Absolute monarchy- autocracy, a state in which the monarch has unlimited power. At the same time, a powerful bureaucratic apparatus, army and police are created, and the activities of government bodies are stopped.
Autocracy- uncontrolled autocracy of one person.
Autonomy- the right to independently exercise power (within certain pre-specified limits) for part of the state entity on its territory.
Authoritarianism- an anti-democratic system of political power, usually combined with elements of personal dictatorship.
Agora- a square where free citizens gathered - a popular assembly in the ancient Greek city-state.
Aggressor- a state carrying out an armed attack on the sovereignty, territory or political system of another state.
Administration- a set of governing bodies.
Administrative division- dividing the country's territory into smaller units with their own governing bodies.
Acropolis- a fortified part of the ancient city.
Amnesty- exemption from criminal or other liability.
Anarchy- anarchy, disobedience to laws, permissiveness.
Entente- the alliance of England, Russia and France against Germany in the First World War;
Anti-Hitler coalition- an alliance of countries that fought against Nazi Germany and other Axis powers - the USSR, Great Britain, the USA, France, China, Yugoslavia, Poland, etc.
Aristocracy- clan nobility, upper class.
Auto-da-fe- public execution of heretics according to the verdict of the Inquisition.
Balance of power (equilibrium, balancing)- approximate equality of the military potentials of the opposing sides.
Corvee- forced labor of a serf on the farm of a feudal lord.
Blockade- a system of political and economic measures aimed at disrupting the external relations of a state. Used to isolate the blocked object.
Bourgeoisie- the class of owners who use hired labor. Income is ensured by the appropriation of surplus value - the difference between the entrepreneur’s costs and his profit.
Buffer states- countries located between warring states, dividing them and thus ensuring the absence of common borders and contact of armies hostile to each other.
Bureaucracy- the dominance of bureaucracy, the power of papers, when the centers of executive power are practically independent of the people. Characterized by formalism and arbitrariness.
Vandals- An ancient Germanic tribe that captured and plundered Rome. In a figurative sense - savages, enemies of culture.
Vassal- a feudal lord dependent on his lord. He carried out certain duties and fought on the side of the lord.
Great Migration- movement of Germans, Slavs, Huns, etc. in the territory of the former. Roman Empire in the IV-VII centuries.
Note verbale- form of current interstate correspondence.
Veche- national assembly in Ancient Rus' (Novgorod, Pskov)
Vote- opinion expressed by voting.
Hague Conventions- international agreements on the laws and customs of warfare (adopted in The Hague in 1899 and 1907), on the protection of cultural property (1954), on private international law, etc.
Coat of arms- a distinctive sign of a country, region, noble family.
Hetman- military leader, head of the “registered” Cossacks in the 16th-18th centuries. in Ukraine.
Guild- union of merchants, traders, artisans in the Middle Ages.
National anthem- a solemn song, the official symbol of the state.
State- an association of people (population) living in the same territory and subject to the same laws and orders of a common authority for all.
Democracy- a form of state and society based on the recognition of the people as a source of power and a participant in governance.
Demonstration- a procession, rally or other form of mass expression of sentiment in society.
Denunciation- refusal of one of the parties to further comply with previously concluded agreements, contracts, etc.
Depression- the phase of economic development following the crisis of overproduction. Synonym: stagnation. The Great Depression - economic and political crisis of 1929-1933. in USA.
Despot- a ruler who oppresses his subjects autocratically and uncontrollably.
Dictatorship- a political regime that means the complete dominance of an individual or social group.
Dynasty- a successive series of relatives - rulers of the state.
Doge- head of the Venetian and Genoese republics in the Middle Ages.
Druzhina- a permanent armed detachment, the army of the prince,
Heresy- deviation from the views prescribed by religion.
EEC (European Economic Community, “Common Market”)-an organization founded in 1957 with the aim of eliminating all restrictions on trade between its members.
Iron curtain- this is how the West called the border between the Warsaw Pact (“communist”) countries and the rest of the world.
Law- a set of rules, the implementation of which is mandatory for everyone.
Zaporizhzhya Sich- organization of the Ukrainian Cossacks, a military republic led by the Kosh chieftain in the 16th-18th centuries. with the center behind the Dnieper rapids, on the islands.
Insulation- creation of insurmountable barriers between states or social groups.
Imperialism-. the phase of development of society when competing financial and industrial groups, with a monopoly on the market, control all areas of life and merge with state power.
Empire- a monarchy or despotism that has colonial possessions or includes heterogeneous elements.
Industrial revolution- transition to a qualitatively new level of technology and technology, leading to a sharp increase in labor productivity and product output.
Inquisition- in the XIII-XIX centuries. system of courts in the Catholic Church, independent of secular authorities. She persecuted dissidents and heretics, used torture and executions.
Cossacks- military class in Russia in the 16th-20th centuries. It arose on the Dnieper, Don, Volga, Ural, Terek in the form of free communities, and was the main driving force of popular uprisings in Ukraine and Russia. In the 18th century turned into a privileged military class. At the beginning of the 20th century. there were 11 Cossack troops (Don, Kuban, Orenburg, Transbaikal, Tersk, Semirechenskoe, Ural, Ussuriysk, Siberian, Astrakhan, Amur), numbering a total of 4.4 million people, over 53 million acres of land. Since 1920, the class has been abolished. In 1936, Cossack formations were created that took part in the war; in the 40s disbanded. Since the late 80s. the revival of the Cossacks began; the total number in the CIS is over 5 million people.
Capitalism-a social formation based on private ownership of tools and means of production, a system of free enterprise and wage labor.
Class- a large group of people whose role in the economic system of society and in relation to property is similar.
Communism- a social system that rejects private ownership of the means of production. The theory was developed by K. Marx, f. Engels, V.I. Lenin. An attempt to build such a system was made in 1917-1991. in USSR.
Conservatism- commitment to the old, established, distrust of everything new and rejection of changes in society.
A constitutional monarchy- a system of government in which the power of the monarch is limited by law (usually a constitution).
Constitution- the fundamental law of the state.
Counterintelligence - activities of special services to suppress intelligence (espionage) activities of relevant authorities of other countries on their own territory.
Confederation- a form of unification of countries in which they completely retain their independence, but have common (united) bodies to coordinate certain actions. As a rule, these are foreign policy, communications, transport, and the armed forces. An example is the Swiss Confederation.
A crisis- a period of acute difficulties in the economy. Characterized by increased unemployment, mass bankruptcies, impoverishment of the population, etc.
Cro-Magnon- primitive; an ancient representative of the modern human species (Homo sapiens, Homo sapiens). He was preceded by a Neanderthal.
Liberal - supporter of individual freedom and freedom of enterprise.
Matriarchy- a structure of society characterized by the dominant position of women. Kinship and inheritance were considered through the maternal line. It was widespread in the initial period of the tribal system.
Monarchy - a state headed by a king, czar, emperor, etc., whose power is usually inherited.
People- the entire population of one country (less often - a part of the population that is homogeneous in national composition).
NATO- The North Atlantic Alliance, a military-political bloc of European states, as well as the USA and Canada.
National Socialism - ideology of the German Nazis. It is characterized by blind submission to the “Führer”, a sense of superiority over other peoples, permissiveness towards the “inferior”, and the desire for world domination.
National symbols are a set of symbols, images, color combinations inherent in certain national, ethnic or territorial communities. Used in the coats of arms and flags of states and other entities.
The national liberation movement is the struggle for the independence of an ethnic group or the entire population of a colony, as well as the struggle for the economic and political independence of part of the population of a multinational country.
Nation - a historical community of people formed due to the commonality of their territory, economic ties, literature, language, cultural characteristics and character.
quitrent - natural or monetary contribution of peasants to the feudal lord.
Common market - the same as the EEC (an organization founded in 1957 with the aim of eliminating all restrictions on trade between its members).
Oprichnina - system of measures of Ivan IV the Terrible to combat the boyar opposition (mass repressions, executions, land confiscations, etc.).
Axis (“Berlin-Rome axis”)- a military alliance of aggressive fascist regimes (1936) to prepare and wage a war for world domination. Soon Japan joined the Axis.
Patriarchy - structure of a society dominated by men. It arose during the period of decomposition of the tribal system.
Parliament - representative (elected) government body in the state. First formed in the 13th century. in England.
Plebiscite- a survey of the population on the most important issues: Integrity of the state, form of government, reforms, etc. As a rule, it does not have legislative force.
Tribe- the unification of several clans under the control of a leader.
The president- the elected head of state or organization.
Policy- city-state in the ancient world.
Slave - a person whose life and labor belong to the slave owner.
