropology, historical geography and statistics. This complex of sciences is, according to Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, “geography in the broad sense of the word.” In addition to it, he spoke about geography “in the narrow sense,” that is, about regional studies. P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky contributed to the creation of a whole school of geographers-researchers, which included the largest scientists: Ya. M. Przhevalsky, V. I. Roborovsky, I. G. Potanin, M. V. Pevtsov, I. K. Kozlov, V. A. Obruchev, I. V. Mushketov and others.

Let us characterize the activities of some other members of the Russian Geographical Society.

Petr Alekseevich Kropotkin (1842-1921) during his travels in Siberia in 1862-1867. collected extremely valuable material that changed all previous ideas about the northeastern part of Asia. Based on observations made in Siberia and Finland, he created a theory about the Ice Age. Research by P. A. Kropotkin was

summarized in the works: “General outline of the orography of Eastern Siberia” (1875) and “Research on the Ice Age” (1876).

Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) is known as the great explorer of Central Asia. While at the Military Academy, Przhevalsky compiled a large work, “Military Statistical Review of the Amur Region,” and was elected a member of the Geographical Society.

In 1867, P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky invited Przhevalsky to go to the Ussuri region. Przhevalsky accepted this proposal and conducted his first expedition remarkably, the results of which are presented in the book “Travel in the Ussuri Region.” After this, the Geographical Society accepted the plan for his journey to Central Asia.

N. M. Przhevalsky made four trips to Central Asia: Mongolian (1871-1873), Lop-Nor and Dzungarian (1876-1877), Tibetan first (1879-1881) and Tibetan second (1883-1886) gg.). At the beginning of the fifth expedition, Przhevalsky died. N. M. Przhevalsky described his travels in the books: “Mongolia and the Country of the Tanguts” (1875); “From Kulja beyond the Tien Shan and to Lob-Nor” (1878);

“From Zaisan through Hami to Tibet and to the upper reaches of the Yellow River” (1883) and “From Kyakhta to the sources of the Yellow River, exploration of the northern outskirts of Tibet and the path through Lob-Nor along the Tarim basin” (1888).

Przhevalsky's merits are immortal for science. He walked more than 30 thousand. km, having carried out a route survey of the entire route with the determination of astronomical points and altitudes, and for the first time gave correct ideas about the nature of Central Asia. In his works N. M. Przhevalsky

described the relief and landscapes of the Gobi, Nanshan, Tsaidam, Kunlun, Northern Tibet, Lop Nor and other places. Meteorological observations, which were carried out during all four trips, provided a lot of material for elucidating the climate of Central Asia and Tibet.

Przhevalsky collected extensive collections. He discovered a wild horse, a wild camel, several species of mountain sheep, antelopes, pheasants, bolduruk, fish from Kukunor and other lakes, snakes, lizards, and insects. Plant collections were just as extensive. The descriptions of N. M. Przhevalsky’s travels reflected the life and customs of the peoples with whom he met. Przhevalsky gave a description of the Mongols, Tanguts, Tibetans, Chinese, Dungans, Turks of Lop Nor and the Tarim Basin, Kyrgyz and Kalmzhs of the Tien Shan.

A worthy student of N. M. Przhevalsky was Petr Kuzmich Kozlov(1863-1935), who continued his exploration of Central Asia. P.K. Kozlov made three independent travels: Eastern Tibetan (1899-1901), Mongol-Tibetan (1907-1909) and Mongolian (1923-1926), describing them in the following books: “Mongolia and Kam (three-year journey through Mongolia and Tibet)" (1905); “Mongolia and Amdo and the dead city of Khara-khoto” (1923) and “Travel to Mongolia” (1923-1926).

During his travels, P.K. Kozlov walked about 40 thousand. km. In the desert, he discovered the ruins of the dead city of Khara-khoto, whose excavations yielded valuable archaeological materials. Kozlov studied little-known places in Central Asia: Kham and Amdo, and also collected additional information about the nature of other territories. Kozlov paid much attention to ethnographic research.

Among travelers of the last century, a special place occupies Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay(1846-1888). While other geographers were discovering new, hitherto unknown lands, Miklouho-Maclay sought first of all to discover man among the “primitive” peoples he studied, that is, not affected by European culture.

On September 20, 1871, Miklouho-Maclay landed on the northeastern coast of New Guinea, in Astrolabe Bay. He was brought here by the corvette Vityaz, which was sailing around the world. A hut was built for the traveler near a Papuan village. Soon friendly relations were established between Miklouho-Maclay and the Papuans. Miklouho-Maclay studied in detail the life, culture and activities of the Papuans.

On December 19, 1872, the clipper “Emerald” came for Miklouho-Maclay, on which the researcher made a long journey through the Malay Archipelago. In his further travels, Miklouho-Maclay visited the southwest of New Guinea, the Malacca Peninsula, and island. Java, in the group of Caroline Islands, the Admiralty Islands and three and a half years after leaving again settled on the shores of Astrolabe Bay. Here Miklouho-Maclay lived until November 1877, after which he visited Sydney, the Admiralty Islands and the southeastern coast of New Guinea. In 1883, he visited the Papuans of Astrolabe Bay for the third time, staying here for only a few days.

Miklouho-Maclay was a unique researcher of the life of primitive peoples. He loved people and protested against the violence that Europeans practiced against these peoples.

Worked at the Geographical Society for half a century Alexander Ivanovich Voeikov(1842-1916 gg.)- one of the founders of climatology. Voeikov traveled a lot. In addition to the Caucasus and Central Asia, he visited many countries in Western Europe, North and South America, Japan and India. His wanderings served as the source of those generalizations that are given in his main work, “Climates of the Globe, Especially Russia.” Here Voeikov establishes a deep connection between climate and other elements of nature. He also considers the influence of individual elements of the geographic environment on climate and the reverse influence of climate on these elements. In addition, Voeikov dealt with issues of geography of population and economy. He drew attention to the interaction between man and nature, devoting a number of articles to these issues.

The Russian Geographical Society has carried out extensive work on the study of Asia and other continents. The society contributed to the development of physical geography, ethnography and economic geography, repeatedly considered the question of the essence of geography, and did a lot to disseminate geographical knowledge. The society did a lot of work locally, having branches and branches in various parts of Russia.

Scientific activity of an outstanding Russian scientist Vasily Vasilievich Dokuchaev(1846-1903) proceeded without connection with the Geographical Society, but was of great importance for the fate of geography in our country. Dokuchaev was a versatile researcher. His classic scientific works “Russian Chernozem”, “Our Steppes Before and Now”, “Methods of Formation of River Valleys in European Russia”, “On the Doctrine of Natural Zones”, etc. relate to various issues of geology, geomorphology, geography, soil science and agronomy. The diversity of the nature of our country allowed Dokuchaev to create the science of soil and the doctrine of geographical zones. Dokuchaev showed that in each zone there are strictly regular connections between climate, parent rock, soil, vegetation, wildlife and human agricultural activities. Among the elements of nature, Dokuchaev attached great importance to soil. He considered the soil as a special natural-historical body, which is a connecting link between living and dead nature and is in close connection with both.