Radical- a supporter of decisive, extreme, cardinal measures in matters of transforming society.
Intelligence service - a set of measures to collect data about an actual or potential enemy.
Racism- a theory about the inherent superiority of people with a certain color of skin, eyes and other external differences. In practice, it leads to humiliation, conflicts, pogroms, bloody wars, etc.
Reactionary- resisting social progress, striving to preserve outdated social orders.
Republic - a form of government in which ultimate power rests with an elected representative body (parliamentary) or an elected president (presidential republic).
Revolution- a qualitative leap; violent change in social relations.
Referendum - popular vote on the most important issues in the life of the country. Has legislative force.
Genus - a group of people related by blood (descending from a common ancestor) and having common property.
Free enterprise- a system for encouraging private initiative in organizing enterprises, banks, trade, etc.
Slavs - the largest group of peoples in Europe: eastern (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians), western (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, etc.), southern (Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, etc.).
Smerda- peasants in Ancient Rus'.
Socialism- a social system based on state or public ownership of tools and means of production and the absence of exploitation of man by man (in accordance with the theory of Marxism-Leninism).
Social protection- support by the state or society for low-income segments of the population (old people, children, etc.).
State sovereignty- its independence in external affairs and supremacy in internal affairs.
Suzerain- a feudal lord to whom other, smaller feudal lords (vassals) are subordinate. The king is always a suzerain.
Terrorism- criminal attack on the lives of innocent people in order to achieve political or other goals.
Fascism- terrorist dictatorship using extreme forms of violence. Combined with nationalism and racism.
Federation- a structure of the state in which the entire territory is divided into administrative units, and part of the powers of the supreme power is delegated to local authorities (local laws are issued, local taxes are levied, etc.).
Forum- a square in Ancient Rome, the center of political life. Currently - a representative meeting, congress.
Tsar- monarch, king. The title comes from the name of Gaius Julius Caesar. The title of sovereigns of all Rus', starting with Ivan IV the Terrible.
Official- executor of state regulations and laws of the state, civil servant. Evolution is a gradual, smooth (as opposed to revolution) transition to a new quality, a new social formation.
All the terminology that will be needed when taking the history test is presented here - questions on the terms are in parts A and B.
The material is great. For convenience, all terms are arranged not only in alphabetical order, but also in accordance with the chronological period.
Empire is a style in architecture and art, mainly decorative) of the first three decades of the 19th century, completing the evolution of classicism. Like classicism, the Empire style absorbed the heritage of the ancient world: archaic Greece and imperial Rome.
Anarchists are a political philosophy comprising theories and views that advocate the elimination of all coercive government and the power of man over man. Anarchism is the idea that society can and should be organized without government coercion. At the same time, there are many different directions of anarchism, which often diverge on certain issues: from secondary to fundamental ones (in particular, regarding views on private property, market relations, and the ethno-national issue). Prominent representatives of anarchism in Russia were P. Kropotkin and M. Bakunin.
Anti-Napoleonic (anti-French) coalitions are temporary military-political alliances of European states that sought to restore in France the monarchical Bourbon dynasty, which fell during the French Revolution of 1789-1799. A total of 7 coalitions were created. In the scientific literature, the first two coalitions are called “anti-revolutionary,” and starting with the third, “anti-Napoleonic.” At various times, coalitions included Austria, Prussia, England, Russia, the Ottoman Empire and other countries.
Great reforms of the 1860-1870s. – bourgeois reforms carried out by Alexander II after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War (1853-1856), which began with the abolition of serfdom (1861). Great reforms also include the zemstvo reform (1864), city reform (1870), judicial reform (1864), and military reform (1874). Reforms were also carried out in the fields of finance, education, and the press and affected all spheres of life in Russian society.
Military settlements were a special organization of the armed forces in 1810-1857, combining combat service with housekeeping. Some state peasants were transferred to the position of military peasants. The villagers combined agricultural work with military service. It was expected that over time the entire army would be transferred to a settled position. The creation of settlements was supposed to reduce the cost of maintaining the army, destroy recruitment, and save the mass of state peasants from conscription, essentially turning them into free people. Alexander I hoped in this way to take another step towards the abolition of serfdom. Life in military settlements, subject to detailed regulation, turned into hard labor. The settlements and A.A., who was in charge of their organization. The Arakcheevs were universally hated. The villagers rebelled several times. The largest uprising was the uprising of the Chuguev and Taganrog settlement regiments in 1819.
The Eastern Question is a designation accepted in diplomacy and historical literature for international contradictions in the 18th – early 20th centuries associated with the emerging collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the struggle of the great powers for its division.
Temporarily obligated peasants are peasants who have emerged from serfdom and are obliged to fulfill their previous duties in favor of the landowner before switching to redemption.
Redemption payments - in Russia 1861-1906. redemption by peasants from landowners of land plots provided by the peasant reform of 1861. The government paid the landowners the ransom amount for the land, and peasants who were in debt to the state had to repay this debt over 49 years at 6% annually (redemption payments). The amount was calculated from the amount of quitrent that peasants paid to landowners before the reform. Collection of payments ceased during the revolution of 1905-1907. By this time, the government had managed to collect more than 1.6 billion rubles from the peasants, receiving about 700 million rubles. income.
Ghazavat is the same as jihad. In Islam there is a holy war for faith, against infidels (those who do not believe in the One God and the messenger mission of at least one of the prophets of Islam).
The State Council is the highest legislative institution. Transformed in January 1810 from the Permanent Council in accordance with the “Plan of State Transformations” by M. M. Speransky. He did not have legislative initiative, but considered those cases that were submitted to him for consideration by the emperor (preliminary discussion of laws, budgets, reports of ministries, some higher administrative issues and special judicial cases).
The Decembrists were participants in the Russian noble opposition movement, members of various secret societies of the second half of the 1810s - the first half of the 1820s, who organized an anti-government uprising in December 1825 and were named after the month of the uprising.
Clergy - ministers of worship in monotheistic religions; persons professionally engaged in the performance of religious rites and services and constituting special corporations. In the Orthodox Church, the clergy is divided into black (monasticism) and white (priests, deacons). In the 19th century, they were a privileged class of Russian society, exempt from corporal punishment, compulsory service and poll tax.
Westerners - the direction of Russian social thought of the mid-19th century. They advocated the development of Russia along the Western European path and opposed the Slavophiles. Westerners fought against the “theory of official nationality,” criticized serfdom and autocracy, and put forward a project for the liberation of peasants with land. The main representatives are V. P. Botkin, T. N. Granovsky, K. D. Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin and others.
The zemstvo movement is a liberal-opposition social and political activity of zemstvo councilors and zemstvo intelligentsia in Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th – early 20th centuries, aimed at expanding the rights of zemstvos and involving them in government. It manifested itself in the submission of addresses addressed to the emperor and petitions to the government, holding illegal meetings and congresses, and publishing brochures and articles abroad. At the beginning of the 20th century, illegal political organizations arose: “Conversation”, “Union of Zemstvo Constitutionalists”, “Union of Liberation”. Prominent figures: I.I. Petrunkevich, V.A. Bobrinsky, Pavel D. and Peter D. Dolgorukov, P.A. Geyden, V.I. Vernadsky, Yu.A. Novosiltsev and others. During the Revolution of 1905-1907, with the formation of the political parties of Cadets and Octobrists, the zemstvo movement ceased.
Zemstvos are elected bodies of local self-government (zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils). Introduced by the zemstvo reform of 1864. In charge of education, healthcare, road construction, etc. They were controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and governors, who had the right to repeal zemstvo decisions.
Sharecropping is a type of land lease in which the rent is transferred to the owner of shares of the crop. It was a form transitional from feudal land lease to capitalist.
Imamate is the general name for a Muslim theocratic state. Also, the state of the murids in Dagestan and Chechnya, which arose in the end. 20s XIX century during the struggle of the peoples of the North. Caucasus against the colonialist policy of tsarism.
Islam is a monotheistic religion, one of the world religions (along with Christianity and Buddhism), its followers are Muslims.
Counter-reforms of the 1880s – the name of the activities of the government of Alexander III in the 1880s, revision of the reforms of the 1860s: restoration of preliminary censorship (1882), introduction of class principles in primary and secondary schools, abolition of the autonomy of universities (1884), introduction of the institute zemstvo chiefs (1889), establishment of bureaucratic guardianship over zemstvo (1890) and city (1892) self-government.
The Corps of Gendarmes is a police force that has a military organization and performs functions within the country and in the army. In Russia in 1827-1917. The corps of gendarmes served as political police.
Petty bourgeois - in the Russian Empire in 1775-1917, a tax-paying class of former townspeople - artisans, small traders and homeowners. They united at the place of residence into communities with some rights of self-government. Until 1863, by law they could be subjected to corporal punishment.
Ministries - created on September 8, 1802, replacing the collegiums. The purpose of the reform was to restructure the central authorities based on the principle of unity of command. Initially, eight ministries were created: Military Ground Forces (from 1815 - Military), Naval Forces (from 1815 - Naval), Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Commerce, Finance, Public Education and Justice). Also under Alexander I there were the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education (1817-1824) and the Ministry of Police (1810-1819). Each ministry was headed by a minister appointed by the emperor, who had one or more comrades (deputies).
Muridism is the name of the ideology of the national liberation movement of the highlanders of the North Caucasus during the Caucasian War of 1817-1864. The main feature of muridism was its combination of religious teachings and political actions, expressed in active participation in the “holy war” - ghazavat or jihad against the “infidels” (i.e., non-Muslims) for the triumph of the Islamic faith. Muridism presupposed the complete and unquestioning subordination of its followers to their mentors - the Murshids. Muridism was led by the imams of Chechnya and Dagestan Gazi-Magomed, Gamzat-bek and Shamil, under whom it became most widespread. The ideology of Muridism gave greater organization to the struggle of the Caucasian mountaineers.
Populists are representatives of an ideological movement among the radical intelligentsia in the second half of the 19th century, who spoke from the position of “peasant socialism” against serfdom and capitalist development of Russia, for the overthrow of the autocracy through a peasant revolution (revolutionary populists) or for the implementation of social transformations through reforms (liberal populists ). Founders: A. I. Herzen (creator of the theory of “peasant socialism”), N. G. Chernyshevsky; ideologists: M. A. Bakunin (rebellious trend), P. L. Lavrov (propaganda trend), P. N. Tkachev (conspiratorial trend). The revival of revolutionary populism at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. (the so-called neo-populism) led to the creation of the Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRs).
Neo-Russian style is a direction in Russian architecture of the late 19th century. – 1910s, which used motifs of ancient Russian architecture with the aim of reviving the national identity of Russian culture. It is characterized not by exact copying of individual details, decorative forms, etc., but by generalization of motifs, creative stylization of the prototype style. The plasticity and bright decorativeness of the buildings of the neo-Russian style allow us to consider it as a national-romantic movement within the framework of the Art Nouveau style. V. M. Vasnetsov (facade of the Tretyakov Gallery, 1900-1905), F. O. Shekhtel (Yaroslavsky Station, 1902-1904), A. V. Shchusev (Marfo-Mariinsky Cathedral, 1908-1912) worked in this style.
Nihilism - in the 1860s. a movement in Russian social thought that denied the traditions and foundations of noble society and called for their destruction in the name of a radical reorganization of society.
The Patriotic War of 1812 was the liberation war of Russia against the army of Napoleon I. Caused by the aggravation of Russian-French economic and political contradictions, Russia’s refusal to participate in the Continental blockade of Great Britain.
Labor - in post-reform Russia, a system of peasants cultivating the land of the landowners with their own implements for rented land (mainly for sections), loans of bread, money, etc. A relic of the corvée economy.
Cut-offs are part of the peasant plots that went to the landowners as a result of the reform of 1861 (the reduction of plots was carried out if their size exceeded the norm established for the given area).
The Peredvizhniki were artists who were members of the Russian art association, the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions, formed in 1870. They turned to depicting the everyday life and history of the peoples of Russia, its nature, social conflicts, and exposing social orders. The ideological leaders of the Wanderers were I. N. Kramskoy and V. V. Stasov. Main representatives: I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. M. Vasnetsov, I. I. Levitan, I. I. Shishkin; Among the Peredvizhniki there were also artists from Ukraine, Lithuania, and Armenia. In 1923-1924, part of the Peredvizhniki joined the AHRR.
The Petrashevites were participants in the evenings held on Fridays in the house of the writer M.V. Petrashevsky. At the meetings, problems of restructuring autocratic politics and serfdom were discussed. The Petrashevites shared the ideas of the French utopian socialists. Among the circle participants were writers F.M. Dostoevsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N.Ya. Danilevsky, V.N. Maikov, composers M.I. Glinka, A.G. Rubinstein, geographer P.I. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky and others. At the end of 1848, the revolutionary-minded part of the Petrashevites decided to achieve the implementation of their plans by force, for which they created a secret society and began issuing proclamations. However, it was not possible to fulfill the plan. Members of the society were arrested, 21 of them were sentenced to death. On the day of execution, it was replaced by hard labor. The convicted Petrashevites were sent to Siberia.
Poll tax - in Russia in the 18th-19th centuries. the main direct tax, which was introduced in 1724 and replaced household taxation. The poll tax was imposed on all men of the tax-paying classes, regardless of age.
Industrial revolution (industrial revolution) - the transition from manual labor to machine labor and, accordingly, from manufactory to factory. It requires a developed market of free labor, therefore it cannot be fully accomplished in a feudal country.
Commoners - people from different classes: clergy, peasantry, merchants, philistines - engaged in mental activity. As a rule, they are carriers of revolutionary democratic views.
Realism is a stylistic trend in literature and art, a truthful, objective reflection of reality using specific means inherent in one or another type of artistic creativity. In the course of the historical development of art, realism takes on specific forms of certain creative methods (enlightenment realism, critical, socialist).
Romanticism is an ideological and artistic movement in the culture of the late 18th – 1st half. XIX century Reflecting disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution, in the ideology of the Enlightenment and social progress, romanticism contrasted the excessive practicality of the new bourgeois society with the aspiration for unlimited freedom, the thirst for perfection and renewal, and the idea of personal and civil independence. The painful discord between a fictional ideal and cruel reality is the basis of romanticism. Interest in the national past (often its idealization), traditions of folklore and culture of one’s own and other peoples found expression in the ideology and practice of romanticism. The influence of romanticism manifested itself in almost all spheres of culture (music, literature, fine arts).
The Russian Empire is the name of the Russian state from 1721 to September 1, 1917.
Russian-Byzantine style is a pseudo-Russian (otherwise known as neo-Russian, false Russian) style that arose in the second quarter of the 19th century. and representing a synthesis of the traditions of ancient Russian and Russian folk architecture and elements of Byzantine culture. Russian-Byzantine architecture is characterized by the borrowing of a number of compositional techniques and motifs of Byzantine architecture, most clearly embodied in the “model projects” of churches by Konstantin Ton in the 1840s. As part of this direction, Thon built the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Armory in Moscow, as well as cathedrals in Sveaborg, Yelets (Ascension Cathedral), Tomsk, Rostov-on-Don and Krasnoyarsk.
The Holy Alliance is a treaty concluded in 1815 in Paris by the emperors of Russia, Austria and the king of Prussia. The initiative to create the Holy Alliance belonged to the Russian Emperor Alexander I. Subsequently, all other European states joined this treaty, with the exception of the Vatican and Great Britain. The Holy Alliance considered its main tasks to be the prevention of new wars and revolutions in Europe. The Aachen, Troppau, Laibach and Verona congresses of the Holy Alliance developed the principle of intervention in the internal affairs of other states with the aim of forcibly suppressing any national and revolutionary movements.
Slavophiles are representatives of the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century, who proceeded from the position of the fundamental difference between Russian and European civilizations, the inadmissibility of Russia’s mechanical copying of European orders, etc. They polemicized both with Westerners and with the “theory of official nationality.” In contrast to the latter, they considered it necessary to abolish serfdom, criticized the Nicholas autocracy, etc. The main representatives: the Aksakov brothers, the Kireevsky brothers, A. I. Koshelev, Yu. F. Samarin, A. S. Khomyakov.
Estates are social groups that have rights and responsibilities enshrined in custom or law and inherited. The class organization of society, which usually includes several classes, is characterized by a hierarchy, which is expressed in the inequality of their position and privileges. In Russia from the second half of the 18th century. The class division into nobility, clergy, peasantry, merchants, and burghers was established. Officially, estates in Russia were abolished in 1917.