Dokuchaev's ideas are of great scientific and practical importance. Agriculture in our country is carried out in accordance with the soil and climatic conditions of each zone. Dokuchaev's doctrine of geographical zones is the basis of geography.

A major role in organizing geographical expeditions and in exploring the territory of Russia in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. played by the Russian Geographical Society (RGS), created in 1845 in St. Petersburg. Its departments (hereinafter referred to as branches) were organized in Eastern and Western Siberia, Central Asia, the Caucasus and other areas. A remarkable galaxy of researchers who have received worldwide recognition has grown up in the ranks of the Russian Geographical Society. Among them were F.P. Litke, P.P. Semenov, N.M. Przhevalsky, G.N. Potanin, P.A. Kropotkin, R.K. Maak, N.A. Severtsov and many others. Along with the geographical society, societies of naturalists that existed in a number of cultural centers of Russia were engaged in the study of nature. Significant contributions to the knowledge of the territory of the huge country were made by such government institutions as the Geological and Soil Committees, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Siberian Railway Committee, etc. The main attention of researchers was directed to the study of Siberia, the Far East, the Caucasus, Central and Middle Asia.

Central Asian Studies

In 1857-1879 N.A. studied Central Asia. Severtsov, who made 7 major trips to different regions of Central Asia, from desert to high mountain. Severtsov's scientific interests were very broad: he studied geography, geology, studied flora and especially fauna. Severtsov penetrated into the deep regions of the central Tien Shan, where no European had been before. Severtsov devoted his classic work “Vertical and horizontal distribution of Turkestan animals” to a comprehensive description of the altitudinal zonation of the Tien Shan. In 1874, Severtsov, leading the natural history team of the Amu Darya expedition, crossed the Kyzylkum desert and reached the Amu Darya delta. In 1877, he was the first European to reach the central part of the Pamirs, gave accurate information about its orography, geology and flora, and showed the isolation of the Pamirs from the Tien Shan. Severtsov’s works on dividing the Palaearctic into zoogeographical regions based on physical-geographical zonality and his “Ornithology and Ornithological Geography of European and Asian Russia” (1867) allow Severtsov to be considered the founder of zoogeography in Russia.

In 1868-1871 the high mountainous regions of Central Asia were studied by A.P. Fedchenko and his wife O.A. Fedchenko. They discovered the grandiose Trans-Alai Range and made the first geographical description of the Zeravshan Valley and other mountainous regions of Central Asia. Studying the flora and fauna of the Zeravshan Valley, A.P. Fedchenko was the first to show the faunistic and floristic similarity of Turkestan with the countries of the Mediterranean. Over the course of 3 years of travel, the Fedchenko couple collected a large collection of plants and animals, among which there were many new species and even genera. Based on the materials of the expedition, a map of the Fergana Valley and the surrounding mountains was compiled. In 1873 A.P. Fedchenko died tragically while descending from one of the Mont Blanc glaciers.

Friend A.P. Fedchenko V.F. Oshanin in 1876 made an expedition to the Alai Valley and in 1878 to the valleys of the Surkhoba and Muksu rivers (Vakhsh basin). Oshanin discovered one of the largest glaciers in Asia, which he named the Fedchenko glacier in memory of a friend, as well as the Darvazsky and Peter the Great ridges. Oshanin is responsible for the first complete physical and geographical characteristics of the Alay Valley and Badakhshan. Oshanin prepared for publication a systematic catalog of hemipterans of the Palaearctic, published in 1906-1910.

In 1886, Krasnov, on instructions from the Russian Geographical Society, explored the Khan Tengri ridge in order to identify and substantiate the ecological and genetic connections of the mountain flora of the Central Tien Shan with the adjacent floras of the Balkhash steppes and sandy deserts of Turan, as well as to trace the process of interaction between the relatively young flora of the Quaternary alluvial plains of the Balkhash region and the much more ancient (with an admixture of tertiary elements) flora of the highlands of the Central Tien Shan. This problem, evolutionary in its essence, was developed and the conclusions from it are well presented in Krasnov’s master’s thesis “An experience in the history of the development of the flora of the southern part of the Eastern Tien Shan.”

The expedition led by Berg, which studied in 1899-1902, was fruitful. and in 1906 the Aral Sea. Berg's monograph "The Aral Sea. Experience in a physical-geographical monograph" (St. Petersburg, 1908) was a classic example of a comprehensive regional physical-geographical description.

Since the 80s of the XIX century. Much attention was paid to the study of Central Asian sands. This problem arose in connection with the construction of a railway to Central Asia. In 1912, the first permanent comprehensive geographical research station for the study of deserts was founded at the Repetek railway station. In 1911 and 1913 Expeditions of the Resettlement Administration operated in Central Asia and Siberia. The most interesting geographical information was obtained by Neustruev’s detachment, which made the transition from Fergana through the Pamirs to Kashgaria. Clear traces of ancient glacial activity were discovered in the Pamirs. Summary results of studies of Central Asia in the 19th - early 20th centuries. are presented in great detail in the publication of the Resettlement Administration "Asian Russia".

Central Asian Studies

Contemporaries of Przhevalsky and continuers of Central Asian studies were G.N. Potanin (who worked a lot in ethnography), V.A. Obruchev, M.V. Pevtsov, M.E. Grum-Grzhimailo et al.

Research of Siberia and the Far East

In 1849-1852. The Trans-Baikal region was explored by an expedition consisting of astronomer L.E. Schwartz, mining engineers N.G. Meglitsky and M.I. Kovanko. Even then, Meglitsky and Kovanko pointed out the existence of gold and coal deposits in the river basin. Aldana.

The results of the expedition to the river basin were a real geographical discovery. Vilyuy, organized by the Russian Geographical Society in 1853-1854. The expedition was headed by R. Maak, a natural science teacher at the Irkutsk gymnasium. The expedition also included topographer A.K. Sondhagen and ornithologist A.P. Pavlovsky. In difficult conditions of the taiga, with complete impassability, Maak's expedition explored the vast territory of the Vilyuya basin and part of the river basin. Olenek. As a result of the research, a three-volume work by R. Maak appeared, “The Vilyuisky District of the Yakut Region” (parts 1-3. St. Petersburg, 1883-1887), in which the nature, population and economy of a large and interesting region of the Yakut region are described with exceptional completeness.

After the completion of this expedition, the Russian Geographical Society organized the Siberian Expedition (1855-1858) consisting of two parties. The mathematical party led by Schwartz was supposed to determine astronomical points and form the basis of a geographical map of Eastern Siberia. This task was successfully completed. The physical team included botanist K.I. Maksimovich, zoologists L.I. Schrenk and G.I. Radde. Radde's reports, which studied the fauna of the environs of Lake Baikal, the steppe Dauria and the Chokondo mountain group, were published in German in two volumes in 1862 and 1863.

Another complex expedition, the Amur expedition, was led by Maak, who published two works: “A trip to the Amur, carried out by order of the Siberian Department of the Russian Geographical Society in 1855.” (SPb., 1859) and “Journey along the valley of the Ussuri River”, vol. 1-2 (SPb., 1861). Maak's works contained a lot of valuable information about the basins of these Far Eastern rivers.