Social Democrats are a direction in the socialist and labor movement that advocates a transition to a socially just society through reforming the bourgeois one. In Russian social democracy of the 1880-1890s. Marxism became most widespread. In 1883, the “Emancipation of Labor” group was created in Geneva (V.I. Zasulich, P.B. Axelrod, L.G. Deitch, V.N. Ignatov, G.V. Plekhanov), the main task of which its members considered the spread of Marxism in Russia. In 1895, the “Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class” was created in St. Petersburg (V.I. Ulyanov, G.M. Krzhizhanovsky, N.K. Krupskaya, Yu.O. Martov), which was engaged in illegal propaganda activities in the working environment, organization of the strike movement. In 1898, the first congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) was held in Minsk. After the October Revolution in 1917, the RSDLP (Bolsheviks) was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (RCP(b)), which later became the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (VKP(b)) and, finally, the CPSU - the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
The theory of official nationality is a state ideology that arose during the reign of Nicholas I. It was based on conservative views on education, science, literature, expressed by the Minister of Public Education S.S. Uvarov. The main formula of this ideology is “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.”
Appanage peasants are a category of the feudal-dependent rural population of Russia at the end of the 18th - mid-19th centuries, which included peasants who lived on appanage lands and belonged to the imperial family. They carried duties mainly in the form of quitrents. In 1863, the basic provisions of the peasant reform of 1861 were extended to the appanage peasants, and they received ownership of part of the appanage lands for compulsory redemption.
A factory is a large enterprise based on the use of machines and division of labor.
“Going to the People” is a mass movement of radical populist youth in the countryside, aimed at promoting socialist ideas among the peasants. The idea of “going to the people” belongs to A.I. Herzen, who in 1861, through the “Bell,” addressed this call to student youth. It began in the spring of 1873, reaching its greatest extent in the spring and summer of 1874 (covering 37 provinces of Russia). The Lavrists aimed to propagate the ideas of socialism, while the Bakunists tried to organize mass anti-government protests. By November 1874, over 4 thousand people were arrested, the most active participants were convicted.
Censorship is a system of state supervision over the press and the media with the aim of suppressing undesirable, from the point of view of the authorities, influences on society. Introduced in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century, from 1804 it was regulated by censorship statutes and temporary rules.
Menshevism - arose at the Second Congress of the RSDLP (1903), after opponents of Lenin’s principles of party building found themselves in the minority in the elections of the central bodies of the party. Main ideologists: Yu.O. Martov, A.S. Martynov, I.O. Axelrod, G.V. Plekhanov, A.N. Potresov, F.I. Dan. Until 1912, they were formally together with the Bolsheviks in a single RSDLP. In 1912, at the 6th Paris Conference, the Mensheviks were expelled from the ranks of the RSDLP. During the First World War, the bulk of the Mensheviks took the position of social chauvinism. After the October Revolution, the Mensheviks became involved in the struggle against Soviet power.
“World of Art” is a Russian art association. It took shape in the late 1890s. (officially - in 1900) in St. Petersburg on the basis of a circle of young artists and art lovers led by A. N. Benois and S. P. Diaghilev. As an exhibition union under the auspices of the magazine “World of Art”, it existed in its original form until 1904; in an expanded composition, having lost ideological and creative unity, - in 1910-1924. In 1904-1910, most of the masters of “M. And." was part of the Union of Russian Artists. In addition to the main core (L. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lancers, A. P. Ostroumova-Lebedeva, K. A. Somov), “M. And." included many St. Petersburg and Moscow painters and graphic artists (I. Ya. Bilibin, A. Ya. Golovin, I. E. Grabar, K. A. Korovin, B. M. Kustodiev, N. K. Roerich, V. A. Serov and etc.). M. A. Vrubel, I. I. Levitan, M. V. Nesterov, as well as some foreign artists participated in the “World of Art” exhibitions.
Modernism (from the French “newest, modern”) is the general name of trends in literature and art of the late 19th-20th centuries. (cubism, avant-gardeism, surrealism, dadaism, futurism, expressionism), characterized by a break with the traditions of realism, advocating a new approach to the reflection of existence.
Monopoly is a large economic association (cartel, syndicate, trust, concern, etc.), privately owned (individual, group or joint stock) and exercising control over industries, markets and the economy based on a high degree of concentration of production and capital with the aim of establishing monopoly prices and extracting monopoly profits. In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the largest monopolies were: the Prodamet syndicate (1902) in ferrous metallurgy, the Prodparovoz cartel (1901) and the Prodvagon syndicate (1904) in mechanical engineering, the Produgol association (1906 d.) in the mining industry. In total, about 200 monopolies existed in Russia during this period.
The Octobrists are members of the right-wing liberal party “Union of October 17th”. It was formed by 1906. The name comes from the Manifesto of October 17, 1905. It demanded popular representation, democratic freedoms, civil equality, etc. The number of members, together with affiliated groups, is about 80 thousand members. Leaders: A.I. Guchkov, P.L. Korf, M.V. Rodzianko, N.A. Khomyakov, D.N. Shipov and others. Printed organs: the newspaper “Slovo”, “Voice of Moscow”, etc., over 50 in total. The largest faction in the 3rd State Duma, alternately blocked with the moderate right and the Cadets. By 1915 it ceased to exist.
Cut - according to the Stolypin agrarian reform - a peasant farm, separated from the community by land. At the same time, the house remained on the territory of the community.
Progressive Bloc - was created in August 1915 from members of the IV State Duma (it included 236 out of 422 deputies from Cadets, Octobrists, Progressives) with the aim of putting pressure on the government. The association was headed by the left Octobrist S.I. Shidlovsky, but the actual leader was the leader of the cadets P.N. Milyukov. On August 26, 1915, a declaration of the Progressive Bloc was published with demands for updating the composition of local authorities, ending persecution for religion, releasing certain categories of political prisoners, restoring trade unions, etc. The main goal of the bloc was to create a government of “public trust” from among representatives of the administration and Duma leaders in order to lead the country out of the difficult political and economic situation in which it found itself during the First World War, and to prevent a possible revolutionary explosion.
A revolutionary situation is a situation that serves as an indicator of the maturity of socio-political conditions for revolution. A revolutionary situation is characterized by: a “crisis at the top,” i.e., the inability of government officials to maintain their dominance unchanged, while it is necessary that the “tops” themselves cannot live in the old way; aggravation, higher than usual, of the needs and misfortunes of the oppressed classes and strata; a significant increase in the political activity of the broad masses. In Russia, the first revolutionary situation occurred in the late 50s and early 60s. XIX century was an expression of the crisis of the feudal-serf system after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856. The growth of the peasant movement and the general democratic upsurge pushed the autocracy to prepare reforms. The revolutionary situation was resolved by the Peasant Reform of 1861. The second revolutionary situation arose as a result of the aggravation of socio-political contradictions after the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. Reached its climax in 1880-1881. In the conditions of the ensuing reaction after the assassination of Alexander II by the Narodnaya Volya, the government carried out counter-reforms. Revolutionary situation at the beginning of the 20th century. ended with the revolution of 1905-1907. Revolutionary situation 1913-1914 did not develop into a revolution due to the outbreak of World War I. Revolutionary situation in 1916-1917. resulted in the February Revolution of 1917 and ended with the Great October Socialist Revolution of 1917.
Russian seasons abroad - performances of Russian opera and ballet troupes organized by S. P. Diaghilev in 1907-1914. in Paris and London. Contributed to the popularity of Russian art abroad. The term caught on and became a household word to denote the success of Russian cultural and artistic figures abroad.
Symbolism is a movement in European and Russian art of 1870-1910. Focuses primarily on artistic expression through symbol. Striving to break through visible reality to “hidden realities”, the supra-temporal ideal essence of the world, its imperishable beauty, the symbolists expressed rejection of bourgeoisism and positivism, longing for spiritual freedom, a tragic premonition of world social changes, trust in age-old cultural values as a unifying principle. Main representatives. P. Verlaine, P. Valery, A. Rimbaud, M. Metterliik, A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, F. Sologub, P. Gauguin, M. K. Ciurlionis, M. Vrubel and others.
A syndicate is one of the forms of monopolistic associations, characterized by the fact that the distribution of orders, the purchase of raw materials and the sale of manufactured products is carried out through a single sales office. Syndicate participants retain production, but lose commercial independence.
Soviets - arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. (the first Council - in Ivanovo-Voznesensk on May 15 (28), 1905) as independent bodies of leadership and coordination of the workers’ struggle for their rights on the ground. On an incomparably larger scale, the Soviets were revived during the February (1917) Revolution and, until June 1917, acted as a “second” government opposing the bourgeois Provisional Government (later they began to support it). During this period, the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies and the Soviets of Peasants' Deputies operated. After the October Revolution of 1917, the Soviets were representative bodies of state power in the center and locally in the RSFSR, the USSR, and until the end of 1993 - in the Russian Federation (from 1936 to 1977 - Councils of Working People's Deputies, from 1977 - Soviets people's deputies). Since 1988, the Congress of People's Deputies became the highest body of state power (until 1991). A distinctive feature of the Soviets was the inseparability of legislative and executive powers.
The Stolypin reform is an economic reform aimed at accelerating the development of capitalism in Russia, the reform of peasant land ownership, which marked a turn in the agrarian-political course of the autocracy, named after the Minister of Internal Affairs and Chairman of the Council of Ministers since 1906 P. A. Stolypin (1862-1911) . Permission to leave the peasant community for farms and cuts (law of November 9, 1906), strengthening the Peasant Bank, forced land management (laws of June 14, 1910 and May 29, 1911) and resettlement policy were aimed at eliminating the shortage of land while maintaining landownership, accelerating the stratification of the village, creation of an additional power base among the wealthy layer of peasants. The reform was disrupted after the assassination of P. A. Stolypin by the Socialist Revolutionary D. Bogrov.
A trust is a form of monopoly in which members of an association lose production and commercial independence and are subject to a single management.
The June 3rd coup was the dissolution of the State Duma on June 3, 1907 and changes to the electoral law. Considered the end of the First Russian Revolution.
The Triple Alliance was a military-political bloc of states during the First World War, which included: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. In 1915, Italy and Türkiye joined.
Trudoviki - a faction of peasant deputies and populist intelligentsia in the 1st-4th State Dumas (1906-1917). The program was close to the program of the People's Socialist Party; it included demands for the introduction of democratic freedoms and the nationalization of landowners' lands. The printed organ is the newspaper “Working People”. In June 1917 merged with the People's Socialists
According to the Stolypin agrarian reform, a farm is a farm separated from the community along with land and house. Was private property.
The Black Hundreds (from the Old Russian “black hundred” - the taxable townspeople) - members of extreme right-wing organizations in Russia in 1905-1917, speaking under the slogans of monarchism, great-power chauvinism and anti-Semitism (“Union of the Russian People”, “Union of Michael the Archangel”, “Unions of Russians”) people”, etc.). Leaders and ideologists: A.I. Dubrovin, V.M. Purishkevich, N.E. Markov. During the revolution of 1905-1907 they supported the repressive policies of the government, organized pogroms, and organized the murders of a number of political figures. After the February Revolution of 1917, the activities of Black Hundred organizations were prohibited.
Social Revolutionaries (social revolutionaries) - a revolutionary party formed in Russia in 1901-1902. Leader - V.M. Chernov. The tactic is political terror. Left Socialist Revolutionaries - a political party in Russia in 1917-1923 (until December 1917, the left wing of the Socialist Revolutionaries). Leaders: M.A. Spiridonova, B.D. Kamkov, M.A. Nathanson. Newspapers “Land and Freedom” and “Znamya Truda”. They took part in the October Revolution, were members of the Military Revolutionary Committee, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR (December 1917-March 1918). From the beginning of 1918 they were opponents of the Brest Peace Treaty and the agrarian policy of the Bolsheviks. In July 1918 they organized an armed uprising, which was suppressed. Separate groups of left Socialist Revolutionaries operated in Ukraine, the Far East, and Turkestan. They ceased operations in 1923.
1917–1920
Annexation (from Latin “annexation”) is the forcible seizure by the winner of part of the territory of the defeated state.
The White Movement is the collective name for political movements, organizations and military formations that opposed Soviet power during the Civil War. The origin of the term is associated with the traditional symbolism of white as the color of supporters of law and order. The basis of the white movement is the officers of the former Russian army; leadership - military leaders (M.V. Alekseev, P.N. Wrangel, A.I. Denikin, A.V. Kolchak, L.G. Kornilov, E.K. Miller, N.N. Yudenich).
White is the name of opponents of Soviet power, which spread during the Civil War.
The Military Revolutionary Committee is the body of the Petrograd Council for the preparation and leadership of an armed uprising. The regulations on the PVRK were approved by the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet on 10/12/1917. Most of the members were Bolsheviks; there were also left Socialist Revolutionaries and anarchists. In November-December - the highest emergency body of state power. Dissolved in December 1917.
The Provisional Government is the central body of state power formed after the February bourgeois-democratic revolution. Existed from March 2 (15), 1917 to October 25 (November 7, 1917). Created by agreement between the Provisional Committee of the State Duma of 1917 and the Socialist-Revolutionary-Menshevik leadership of the Petrograd Soviet. It was the highest executive and administrative body and also performed legislative functions. The local authorities of the provisional government were provincial and district commissars.
Second coalition. Provisional Government of A.F. Kerensky (8 seats for capitalists and 7 for socialists) July 24 (August 6) – August 26 (September 8), 1917
Homogeneous bourgeois Provisional Government of the book. G.E. Lvov March 2 (15) – May 2 (15), 1917
The first coalition Provisional Government of the book. G.E. Lvov (10 seats for capitalists and 6 for socialists) May 5 (18) – July 2 (15), 1917
Third coalition. Provisional Government A.F. Kerensky (10 seats for socialists and 6 seats for capitalists) September 25 (October 8) - October 25 (November 7).
After the armed uprising in Petrograd, the remaining capitalist deputy ministers, together with a group of socialist ministers (Gvozdev, Nikitin, Prokopovich), decided to continue the activities of the Provisional Government. Based on the forged protocol of August 17 (30), the self-proclaimed Provisional Government issued orders against Soviet power, received up to 40 million rubles from the State Bank, from which it paid salaries to saboteur officials. The underground Provisional Government “operated” until November 16 (29), 1917
VTsIK - All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Councils of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies (after January 1918 - workers', peasants' and Cossacks' deputies) - a body that exercised general management of the councils during the break between Congresses of Soviets. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the first convocation was elected at the First Congress of Soviets (held from June 3 to June 24, 1917). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee took shape at its first plenum on June 21 (plenums were convened weekly). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee included the Presidium, Bureau and about 20 departments. After the October Revolution, a new All-Russian Central Executive Committee was elected at the Second Congress of Soviets. It included 62 Bolsheviks, 40 representatives of other parties (of which 29 were Left Socialist Revolutionaries). At the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1918), 162 Bolsheviks and 143 representatives of other parties (122 Left Socialist Revolutionaries) were elected. Since the V All-Russian Congress of Soviets (July 1918), representatives of other parties have not been elected to the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Since January 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee formed the Council of People's Commissars, people's commissariats to manage individual branches of government. The chairmen of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee were: from October 27, 1917 - L.B. Kamenev, from November 8, 1917 – Ya.M. Sverdlov, from March 30, 1919 – M.I. Kalinin. After the adoption of the new Constitution in 1937, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee ceased to exist.
VChK - All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Profiteering and Crimes in Ex officio; until August 1918 - to combat counter-revolution and sabotage) - formed under the Council of People's Commissars (resolution of December 7, 1917). In December 1921, “in connection with the transition to peaceful construction” V.I. Lenin proposed reorganizing the Cheka, limiting its competence to political tasks. By decree of February 6, 1922, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee transformed the Cheka into the State Political Administration (GPU) under the NKVD of the RSFSR.
Civil war is the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. During the war, the problem of power is solved, which, in turn, must provide a solution to the main vital issues facing the warring parties.
Dual power is the simultaneous existence of two authorities in Russia from March 1-2 to July 5, 1917. After the February Revolution, a peculiar situation arose in Russia: two authorities were created at the same time - the power of the bourgeoisie in the person of the Provisional Government and the revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry - Adviсe. Officially, power belonged to the Provisional Government, but in fact to the Soviets, since they were supported by the army and the people. The petty-bourgeois parties, which had a majority in the Soviets, supported the Provisional Government and completely ceded power to it in July 1917, which meant the end of dual power. The period of struggle between two dictatorships for autocracy.
A decree (from the Latin “decree”) is a normative legal act issued by the government. After the October Revolution, legislative acts were issued in the form of decrees and adopted by the Congresses of Soviets, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and the Council of People's Commissars. According to V.I. Lenin, “Decrees are instructions calling for mass practical action.”
Dictatorship of the proletariat - in Marxist literature, this concept is defined as the state power of the proletariat, established as a result of the liquidation of the capitalist system and the destruction of the bourgeois state machine. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the main content of the socialist revolution, a necessary condition and the main result of its victory. The proletariat uses its power to suppress the resistance of the exploiters and their complete destruction; then power is used for revolutionary changes in all spheres of social life: economics, culture, everyday life, for the communist education of the working people and the construction of a new, classless society - communism. The basis of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the alliance of the working class and the peasantry with the leading role of the working class.. In 1917, in Russia, after the implementation of the October Socialist Revolution, the dictatorship of the proletariat was established in the form of Soviets.