The most striking pages in the study of the geography of Siberia were written by the remarkable Russian traveler and geographer P.A. Kropotkin. The journey of Kropotkin and the science teacher I.S. was outstanding. Polyakov to the Leno-Vitim gold-bearing region (1866). Their main task was to find ways to transport cattle from the city of Chita to the mines located along the Vitim and Olekma rivers. The journey began on the banks of the river. Lena, it ended in Chita. The expedition overcame the ridges of the Olekma-Chara Highlands: North Chuysky, Yuzhno-Chuysky, Outskirts and a number of hills of the Vitim Plateau, including the Yablonovy Ridge. The scientific report on this expedition, published in 1873 in the “Notes of the Russian Geographical Society” (vol. 3), was a new word in the geography of Siberia. Vivid descriptions of nature were accompanied by theoretical generalizations. In this regard, Kropotkin’s “General Outline of the Orography of Eastern Siberia” (1875), which summed up the results of the then exploration of Eastern Siberia, is interesting. The diagram of the orography of East Asia he compiled differed significantly from Humboldt's scheme. The topographic basis for it was the Schwartz map. Kropotkin was the first geographer to pay serious attention to the traces of ancient glaciation in Siberia. Famous geologist and geographer V.A. Obruchev considered Kropotkin one of the founders of geomorphology in Russia. Kropotkin's companion, zoologist Polyakov, compiled an ecological and zoogeographical description of the path traveled.

Member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences Schrenk in 1854-1856. led the expedition of the Academy of Sciences to Amur and Sakhalin. The range of scientific problems covered by Schrenk was very wide. The results of his research were published in the four-volume work “Travel and Research in the Amur Region” (1859-1877).

In 1867-1869 Przhevalsky studied the Ussuri region. He was the first to note the interesting and unique combination of northern and southern forms of fauna and flora in the Ussuri taiga, and showed the unique nature of the region with its harsh winters and humid summers.

The largest geographer and botanist (in 1936-1945, President of the Academy of Sciences) V.L. Komarov began researching the nature of the Far East in 1895 and maintained an interest in this region until the end of his life. In his three-volume work “Flora Manschuriae” (St.-P., 1901-1907), Komarov substantiated the identification of a special “Manchurian” floristic region. He also owns the classic works "Flora of the Kamchatka Peninsula", vol. 1-3 (1927-1930) and "Introduction to the floras of China and Mongolia", no. 1, 2 (St. Petersburg, 1908).

The famous traveler V.K. painted vivid pictures of the nature and population of the Far East in his books. Arsenyev. From 1902 to 1910, he studied the hydrographic network of the Sikhote-Alin ridge, gave a detailed description of the relief of Primorye and the Ussuri region and brilliantly described their population. Arsenyev's books "Across the Ussuri Taiga", "Dersu Uzala" and others are read with unflagging interest.

A significant contribution to the study of Siberia was made by A.L. Chekanovsky, I.D. Chersky and B.I. Dybovsky, exiled to Siberia after the Polish uprising of 1863. Chekanovsky studied the geology of the Irkutsk province. His report on these studies was awarded a small gold medal of the Russian Geographical Society. But Chekanovsky’s main merits lie in the study of previously unknown territories between the Lower Tunguska and Lena rivers. He discovered a trap plateau there, described the river. Olenek and compiled a map of the northwestern part of the Yakut region. Geologist and geographer Chersky owns the first summary of theoretical views on the origin of the lake depression. Baikal (he also expressed his own hypothesis about its origin). Chersky came to the conclusion that here is the oldest part of Siberia, which has not been flooded by the sea since the beginning of the Paleozoic. This conclusion was used by E. Suess for the hypothesis about the “ancient crown of Asia.” Chersky expressed deep thoughts about the erosional transformation of the relief, about leveling it, smoothing out sharp forms. In 1891, already terminally ill, Chersky began his last great journey to the river basin. Kolyma. On the way from Yakutsk to Verkhnekolymsk, he discovered a huge mountain range, consisting of a series of chains, with heights of up to 1 thousand m (later this ridge was named after him). In the summer of 1892, during a trip, Chersky died, leaving behind a completed “Preliminary report on research in the area of ​​the Kolyma, Indigirka and Yana rivers.” B.I. Dybovsky and his friend V. Godlevsky explored and described the peculiar fauna of Lake Baikal. They also measured the depth of this unique reservoir.

Of great interest are the scientific reports of V.A. Obruchev about his geological research and his special articles about the nature of Siberia. Along with the geological study of gold placers in the Olekmo-Vitim country, Obruchev dealt with such geographical problems as the origin of permafrost, glaciation of Siberia, and the orography of Eastern Siberia and Altai.

Western Siberia, with its flat topography, has attracted little attention from scientists. Most of the research was carried out there by amateur botanists and ethnographers, among whom N.M. Yadrintseva, D.A. Clemenza, I.Ya. Slovtsova. Of fundamental importance were the studies carried out in 1898 by L.S. Berg and P.G. Ignatov's research on salt lakes, presented in the book "Salt lakes of Selety-Dengiz, Teke and Kyzylkak of Omsk district. Physico-geographical sketch." The book contains a detailed description of the forest-steppe and the relationship between forest and steppe, sketches of flora and relief, etc. This work marked a transition to a new stage of research in Siberia - from route studies to semi-stationary, comprehensive ones, covering a wide range of physical and geographical features of the territory.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. and in the first decade of the 20th century. Geographical research in Siberia was subordinated to two problems of great national importance: the construction of the Siberian Railway and the agricultural development of Siberia. The Siberian Road Committee, created at the end of 1892, attracted a large number of scientists to research a wide strip along the Siberian Railway route. Geology and minerals, surface and groundwater, vegetation, and climate were studied. Tanfilyev's research in the Barabinsk and Kulunda steppes (1899-1901) was of great importance. In the book “Baraba and the Kulundinskaya Steppe” (St. Petersburg, 1902), Tanfilyev, having examined the views of previous researchers, expressed convincing thoughts about the origin of the ridge topography of the Baraba steppe, about the regime of numerous lakes in the West Siberian Lowland, and about the nature of soils, including chernozems. Tanfilyev explained why forests in the steppes of European Russia are located closer to river valleys, while in Baraba, on the contrary, forests avoid river valleys and are located on watershed ridges. Before Tanfilyev, Middendorf studied the Baraba Lowland. His small work "Baraba", published in 1871 in the "Appendix" to the "Notes of the Imperial Academy of Sciences", is of great interest.

From 1908 to 1914, soil-botanical expeditions of the Resettlement Administration of the Ministry of Agriculture operated in the Asian part of Russia. They were led by an outstanding soil scientist, a student of Dokuchaev, K.D. Glinka. The expeditions covered almost all regions of Siberia, the Far East and Central Asia. The scientific results of the expeditions are presented in the 4-volume work “Asian Russia” (1914).