Intervention (from Latin “invasion”) is the intervention of one state in the internal affairs of another. Modern international law considers intervention to be an offence. Intervention can be military, economic, ideological, or carried out in other forms.
“Greens” is the name in Russia during the Civil War for people hiding in the forests who evaded military service. Liquidated by the Red Army after the end of the Civil War.
Contribution (from Latin “to collect”) - money or other material assets collected after the war from a defeated state by the victorious state, as well as forced monetary collections levied by the authorities from the population in the occupied territory.
Confiscation (from the Latin “to take into the treasury”) is a forced seizure, without compensation by the state, of a private person’s property. In Russia, as a result of the October Revolution of 1917, the lands of landowners, private enterprises, and other property were confiscated.
The Kornilov mutiny was an unsuccessful attempt to establish a military dictatorship on August 27-31 (September 9-13), 1917, undertaken by the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army of the General Staff, Infantry General L. G. Kornilov. Suppressed by the forces of the Bolsheviks and the Provisional Government.
The Red Guard attack on capital is a term that characterizes the methods of carrying out socio-economic activities of the Soviet state in the first 4 months of its existence (November 1917 - February 1918), when the task of direct expropriation of the expropriators was in the foreground. During this period, the Soviet government legitimized and extended workers' control over production and distribution, carried out the nationalization of banks, transport, the merchant fleet, foreign trade, a significant part of large-scale industry, and a number of other measures.
Reds is a generalized name for supporters of the Bolsheviks, defenders of Soviet power during the Civil War and military intervention. In a broad sense, it applies to members of communist parties and adherents of communist ideology.
Educational program is the elimination of illiteracy, the same as the elimination of illiteracy. Massive campaign to teach basic adult literacy in the 1920s and 1930s. As a result of the campaign, by the end of the 30s. The literacy rate in the USSR reached 90%.
Nationalization is the transfer of private enterprises and sectors of the economy into state ownership.
Food detachment - food detachments, armed detachments of workers and poor peasants in 1918-1921. They were created by bodies of the People's Commissariat of Food (part of the Food Army), trade unions, factory committees, local Soviets (procurement, harvesting and procurement, harvesting and requisitioning detachments; the governing body was the Military Food Bureau of the All-Russian Central Council of Trade Unions). We carried out food appropriation in the countryside; acted together with committees of poor people, food committees and local Soviets. Half of the confiscated bread was received by the organization that sent the detachment.
Prodrazvyorstka is a system of procurement of agricultural products during the period of “war communism”, established after the introduction of the food dictatorship. Mandatory delivery by peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surplus grain and other products. It caused discontent among the peasants, led to a reduction in agricultural production, and was replaced in 1921 by a tax in kind.
Workers' Faculty - workers' faculty. In 1919-1940 a general educational institution in the USSR for preparing young people who did not have a secondary education for higher education; were created at universities (3 years of full-time study, 4 years of evening studies).
Reparations are compensation by a defeated state for damage to the victorious state.
Sabotage is a deliberate failure to fulfill duties or their careless performance.
Sovnarkom - Council of People's Commissars (SNK) is the highest executive and administrative body of state power, the government of the Soviet state. He was first elected during the October Revolution at the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets on October 26 (November 8), 1917. Until his death, it was headed by V.I. Lenin, from 1924 to 1930 A.I. Rykov, from 1930 to 1941 V.M. Molotov, and then I.V. Stalin (in 1946 transformed into the Council of Ministers).
Communist cleanup is voluntary free work of workers for society. The first subbotnik took place on Saturday April 12, 1919 at the Moscow-Sortirovochnaya depot. The first mass subbotnik on May 10, 1919 on the Moscow-Kazan Railway. Spread during the Civil War. Since 1970, All-Union Leninist communist subbotniks have been held.
Terror (from Latin “fear, horror”) is a policy of intimidation, suppression of political opponents by violent measures, up to and including physical destruction.
The Constituent Assembly is a representative institution in Russia, created on the basis of universal suffrage, intended to establish a form of government and develop a constitution. It was elected in November-December 1917. It met on January 5, 1918 in Petrograd and after 13 hours of work it was closed at the request of the guard.
Emigration (from Latin “to move, to move out”) is a departure outside the country associated with the loss of the status of a citizen of a given state and caused by economic, political or personal reasons, for the purpose of temporary or permanent settlement in the territory of a foreign state. States may allow restoration of citizenship to emigrants.
1920–1930
Autonomization is an idea put forward by Stalin I.V. in 1922, according to which all Soviet republics should become part of the RSFSR on the basis of autonomy, which would violate their independence and equality.
Authoritarianism is a political regime in which political power is in the hands of one person or group of people. Authoritarianism is characterized by a complete or partial absence of political freedoms of citizens and restrictions on the activities of parties and organizations.
Antonovshchina - peasant movement of 1920-1921. in the Tambov province, directed against Soviet power and named after the leader and organizer (A.S. Antonov). The uprising was liquidated by the Red Army, sometimes even using gas attacks. In June 1922, Antonov was killed. The abolition of food appropriation in 1921 significantly reduced the number of dissatisfied peasants.
“The Great Turning Point” is Stalin’s expression, which he used to characterize the policy of accelerated industrialization and collectivization of agriculture that began in the late 1920s in the USSR.
GOELRO (short for State Commission for Electrification of Russia) is the first unified state long-term plan for the restoration and development of the national economy of the RSFSR. Developed in 1920 under the leadership of V.I. Lenin by the State Commission for Electrification of Russia. It was designed for 10-15 years and provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy based on electrification. Mostly completed by 1931. The firstborn of GOELRO - the Volkhov hydroelectric station in the Leningrad region.
GULAG - Main Directorate of Corrective Labor Camps, Labor Settlements and Places of Detention), in 1934-1956 a division of the NKVD (MVD), which managed the system of forced labor camps (ITL). Special departments of the Gulag united many ITL in different regions of the country: Karaganda ITL (Karlag), Dalstroy NKVD/MVD USSR, Solovetsky ITL (USLON), White Sea-Baltic ITL and NKVD plant, Vorkuta ITL, Norilsk ITL, etc. The heaviest weapons were installed in the camps conditions, severe punishments were applied for the slightest violation of the regime, mortality from hunger, disease and overwork was extremely high. Prisoners worked for free on the construction of canals, roads, industrial and other facilities in the Far North, Far East and other regions.
Twenty-five thousanders are workers of the industrial centers of the USSR who, at the call of the Bolshevik Party, went to the villages for economic and organizational work in early 1930 during the period of mass collectivization of agriculture. The resolution of the November (1929) plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks provided for sending 25 thousand people; in fact, 27.6 thousand went.
Industrialization is the process of creating large-scale machine production and, on this basis, the transition from an agricultural to an industrial society. In Russia, industrialization has developed successfully since the late 19th – early 20th centuries. After the October Revolution (from the end of the 20s), industrialization was accelerated by the totalitarian regime using violent methods due to the sharp limitation of the standard of living of the majority of the population and the exploitation of the peasantry.
Collectivization is the transformation of small, individual peasant farms into large public farms - collective farms - through cooperation. During the years of the USSR, it was considered as a programmatic setting of the agrarian policy of the CPSU (VKP (b)) in the countryside. The material base was created during the years of industrialization. It was carried out during the years of the 1st Five-Year Plan (1928/29 – 1932/33). By the end of 1932 it was largely completed. By 1936, the collective farm system had fully developed.
Collective farm is a cooperative association of peasants in the USSR, mainly created during the collectivization period of the late 20s - early 30s. XX century They farmed on state land assigned to K. for so-called eternal use. The highest governing body is the general meeting of collective farmers, which elects a board headed by a chairman, mostly a protege of local party bodies, district and regional party committees. In 1986 there were 26.7 thousand collective farms. Most of the farms by that time had been transformed into state state farms.
The Comintern is an international association of communist parties from various countries. It was formed on the initiative of V.I. Lenin, operated from 1919 to 1943 with a center in Moscow, essentially became an instrument for implementing the idea of world revolution. Supreme bodies: Congress (the last 7th Congress was held in 1935), Executive Committee (permanent body). The Comintern was the historical successor of the First International (1864-1876) and the Second International (1889-1914). Since the late 20s. The Bolsheviks began to abandon the idea of carrying out a world revolution. On May 15, 1943, J.V. Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, “fulfilled its mission.” In 1951, the Socialist International (Socintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.
Concession (from Latin “permission, assignment”) is an agreement on the transfer into operation for a certain period of natural resources, enterprises and other economic facilities owned by the state; an agreement for the lease of enterprises or plots of land to foreign firms with the right to production activities, the enterprise itself organized on the basis of such an agreement.