Studies of European Russia, the Urals and the Caucasus

A new stage in the field of soil-botanical research was the work of Dokuchaev, who led the plant in 1882-1888. The Nizhny Novgorod soil expedition, as a result of which a scientific report was compiled ("Materials for the assessment of the lands of the Nizhny Novgorod province. Natural history part...", issue 1-14. St. Petersburg, 1884-1886) with two maps - geological and soil. This essay examines the climate, relief, soils, hydrography, flora and fauna of the province. This was the first comprehensive study of its kind in a large agricultural area. It allowed Dokuchaev to formulate new natural historical ideas and substantiate the genetic direction in soil science.

Tanfilyev summed up the results of a 25-year study of Russian swamps, organized by the Ministry of State Property. In his articles “On the swamps of the St. Petersburg province” (Proceedings of the Free Economic Society, No. 5) and “Swamps and peat bogs of Polesie” (St. Petersburg, 1895), he revealed the mechanism of formation of swamps and gave their detailed classification, thus laying the foundations scientific swamp science.

In studies conducted in the second half of the 19th century. in the Urals, the main attention was paid to the study of its geological structure and the distribution of minerals. In 1898-1900 The Orenburg branch of the Russian Geographical Society organized barometric leveling of the southern part of the Ural ridge. The results of leveling were published in the News of the Orenburg Branch of the Russian Geographical Society for 1900-1901. This contributed to the emergence of special geomorphological studies. The first such work in the Urals was carried out by P.I. Krotov. He critically reviewed the history of orographic research in the Middle Urals, gave a general picture of the structure of its relief, described many characteristic surface forms and explained the geological conditions of their occurrence.

A thorough study of the climate of the Urals began in the 80s of the 19th century, when 81 meteorological stations were created there. By 1911, their number increased to 318. Processing weather observation data made it possible to identify the distribution pattern of climatic elements and determine the general features of the climate of the Urals.

From the middle of the 19th century. Work began to appear on a special study of the waters of the Urals. From 1902 to 1915, the Department of Inland Waterways and Highways of the Ministry of Transport published 65 issues of “Materials for the Description of Russian Rivers,” which contained extensive information about the rivers of the Urals.

By the beginning of the 20th century. the flora of the Urals (except for the Northern and Polar) was already quite well studied. In 1894, the chief botanist of the St. Petersburg Botanical Garden S.I. Korzhinsky was the first to draw attention to traces of ancient vegetation in the Urals. Employee of the Petrograd Botanical Garden I.M. Krasheninnikov was the first to express thoughts about the relationship between forest and steppe in the Southern Trans-Urals, thereby raising important botanical and geographical problems. Soil research in the Urals was significantly late. Only in 1913, Dokuchaev’s collaborators Neustruev, Krasheninnikov and others began a comprehensive study of the soils of the Urals.

In the second half of the 19th century. Systematic work on triangulation and topographic surveys of the Caucasus began. Military topographers reported a lot of general geographical information in their reports and articles. Using data from geodetic work and geological research by G.V. Abikha, N. Salitsky in 1886 published “Essay on the orography and geology of the Caucasus,” in which he outlined his ideas about the geography of this mountainous region. Much attention was paid to the study of the glaciers of the Caucasus. The work of K.I. is of great scientific value. Podozersky, who gave a qualitative and quantitative description of the glaciers of the Caucasus Range ("Glaciers of the Caucasus Range." - Notes of the Caucasus Department of the Russian Geographical Society, 1911, book 29, issue I).

Voeikov, studying the climate of the Caucasus, was the first to draw attention to the relationship between climate and vegetation of the Caucasus and in 1871 made the first attempt at natural zoning of the Caucasus.

Dokuchaev made an important contribution to the study of the Caucasus. It was during the study of the nature of the Caucasus that his doctrine of latitudinal zonality and altitudinal zonation finally took shape.

Along with these famous scientists, the Caucasus was studied by many dozens of geologists, soil scientists, botanists, zoologists, etc. A large number of materials about the Caucasus have been published in “News of the Caucasian Department of the Russian Geographical Society” and special industry magazines.

Research in the Arctic

In 1910-1915 On the icebreaking transports "Taimyr" and "Vaigach" hydrographic surveys were carried out from the Bering Strait to the mouth of the river. Kolyma, which ensured the creation of sailing directions for the seas washing Russia in the north. In 1913, "Taimyr" and "Vaigach" discovered the archipelago, now called Severnaya Zemlya.

In 1912, Navy Lieutenant G.L. Brusilov decided to go from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok along the Northern Sea Route. The schooner "St. Anna" was equipped with private funds. Off the coast of the Yamal Peninsula, the schooner was covered in ice and carried away by currents and winds to the northwest (north of Franz Josef Land). The crew of the schooner died, only navigator V.I. survived. Albanov and sailor A.E. Conrad, sent by Brusilov to the mainland for help. The ship's log, saved by Albanov, provided rich materials. Having analyzed them, the famous polar traveler and scientist V.Yu. Wiese predicted the location of an unknown island in 1924. In 1930, this island was found and named after Wiese.

G.Ya. did a lot to study the Arctic. Sedov. He studied the approaches to the mouth of the river. Kolyma and Krestovaya Bay on the islands of Novaya Zemlya. In 1912, Sedov reached Franz Josef Land on the ship "St. Foka", then spent the winter on Novaya Zemlya. In 1913, Sedov’s expedition returned to Franz Josef Land and spent the winter on the island. Hooker in Tikhaya Bay. From here, in February 1914, Sedov, with two sailors on a sled, headed towards the North Pole, but did not reach it and died on the way to the Pole.

The Murmansk scientific and fishing expedition under the leadership of N.M. obtained rich hydrobiological materials. Knipovich and L.L. Breitfus. During its activity (1898-1908), the expedition on the ship "Andrew the First-Called" carried out hydrological observations at 1,500 points and biological observations at 2 thousand points. As a result of the expedition, a bathymetric map of the Barents Sea and a current map were compiled. In 1906, Knipovich’s book “Fundamentals of Hydrology of the European Arctic Ocean” was published. Scientists from the Murmansk Biological Station, founded in 1881, received a lot of new information about the Barents Sea.

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The “grandfather” of Russian geography and the founder of the geographical school is rightfully considered Peter Petrovich Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914). For more than forty years he headed the work of the Russian Geographical Society. The scientific school he created was one of the largest geographical schools. Its members included world-famous scientists: N.M. Przhevalsky, M.V. Pevtsov, V.A. Obruchev, P.A. Kropotkin, N.N. Miklukho Maclay.

The name of P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky is associated with the pioneering study of the nature of the Tien Shan, for which he received the honorary prefix “Tyan-Shansky” to his surname.

The development of the Russian Empire in the 19th century intensified the processes of geographical division of labor. What does this mean? And the fact that certain parts of the country acquired a different economic appearance and identity from others.

An industrially oriented region is emerging between Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod, which attracts numerous workers from non-black earth provinces. The largest mining district in the Urals is being created. In the vast expanses of the recent Wild Field, a commercial grain farming area is being formed.

There is a need for economic zoning of the country, which was done by P. P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky.

P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky identifies 12 economic regions: 1) Far northern; 2) Lakeside; 3) Baltic; 4) Moscow industrial; 5) Central agricultural; 6) Priuralskaya; 7) Nizhnevolzhskaya; 8) Little Russian; 9) Novorossiysk; 10) Southwestern; 11) Belarusian; 12) Lithuanian.

The proposed zoning reflected economic reality so accurately that it was used until the 20s of the 20th century. The scientist believed that geography should study both the natural features of the earth’s surface and the human activity that changes it. The crown of geographical study remains man.

They are considered the “fathers” of Russian geography D. N. Anuchina, V. V. Dokuchaeva, A. I. Voeikova who have created their own authoritative scientific schools.

Wonderful Russian scientist Dmitry Nikolaevich Anuchin (1843-1923) considered the surface of the Earth as an object of geography, serving as an arena for the activity of various forces - from cosmic to anthropogenic. The author painted a picture of the active change of nature by man: “The mass of plants and factories now consumes such a mass of fuel that a huge amount of gases enters the atmosphere every day, including carbon dioxide, which can... influence the composition of the air and the general temperature of the atmosphere.” .

Imagine that this statement sounded like a warning about global warming at the beginning of the 20th century!

D. N. Anuchin laid the foundations of a new geographical science - lake studies in Russia.

On the threshold of the 20th century, the great Russian scientist Vasily Vasilievich Do-kuchaev (1846-1903) - the founder of the science of soil and natural zones - in his innovative work “Towards the Doctrine of Natural Zones” drew attention to the universal connection between inanimate and living nature and human activity. The most important goal of the scientist was to study the relationship between the eternal and natural connection that exists between the bodies and forces of dead and living nature, on the one hand, and man, his life and even the spiritual world, on the other.

An outstanding geographer and climatologist gained worldwide fame Alexander Ivanovich Voeikov (1842-1916). His work on the climate of the globe brought him well-deserved fame. The scientist paid much attention to a phenomenon typical of Russia—snow cover and its impact on nature and the economy. Material from the site

Rice. 7. A. I. Voeikov

To increase productivity, he proposed planting field-protective “forest edges” and other snow retention measures. A.I. Voeikov was also interested in economic and geographical issues - land reclamation and active use of natural resources, development of resorts in the Caucasus, population. Characterizing the conditions for the distribution of population between villages and cities, he introduced the term “millionaire cities” (cities with a population of more than 1 million people).

The history of the development of Russian geography in the 19th century is the development of the theoretical foundations of geography in conjunction with the practically significant nature of the research.

Questions about this material:

• MUNICIPAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
  

  SECONDARY SCHOOL No. 96
  

  KRASNODAR
  

  Methodological development of a multimedia lesson on the history of Russia on the topic:
  

  "Enlightenment and science in the second half of the 19th century"

  Prepared

  history teacher of secondary school No. 96

  Kultyushnova I.B.
  

  Krasnodar, 2013
  

  Lesson topic: “Enlightenment and science in the second half of the 19th century.”
  

  (multimedia lesson)
  

  The purpose of the lesson:
  

  • To introduce students to the achievements of science and the education system in the second half of the 19th century;
    
  • Highlight the features of the development of science and education;
    

  Instilling in students a sense of pride in the contribution that great compatriots have made to world culture.

  Equipment: multimedia projector, notebooks, textbooks.

  During the classes
  

  1. Organizing time.
     
  2. Checking homework. Test survey.
     

  Studying a new topic.

  Plan

  1. Development of education.
     
  2. Advances in natural sciences.
     
  3. Development of geographical knowledge.
     

  Development of humanistic sciences.

  Consolidation.

  4. Homework.

  Test survey

  Option 1.

  1. The “reinsurance” agreement between Russia and Germany, according to which both sides were required to remain neutral in a war with any third great power, and Germany recognized Russia’s acquisitions and interests in the Balkans, was concluded
  

  a) in 1881
  

  b) in 1887
  

  c) in 1891

  2. An agreement providing for military assistance and the mobilization of all military reserves in the event of a military threat was concluded between Russia and
  

  a) Austria-Hungary
  

  b) France
  

  c) England

  3. The “Union of Three Emperors” consisted of sovereigns
  

  a) Russia, Germany, France
  

  c) Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary

  4. Russia pursued a policy towards Bulgaria
  

  a) non-interference in internal affairs
  

  b) strengthening our own presence in the Balkans
  

  c) sent troops to suppress the uprising in Rumelia

  5. The clash of interests in the Far East inevitably brought a military conflict between Russia closer
  

  a) Japan
  

  b) Austria-Hungary
  

  c) France

  Option 2.
  

  1. Russia entered into a defensive alliance with France
  

  a) in 1891
  

  b) in 1894
  

  c) in 1895

  2. An international treaty on a specific issue is called
  

  a) concession
  

  b) monopoly
  

  c) convention

  3. Note who we are talking about. A statesman of the Russian Empire who held various diplomatic posts in the Middle East, Switzerland, and Sweden. In 1882 he was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs. He saw the main means of preserving peace in strengthening the alliance with Germany and Austria.
  

  a) N.H. Bunge
  

  b) N.K. Gire
  

  c) A.M.Gorchakov

  4. Check the correct statement.
  

  a) France concluded a convention with Russia providing for military support in the event of war in 1881.
  

  b) The “Union of Three Emperors” collapsed in 1885-1886. due to the aggravation of Austro-German-Russian contradictions due to the Bulgarian crisis
  

  c) the Russian-Afghan border was established in 1894.

  5. The Triple Alliance consisted of
  

  a) Russia, England, France
  

  b) Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy
  

  c) Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia

  1. Development of education.

  The abolition of serfdom and economic success in the second half of the 19th century could not but entail profound changes in all areas of culture. The post-reform period was characterized by an increase in literacy and the development of education. Among men of military age in 1874, 21% were literate, in 1900 - 40%. A lot of work was done zemstvo primary schools. By the end of the century, more than 4 million children were studying there.
  

  Verbal counting.
  

  N.P. Bogdanov - Belsky. 1895

  But at the same time, 7.5 million children did not receive education. Zemstvo school was the most common type of primary school.
  

  The main type of primary school was gymnasium. In 1861, there were 85 men's gymnasiums in Russia, where 25 thousand people studied. A quarter of a century later, their number increased 3 times, and there were 70 thousand high school students. In the late 60s of the 19th century, the issue of female education was raised. By the beginning of the 80s, 300 female secondary educational institutions had been opened, with up to 75 thousand girls studying there. Women were allowed to attend lectures at universities as free listeners. Soon higher women's courses began to operate in St. Petersburg and Moscow.

  
  

  Workers from Blagush - Lefortovo district of Moscow on an excursion.
  

  1913

  
  

  A group of students and teachers of the Prechistensky working courses. Moscow. 1908

  According to the 1897 census
  

  
  

  For comparison:
  

  At the end of the 60s
  

  
  

  The literacy rate of the Russian population remained the lowest in Europe.

  2. Development of science and technology

  Industrial successes were closely related to achievements in various branches of science and technology. Many discoveries of Russian scientists were of an applied nature and were widely used for applied purposes, becoming a significant contribution to world technical progress.
  