The cult of personality is a policy that exalts one person, characteristic mainly of a totalitarian regime and promoting the exclusivity of the ruler, his omnipotence and unlimited power, ascribing to him during his lifetime a decisive influence on the course of historical development, eliminating democracy.
The Cultural Revolution is a radical revolution in the spiritual development of society, carried out in the USSR in the 20-30s. XX century, an integral part of socialist transformations. The Cultural Revolution provided for the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of a socialist system of public education and enlightenment, the formation of a new, socialist intelligentsia, the restructuring of everyday life, the development of science, literature, and art under party control.
The League of Nations is an international organization created in 1919. The official goal is to develop international cooperation and guarantee peace and security. The USSR was included in its composition in 1934. Expelled in 1939 for aggression against Finland.
Peaceful coexistence is a type of relations between states with different social systems, which presupposes the renunciation of war as a means of resolving controversial issues and their settlement through negotiations; equality, mutual understanding and trust between states, consideration of each other's interests, non-interference in internal affairs, recognition of the right of every people to freely choose their socio-economic and political system: strict respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries: development of economic and cultural cooperation on the basis of full equality and mutual benefit.
NEP (new economic policy) is a policy aimed at overcoming the political and economic crisis that had developed in the Soviet republic by 1920. The highest point of dissatisfaction with the current policy of “war communism” was the Kronstadt rebellion. At the X Congress of the RCP(b) in March 1921, at the suggestion of V.I. Lenin's food appropriation was replaced by a smaller tax in kind. The main elements of this policy: progressive income tax on the peasantry (1921-1922 tax in kind), freedom of trade, concessions, permission to rent and open small private enterprises, hiring labor, abolition of the rationing system and rationed supplies, payment for all services, transfer of industry to full cost accounting and self-sufficiency. At the end of the 20s. the New Economic Policy was phased out.
The opposition is an organized group that opposes the ruling elite according to assessments, programs, and policies. The main types of opposition are parliamentary and internal party.
Tax in kind - introduced by decrees of the Council of People's Commissars in March 1921 to replace the surplus appropriation system, was the first act of the new economic policy. Collected from peasant farms. The size was set before spring sowing for each type of agricultural product (significantly below surplus appropriation) taking into account local conditions and the prosperity of peasant farms. In 1923 it was replaced by a single agricultural tax.
The Five-Year Plan is the period for which centralized economic planning was carried out in the Soviet Union. The five-year plans for the development of the national economy of the USSR, or five-year plans, were intended for the rapid economic development of the Soviet Union. There were 13 five-year plans in total. The first was adopted in 1928, for a five-year period from 1929 to 1933, and was completed a year earlier. In 1959, at the 21st Congress of the CPSU, a seven-year plan for the development of the national economy for 1959-1965 was adopted. Subsequently, five-year plans were adopted again. The last, thirteenth Five-Year Plan was designed for the period from 1991 to 1995 and was not implemented due to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent transition to a market decentralized economy.
Repressions are coercive measures of state influence, including various types of punishments and legal restrictions, applied in the USSR to individuals and categories of persons. Political repressions in Soviet Russia began immediately after the October Revolution of 1917 (Red Terror, decossackization). With the beginning of forced collectivization of agriculture and accelerated industrialization in the late 1920s and early 1930s, as well as the strengthening of Stalin's personal power, repressions became widespread. They reached a particular scale in 1937-1938, when hundreds of thousands of Soviet citizens were shot and sent to Gulag camps on charges of committing political crimes. Political repression continued with varying degrees of intensity until Stalin's death in March 1953.
Socialist realism is a creative method of literature and art, officially approved by the Soviet leadership in the USSR and other countries of socialist orientation, the essence of which is the expression of a socialist-conscious concept of the world and man, the depiction of life in the light of socialist (communist) ideals. Formed initially at the beginning of the 20th century. in the works of M. Gorky, the term itself appeared in 1932. Ideological principles: nationality, party spirit and humanism. The sculpture “Worker and Collective Farm Woman” by V. Mukhina became a symbol of socialist realism.
The Stakhanov movement was a movement of workers in the USSR for increasing labor productivity and better use of technology. It arose in 1935 in the coal industry of Donbass, and then spread to other industries, transport, and agriculture; named after its founder - A. G. Stakhanov.
Totalitarianism (from Latin “whole, whole, complete”) is a model of the socio-political structure of society, characterized by the complete subordination of a person to political power, comprehensive state control over all spheres of social life.
Trotskyism is one of the ideological and political trends in the labor movement. The Trotskyists, like K. Marx, linked the possibility of building socialism in one country only with the victory of the world revolution. In 1920-1921 During the discussion about trade unions, they called for the expansion of the methods of “war communism”, nationalization, and militarization of trade unions. Much of what they propagated was soon applied in the Stalinist USSR. In the discussion of 1923-1924. Trotskyists demanded a change in the norms of internal party relations, expansion of party democracy, freedom of factions and groupings, and at the same time a more centralized economic policy; they proclaimed the slogans of “dictatorship of industry”, “super-industrialization”. The 13th Party Conference in 1924 characterized Trotskyism as a petty-bourgeois deviation in the RCP(b). The XV Party Congress in 1927 declared membership in Trotskyism incompatible with being a member of the party. Since 1929, Trotskyism as a political movement in the RCP(b) ceased to exist due to the expulsion of L. Trotsky abroad, however, much later, the accusation of Trotskyism was considered one of the most serious during the years of Stalinist repression.
Shock worker is a Soviet concept that originated during the first five-year plans, denoting a worker who demonstrates increased labor productivity. The shock movement was an important means of ideological influence. The names of the shock workers who achieved the most impressive results were widely used by Soviet propaganda as role models (miner Alexei Stakhanov, locomotive driver Pyotr Krivonos, tractor driver Pasha Angelina, steelmaker Makar Mazai and many others), they received the highest government awards, they were nominated to elected bodies authorities, etc. The attitude towards shock labor and shock workers among Soviet workers was twofold. On the one hand, a sincere desire to achieve high results in professional activities evoked respect. On the other hand, an increase in the productivity of some workers soon had a negative impact on the earnings of others, since established production standards naturally increased and wage rates decreased.
Federation (from Latin “union, association”) is a form of government in which the federal units (lands, states, republics, etc.) that are part of the state have their own constitutions, legislative, executive, and judicial bodies. Along with this, unified federal (union) government bodies are formed, a single citizenship, monetary unit, etc. are established.
Cost accounting (economic accounting) is a method of planned management of a socialist economy, based on the comparison of an enterprise’s costs for production with the results of production and economic activities, reimbursement of expenses and income, ensuring the profitability of production, material interest and responsibility of the enterprise, as well as workshops, sections, teams, everyone working in meeting planned targets and using resources economically. In fact, it means the admission of the principles of a market economy into socialist planned regulated production.
1941–1945
The Anti-Hitler Coalition is a military alliance of states that fought in World War II against the aggressive bloc consisting of Germany, Italy, Japan and the states that supported them. The creation of the coalition began in June 1941, when the governments of England and the United States made statements about their readiness to support the Soviet Union, which was attacked by Nazi Germany. By the end of the war, the coalition included about 50 states. The USSR, USA, England, France, China, Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, India, Canada, New Zealand and others took part in the common struggle against Nazi Germany and its allies with their armed forces. Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary went over to the side of the coalition. The anti-Hitler coalition ceased to exist in the second half of 1947.
Blitzkrieg is the theory of a fleeting war with victory achieved in the shortest possible time. Created in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century, this tactic of the German military command failed in the First and Second World Wars.
Blockade is the encirclement of an enemy territory, city, fortress, port, military base by land, sea or air with the help of armed forces in order to isolate the enemy from the outside world, as well as a system of measures aimed at isolating a state politically or economically, to put pressure on him.
The Great Patriotic War is the war of the Soviet people with Nazi Germany and its allies (June 22, 1941 - May 9, 1945), an integral part of World War II. The name “Great Patriotic War” began to be used in the Russian-language tradition after Joseph Stalin’s radio address on July 3, 1941. Started by Germany, the Great Patriotic War ended with the complete defeat of the countries of the fascist bloc. The Soviet Union lost 27 million people during the battles, as well as brutal fascist terror in the occupied territory and in concentration camps.
The second front is the front that arose against Nazi Germany in Western Europe in World War II. It was discovered by the USA and Great Britain in June 1944 with the landing in Normandy (France).
Genocide is the destruction of certain population groups for racial, national or religious reasons.