  Mathematician and mechanic Pafnutiy Lvovich Chebyshev

  
  

  P.L. Chebyshev

  repeatedly emphasized that “sciences find a faithful leader in practice.” As a member of the artillery department of the military-scientific committee P.L. Chebyshev connected his scientific interests in the field of mathematical analysis with the practical needs of military affairs.
  

  Professor of the Moscow Higher Technical School N.E. Zhukovsky discovered by the end of the century a method for calculating the lifting force of an aircraft wing and was deservedly called the “father of Russian aviation.”
  

  
  

  NOT. Zhukovsky

  St. Petersburg scientist A.S. Popov invented the radio receiver.

  
  

  A.S. Popov

  In 1900, Popov's radio was used for practical purposes to rescue fishermen in the Gulf of Finland. For his discovery, the scientist was awarded the Great Gold Medal at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900.
  

  In 1876, Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov created an electric arc lamp. Soon Yablochkov's light bulbs illuminated the streets and houses of many cities around the world.

  
  

  P.N. Yablochkov

  Domestic chemical science has achieved great success.

  
  

  A group of members of the chemical section of the First Congress of Russian Natural Scientists, which adopted a resolution on the need to unite Russian chemists into the Chemical Society
  

  The great scientist, professor at St. Petersburg University Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev made a world discovery - the periodic law of chemical elements.

  
  

  DI. Mendeleev

  He was a scientist with diverse knowledge and interests. He has written over 500 major research works on chemistry, physics, meteorology, aeronautics, agriculture, economics, and education.
  

  Scientists and naturalists have achieved great success. Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov created the doctrine of brain reflexes, thereby carrying out a revolution in biological science.
  

  
  

  I.I. Sechenov

  He was the first to scientifically prove the unity and mutual conditionality of mental and physical phenomena, emphasizing that mental activity is nothing more than the result of the work of the brain.
  

  Research in this area was continued by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov.

  
  

  I.P. Pavlov

  His doctrine of conditioned reflexes served as the basis for modern ideas about the brain of animals and humans. Pavlov proved that the conditioned reflex is the highest and most recent form of adaptation of the organism to the environment. If an unconditioned reflex is a relatively constant innate reaction of the body, the result of the accumulation of their individual life experience.
  

  The outstanding Russian scientist V.M. Bekhterev devoted his work to identifying the role of the nervous system in the activity of the organs of higher animals and humans.

  
  

  V.M. Bekhterev

  The great scientist Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky made a number of major discoveries in aerodynamics, rocketry and the theory of interplanetary communications.
  

  
  

  K.E. Tsiolkovsky among the models of metal airships he made. 1913

  In 1887, in his work “Theory and Experience of the Balloon,” he gave a rationale for the design of an airship with a metal shell. Tsiolkovsky achieved his greatest achievements in the field of rocket propulsion. He was the author of the idea of ​​creating extraterrestrial stations and proposed ways to return a rocket to earth.

  3. Development of geographical knowledge

  Russian geographical science has achieved success thanks to the activities of the Russian Geographical Society, one of the founders of which was Vladimir Ivanovich Dal.

  
  

  IN AND. Dahl

  He gained wide popularity after the publication of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” in 1861-1867. His collection “Proverbs of the Russian People” is also of great interest. In 1863, Dahl was elected an honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.
  

  Russian geographical science has stepped forward thanks to the expeditions of outstanding scientists. Among them N.M. Przhevalsky.
  

  
  

  N.M. Przhevalsky

  Nikolai Mikhailovich discovered a number of mountain ranges and large mountain lakes in Central Asia unknown to Europeans. For the first time, descriptions of some animals (wild horse, wild camel, Tibetan bear) were given.
  

  Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay devoted his life to the study of the peoples of Southeast Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Islands.

  
  

  N.N. Miklukho Maclay
  

  For two and a half years (1871-1872; 1876-1877, 1883) he lived on the coast of New Guinea. He won the trust of its residents. In 1881, he developed a project to create an independent state in New Guinea - the Papuan Union, designed to resist the colonialists. In 1886, Miklouho-Maclay unsuccessfully sought permission from the Russian government to organize a “Free Russian Colony” in New Guinea.

  4. Development of the humanities

  Professor, dean of the Faculty of History and Philosophy, and then rector of Moscow University Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov created the 29-volume “History of Russia from Ancient Times.”
  

  

  CM. Soloviev

  His “Public Readings on Peter the Great,” dedicated to the 200th anniversary of the reformer’s birth, became a major scientific and social phenomenon. Soloviev was a supporter of the comparative historical method of research, pointing out the common features of the development of Russia and Western Europe.
  

  Student of Solovyov S.M. was Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky.
  

  
  

  IN. Klyuchevsky

  In 1882 he brilliantly defended his dissertation “The Boyar Duma of Ancient Rus'”. He was the author of many historical studies and the “Course of Russian History,” which he taught at Moscow University. The scientist paid great attention to the study of the socio-economic causes of events and phenomena.
  

  In the second half of the 19th century, domestic science reached the forefront. Russian scientists have made a significant contribution to the development of world scientific thought. The reasons were those favorable changes in the life of the country that came along with the abolition of serfdom. They contributed to the growth of initiative and scientific research of Russian people.
  

  5. Consolidation

  Name the names of outstanding figures in the field of education and science of the second half of the 19th century.
  

  6. Homework

  Make a table “Achievements of science in the second half of the 19th century” in your notebook.

  A table is drawn in the notebook:

  THE SCIENCE	DISCOVERIES AND ACHIEVEMENTS (Who? What? When?)
  mathematics
  physics
  chemistry
  biology
  geography
  story

  The formation of domestic science, in particular natural scientific thought, is associated, first of all, with the transformations of Peter I and the transformations of the post-Petrine era. Peter I realized the most important role of geographical research, both of the country itself and the territories bordering it, in the further socio-economic development of Russia. “Everything that Peter did to disseminate geographical information stemmed partly from a fiery desire to revive trade and bring his subjects into close relations with other peoples, partly from the obvious need for every ruler to know the means of his country, and finally, from the lively curiosity of his mind, thirsty for all knowledge, especially when curiosity was awakened by something hitherto unprecedented” Gnuchev V.F. Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences of the 18th century. / Ed. A.I. Andreeva. M.; L.: USSR Academy of Sciences, 1946. P. 13..

  Under Peter I, the first significant scientific expeditions were carried out, research and educational organizations were created, such as the Maritime Academy, the Kunstkamera and the Academy of Sciences. The drawing up of a new map of the Russian Empire, the creation of which was initiated by Peter I, contributed to the acceleration of the development of cartography in Russia.

  One of the primary objectives of Peter I’s policy was the publication of general (general) maps related to the study of vast territories of the country, the creation of a navy, as well as the search and development of natural resource locations.

  In this regard, there was a need for domestic personnel of cartographers, navigators, and surveyors. In 1701, in Moscow, by decree of Peter I, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was created, which trained the first specialists in the field of geodetic work.

  In 1715, Peter created such a higher educational institution as the Naval Academy, which graduates specialists in maritime and military affairs at a higher level than the Navigation School in the field of naval artillery, navigation, fortification and ship design, and later cartography, geodesy and topography.

  Already in 1719, an expedition to the Far East was led by surveyors from the Maritime Academy: I.M. Evreinov and F.F. Luzhin. Peter I attached great importance to issues related to the eastern outskirts of the state: defining borders, strengthening and expanding his possessions in Siberia and the Far East. In connection with this, the assignment of the expedition was: “from Tobolsk to Kamchatka, further where indicated to you and describe the places there: America has come together with Asia, which must be done carefully, not only Zuid or Ost, but also Ost and West, and put everything on the map correctly.” 1. The result of the expedition was a map of Siberia, Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands based on accurate data. Before this expedition, maps and drawings of various territories were compiled, but they were not so accurate and reliable.

  Peter I organized the First Kamchatka Research Expedition (1725-1730), under the leadership of Russian navy officer V.I. Bering, to resolve the question of whether Asia is connected to America, as well as to study the coastal regions of these continents. It should be noted that the answer to the question of connecting the two continents was given earlier by the Russian explorer Semyon Dezhnev, who discovered the strait between North America and Asia much earlier in 1648. However, the data of his discovery were not published and were not known. They were made public only in 1736 during the Great Northern or, as it is also called, the Second Kamchatka Expedition (1733-1743). Based on the results of the First Kamchatka Expedition, a map and description of the route from Tobolsk to Kamchatka was made “of our entire existence from Tobolsk by rivers and sea to return,” completely changing the existing ideas “about the extent of Siberia from west to east and about the eastern coast of the Pacific Ocean from Kamchatka to Chukotka nose" Esakov V.A. Vitus Jonssen Bering (1681-1741) // Creators of Russian Science. Geographers. M.: Agar, 1996. P. 25.. The geographical observations carried out by its participants were of great importance. Based on the results of these observations, descriptions were compiled: flora and fauna, relief, currents, weather, ethnographic and economic features of the regions. It is also necessary to note the political significance of this expedition, which determined the borders of Russia in northeast Asia.

  During the reign of Peter I, a scientific study was carried out on the southeastern outskirts of European Russia with the Caspian Sea and the Trans-Caspian land with the Aral Sea. This was due to the desire of Peter the Great to pave the way through these territories to Central Asia and India. During 1715-1719 an inventory of the Caspian Sea was made, according to which in 1720 a map of the Caspian Sea was published - “Picture of the flat Caspian Sea from the mouth of Iarkovsky to Astrobatsky Bay” Berg L.S. Decree. op. P. 18.. The map, compiled on the basis of astronomical observations and reflecting the contours of the Caspian Sea close to modern ones, changed the ideas about the Caspian Sea that existed at the beginning of the 18th century. and became a significant event in geography.

  Since 1720, work began on surveying and compiling maps of the internal territory of Russia, mainly its European part. The materials collected by surveyors during these works were sent to the Senate by Chief Secretary I.K. Kirilov, who had “the highest permission to publish the first Atlas of Russia” Gnuchev V.F. Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences of the 18th century / Ed. A.I. Andreeva. M.; L.: USSR Academy of Sciences, 1946. P. 21.

  Peter I contributed to the formation and development of museum and library activities in the Russian Empire. In 1714, a state scientific collection and museum, the Kunstkamera, appeared, created at the insistence of Peter. The Kunstkamera functioned both as a cultural and educational institution, and as a research institute. For the Kunstkamera, not only “curiosities” were collected, but also ethnographic, archaeological and historical material, as well as various collections of flora and fauna. Mineralogical and anatomical departments were created.

  Almost simultaneously with the Kunstkamera, the first public state scientific Library was established, which later became the Library of the Academy of Sciences. The creation of the Library responded to the urgent cultural, educational and educational needs of the Russian Empire and played a huge role in the development of library science.

  Another grandiose event in the development of domestic science was the personal decree of Peter I of January 28, 1724 Knyazev G.A. A brief outline of the history of the USSR Academy of Sciences / Ed. acad. K.V. Ostrovityanova. M.; L.: Nauka, 1964. P. 11. about the establishment of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, which became the most important scientific center of the country.

  The official opening of the Academy of Sciences took place in December 1725 after the death of Peter I.

  The Academy included the Kunstkamera and the Library as research institutions, as well as the later Physics Office, Astronomical Observatory, Chemical Laboratory, Anatomical Theater, and Botanical Garden.

  Since 1726, the Academy has paid special attention to the issue of drawing up a geographical map of Russia. The mapping work of the Academy of Sciences was headed by astronomer I.N. Delisle.

  At the same time, by 1726, the Chief Secretary of the Senate I.K. Kirilov had already collected significant material, and began publishing the General Map of Russia and the Atlas of the Russian Empire. Initially it was planned to publish 3 volumes of the Atlas, each containing 120 maps. But later it became clear that this was a very long and costly undertaking. The Senate was in no hurry to publish the accumulated materials, and Kirilov decided to publish the maps at his own expense. “During 1726-1734. I.K. Kirilov compiled 31 maps of Russia, of which 14-15 were printed in 1734 in the form of the first issue of the “Atlas of the All-Russian Empire” Berg L.S. Decree. op. P.19.. The General Map of Russia was part of the maps of the “Atlas of the All-Russian Empire” and was reprinted several times.

  General map of the Russian Empire and “Russian Atlas”, “consisting of nineteen special maps representing the All-Russian Empire with border lands, compiled according to geographical rules...” Koversky E.A. On the need to form a geodetic body for the proper study of the entire space of the Russian Empire in geographical terms // Yearbook of the IRGO. SPb.: Type. A.S. Suvorin, 1890. P. 5. were completed by the Academy of Sciences only in 1745.

  Although the Atlas of the Academy of Sciences needed improvements and corrections, it was a new qualitative stage in the development of Russian scientific cartography, both in the completeness of the data used, and in the level of their processing, and in the technology of cartographic images. The atlas consisted of thirteen maps of the European part of Russia and six maps of Siberia. It reflected the results of surveying the territories of 190 counties. In Kirilov’s general map, surveys of only 115 counties were used. The Atlas of the Academy of Sciences was distinguished by significantly greater consistency in the design of maps, the uniformity and accuracy of the presentation of survey material, and the richness and variety of content. The preface to the atlas explains the projection adopted in it, lists the astronomical reference points on which the maps are based, indicates the mathematical methods used in drawing individual maps, and provides (for the first time in Russian maps) a table of symbols reflecting the richness of their cartographic language.

  By 1739, the Geographical Department was formed at the Academy of Sciences, in which all the cartographic work of the Academy was concentrated.

  The Geographical Department was the first and for many years remained the only cartographic institution in the country. In his work, in addition to I.N. Delisle, such prominent scientists as mathematician L. Euler and natural scientist M.V. took part. Lomonosov. The department carried out its work until 1799. But due to the fact that cartographic work by the end of the 18th century. began to develop outside the walls of the Academy, and also with a change in the direction of government policy in publishing maps of the Russian Empire, the primary importance of the Geographical Department as a center of scientific cartography was lost.

  In 1763, Catherine II created the General Staff, which took over the military cartography of the Empire. According to the Russian general N.P. Glinoetsky, “... the main activities of the General Staff during peace... focused on drawing up maps of the location of troops in permanent quarters, on choosing places for camps to which troops were withdrawn for the summer. For drawing up routes between location points, and finally, most of all, for filming entire provinces and large spaces” Glinoetsky N.P. History of the Russian General Staff. In 2 volumes. St. Petersburg: Type. Headquarters of the Guard Troops and St. Petersburg. military district, 1883. T. 1. P. 50..

  In 1797, Paul I created the Own E.I.V. Map depot, where the Empire's geodetic survey management was concentrated. The map depot was not only a military one, but also a complete government archive of plans and maps.

  In 1798, Paul I issued a decree on censorship of maps, which obligated the Academy of Sciences to send geographic maps for preliminary consideration to the Geographical Department in the Senate, and topographical, serf and military maps to a special Map Depot under the Cabinet of the E.I.V. Due to these circumstances, the activities of the Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences were not relevant and in 1799 it was abolished. In 1812, the Map Depot was renamed the Military Topographic Depot and became part of the War Ministry, which was responsible for the publication and compilation of maps. Under the leadership of the Military Topographic Depot in 1822, the Corps of Military Topographers was created to centrally conduct state cartographic surveys, which carried out triangulation and topographic surveys.

  The development of domestic geographical science was also facilitated by scientific expeditions conducted by the Academy. In particular, preparation and participation in the Second Kamchatka Expedition of V.I. Bering (1733-1743); large academic expeditions of 1768-1774, covering vast territories of the Empire - P. Pallas, S.G. Gmelin, I. Gildenshtedt, I.I. Lepekhina, I. Georgi Materials for the history of expeditions of the Academy of Sciences in the 18th and 19th centuries: Chronological reviews and description of archival materials / Comp. V.F. Gnuchev; under general ed. V.L. Komarova. M.; L.: USSR Academy of Sciences, 1940. P. 11..

  In the last quarter of the 18th century. and in the 19th century. In connection with the development of expeditionary activities in the Naval and Military Ministries, as well as with the creation of the Russian Geographical Society in 1845, the expeditionary activities of the Academy of Sciences are in decline. But in the first half of the 19th century. The Academy carried out such significant complex expeditions as the expedition of K.M. Baer to Novaya Zemlya (1837) and the Siberian expedition of A.F. Middendorf (1842-1845) Ibid. S. 19..

  At the beginning of the 19th century, along with the Academy of Sciences, universities became the most important scientific centers. At the same time, geographical science did not receive proper development either in the Academy of Sciences, where the Geographical Department was abolished, or in universities. At the same time, with the growth of industry, the expansion of state borders, and socio-political reforms, the need for geographical research increased. This caused a number of trips around the world in the first half of the 19th century, which were led by officers of the Russian navy. This trip around the world by I.F. Krusenstern and Yu.F. Lisyansky (1803-1806) Magidovich I.P., Magidovich V.I. Essays on the history of geographical discoveries. In 5 volumes. M.: Prosveshchenie, 1985. T. 4. P. 15., with the aim of profitable direct trade communications between Russian ports in the Baltic Sea and Russian America.

  Circumnavigation of V. I. Golovnin 1807-1809. and 1817-1819, the purpose of which was the delivery of materials and food for the eastern Russian settlers, as well as conducting scientific research: on the first voyage - a description of the Kuril Islands, on the second - the regions of Russian America Isakov V.A. Russian oceanic and marine research in the 19th - early 20th centuries. M.: Nauka, 1964. [Electronic resource]. URL: http://flot.com/publications/books/shelf/explorations/4.htm(access date: 12/15/2016).

  Circumnavigation of the world 1815-1818. and 1823-1826 O.E. Kotzebue Magidovich I.P., Magidovich V.I. Decree. op. pp. 21-24 Expedition 1815-1818. was undertaken to solve the problem of the northwest sea passage from the Bering Strait. Expedition 1823-1826 was supposed to deliver naval equipment and food to Kamchatka, and then guard the North American colonies for a year.

  F.F.’s trip around the world was also of great importance. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev (1819-1821) who discovered Antarctica Ibid. pp. 26-30.

  In 1825-1827 a circumnavigation of the world was carried out by Baron F.P. Wrangel for delivery of goods to Petropavlovsk and Novoarkhangelsk Pasetsky V.M. Ferdinand Petrovich Wrangel. M.: Nauka, 1975. P. 118-126..

  It is necessary to note the circumnavigation of F.P. Litke and M.N. Stanyukovich 1826-1829, whose main task was to explore the northern part of the Pacific Ocean and describe the opposite coasts of America and Asia Magidovich I.P., Magidovich V.I. Decree. op. S. 25..

  The expeditions carried out contributed to the accumulation of an extensive base of factual geographical material, but at the same time there was no organization or institution in the country that could unite, systematize and direct the course of geographical research.

  Of course, by the middle of the 19th century. In Russia, the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, the Military Topographical Depot of the General Staff, the Hydrographic Department, and the Statistical Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs functioned. All of these institutions were engaged in some type of geographical research, but did not consider geographical research activities as a central and priority area of ​​their work. In conditions of increased interest in scientific activity in the country, the growth of civic activity, and the efforts of the socially active part of Russian society, public organizations began to be created in various areas of science, in particular geographical. Scientific societies were created at universities. For example, the Society of Russian History and Antiquities (1804), the Imperial Society of Natural Scientists (1805), at Moscow University, the Society of Sciences at Kharkov University (1812).

  Also, scientific communities began to appear outside the walls of universities. Scientists, travelers, researchers began to unite in private groups, circles, and organize evenings where the development of science and society was discussed. Some of which grew into entire public organizations, the scientific importance of which was constantly growing.

  The organizational structure of such societies created favorable conditions for scientific activities.

  This form of organization of science was supported by the government, because did not directly threaten the monarchical state system, and at the same time helped, through the means of carrying out its scientific activities, to solve the economic, production and social problems of the state.

  For example, in January 1817, in the apartment of the famous researcher in the field of mineralogy and geodesy L.I. Pansner, a group of “lovers of inorganic nature”, with a “penchant for science and true love for the Fatherland,” decided to establish a Mineralogical Society in St. Petersburg. This Society has become a leader in the field of geological and mineralogical sciences in the country.

  In the early 40s of the XIX century. in St. Petersburg under the leadership of academician, Russian statistician and ethnographer P.I. Köppen began to gather a circle of statisticians and travelers to discuss issues related to the geography, ethnography and statistics of Russia. The future organizers and founders of the Russian Geographical Society (hereinafter - RGS) took an active part in the activities of the circle: F.P. Litke, K.M. Baer, ​​I.F. Krusenstern, F.P. Wrangel.

  Thus, the development of geographical science, which began with the era of Peter the Great's reforms; active socio-economic development and industrial growth, which required a large-scale study of the country’s territories and resources; extensive scientific materials accumulated during expeditions and sea voyages around the world; the absence in the state apparatus of an institution coordinating geographical work on the study of the country; the emergence of public scientific circles served as the prerequisites that played a major role in the organization of the Russian Geographical Society.