Deportation (from Latin “expulsion”) - during a period of mass repression, the expulsion of a number of peoples of the USSR. In 1941-1945. Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachais, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, etc. were evicted. In 1989, a Declaration was adopted recognizing repressive acts against peoples subjected to forced relocation as illegal and criminal.
The card system is a system for supplying the population with consumer goods in conditions of shortage. In particular, it existed in the USSR. To purchase a product, one had to not only pay money for it, but also present a one-time coupon giving the right to purchase it. Cards (coupons) established certain standards for the consumption of goods per person per month, so this system was also called standardized distribution. In the Russian Empire, cards were first introduced in 1916. Since 1917, they have been widely used in Soviet Russia. The abolition of the card system occurred in 1921 in connection with the transition to the NEP policy. The card system was reintroduced into the USSR in 1929. It was canceled in 1935. In connection with the events of the Great Patriotic War in the USSR, card distribution was introduced in July 1941, and was finally canceled in December 1947. The new and last wave of normalized distribution in the USSR (coupon system) began in 1983 with the introduction of coupons, primarily for sausage . It has come to naught since the beginning of 1992, due to the “release” of prices, which reduced effective demand, and the spread of free trade. For a number of goods in some regions, coupons were retained until 1993.
A radical turning point in the course of a war is strategic and political changes during military operations, such as: the transition of strategic initiative from one belligerent side to another; ensuring reliable superiority of the defense industry and the rear economy as a whole; achieving military-technical superiority in supplying the active army with the latest types of weapons; qualitative changes in the balance of forces in the international arena.
Lend-Lease is a system for the loan or lease of weapons, ammunition, food, medicine, etc., undertaken by the United States during the Second World War. US expenses on Lend-Lease operations from March 11, 1941 to August 1, 1945 amounted to $46 billion. The volume of supplies to the British Empire amounted to over 30 billion dollars (% of the loan was 472 million) to the Soviet Union 10 billion dollars (% of the loan was 1.3 billion dollars).
Occupation zones were formed on the territory of defeated Germany as a result of the Yalta Conference. The American, British, French and Soviet zones of occupation were determined. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany was created to manage the Soviet zone. After the Federal Republic of Germany was formed on the territory of Trizonia, the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was proclaimed in the Soviet zone on October 7, 1949.
Occupation (from Latin “capture”) is the temporary seizure of foreign territory by military force without legal rights to it.
The partisan movement is a type of people’s struggle for the freedom and independence of the Motherland or for social transformation, which is waged on territory occupied by the enemy, with the armed core relying on the support of the local population. Regular units operating behind enemy lines can take part in the partisan movement. It manifests itself in the form of combat operations, as well as sabotage and sabotage. During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. unfolded on the Nazi-occupied territory of the USSR. Strategic leadership was carried out by Headquarters through the Central Headquarters of the partisan movement, republican and regional headquarters. There were over 1 million people in partisan detachments and formations. The partisans liberated entire areas, carried out raids, and carried out major operations to disrupt enemy communications.
Underground - illegal organizations fighting invaders in occupied territories. “Young Guard” - an underground Komsomol organization during the Great Patriotic War in the city of Krasnodon, Voroshilovgrad region (Ukrainian SSR) (1942, about 100 people). Led by: O. V. Koshevoy, U. M. Gromova, I. A. Zemnukhov, S. G. Tyulenin, L. G. Shevtsova (all awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, posthumously), I. V. Turkenich. Most of the participants were executed by the Nazis. Lyudinovo underground in 1941-1942. in the Kaluga region.
“Rail War” is the name of a major operation of Soviet partisans during the Great Patriotic War in August-September 1943 to disable the enemy’s railway communications in the occupied territory of the Leningrad, Kalinin, Smolensk and Oryol regions, Belarus and part of Ukraine.
Evacuation (from Latin “empty, remove”) - withdrawal of troops, military property or population during war, natural disasters from dangerous areas, as well as from places planned for any major economic transformations (for example, flooding of the area during hydraulic construction ).
1945–1991
Corporatization is a way of privatizing state and municipal enterprises by transforming them into open joint-stock companies. It has been widely developed in the Russian Federation since 1992.
Lease contracts are forms of organizing and remunerating the labor of employees of rental collectives within enterprises. A contract agreement is concluded with the administration of the enterprise, under which the rental collective undertakes to produce and transfer to the enterprise a certain amount of products at on-farm prices and tariffs. He has the right to dispose of products produced in excess of this volume independently. Lease contract form. became widespread during the initial period of economic reform in the Russian Federation (1990-1992).
The bipolar system of international relations is the division of the world into spheres of influence between two poles of power. An example of a bipolar world order is the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States (1946-1991). The second half of the 20th century was the only period in human history when the world was divided into two camps. Exceptions from the spheres of influence were only individual, most often small and insignificant states from a strategic point of view, which declared their neutrality.
Military-strategic parity is the equality of countries or groups of countries in the field of armed forces and weapons.
Voluntarism is a policy that does not take into account objective laws, real conditions and possibilities. Charges of subjectivism and voluntarism were brought against N.S. Khrushchev in October 1964 at the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, which led to his resignation.
MIC - military-industrial complex, designation (belongs to D. Eisenhower) of the alliance of military industry, army and related ones that developed in a number of countries (USA, USSR, etc.) during the 2nd World War and strengthened during the Cold War parts of the state apparatus and science.
Glasnost is a concept developed by Russian political thought, close to the concept of freedom of speech, but not adequate to it. Availability of information on all the most important issues of the work of government bodies.
GKChP - State Committee for the State of Emergency in the USSR, was created on the night of August 18-19, 1991 by representatives of government agencies who disagreed with the reform policies of M.S. Gorbachev and the draft of the new Union Treaty. The State Emergency Committee included: O.D. Baklanov, First Deputy Chairman of the USSR Defense Council; V.A. Kryuchkov, Chairman of the KGB of the USSR; V.S. Pavlov, Prime Minister of the USSR; B.K. Pugo, Minister of Internal Affairs of the USSR; V.A. Starodubtsev, Chairman of the Peasant Union of the USSR; A.I. Tizyakov, President of the Association of State Enterprises and Industrial, Construction, Transport and Communications Facilities of the USSR; G.I. Yanaev, Vice President of the USSR, member of the USSR Security Council. Troops were sent into large cities, almost all television programs stopped broadcasting, the activities of parties, movements and associations in opposition to the CPSU were suspended, and the publication of opposition newspapers was banned. Further, the members of the State Emergency Committee showed indecisiveness. In this situation, Russian President B.N. Yeltsin showed the greatest activity. He called on all citizens to disobey and a general strike. The center of resistance to the State Emergency Committee was the White House, the building of the Russian government. Within three days it became clear that society did not support the State Emergency Committee (putsch). Members of the State Emergency Committee went to Crimea to see M.S. Gorbachev, where they were arrested. They were charged under Article 64 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR (treason to the Motherland) in the “GKChP” case. They were later released from custody. The coup attempt undertaken by the Emergency Committee accelerated the process of the collapse of the USSR.
Demilitarization - disarmament, prohibition of any state to build fortifications, have a military industry and maintain armed forces, withdrawal of troops and military equipment, conversion of military industries.
Currency reform is changes carried out by the state in the field of monetary circulation, usually aimed at strengthening the monetary system. On January 1, 1961, monetary reform was carried out in the form of a denomination. For all deposits in Sberbank, citizens received one new ruble for 10 old rubles. Cash was exchanged without restrictions at the same rate. The 1991 monetary reform in the USSR (also known as the Pavlovian reform - after the name of the Prime Minister of the USSR Valentin Pavlov) - the exchange of large banknotes in January-April 1991.
De-Stalinization is the debunking of Stalin’s personality cult and the rejection of repressive and mobilization methods of managing society. It began at the July (1953) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee with a speech by G.M. Malenkov, who condemned the personality cult of I.V. Stalin. After the removal of Malenkov, the process of de-Stalinization continues N.S. Khrushchev, who delivered a report “On overcoming the cult of personality and its consequences” at a closed meeting of the 20th Congress of the CPSU (February 1956). After the congress, the process of rehabilitation of victims of repression began. During the years of stagnation, the rehabilitation process fades. A new wave of de-Stalinization begins during the period of perestroika.
Dissidents are “dissidents”. The name of participants in the movement against the totalitarian regime in the USSR since the late 1950s. Dissidents in various forms advocated for the observance of human and civil rights and freedoms (human rights activists), against the persecution of dissent, and protested against the entry of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan (1979). They were subjected to repression by the authorities.
“Iron Curtain” - after W. Churchill’s speech in Fulton on March 5, 1946, the expression “Iron Curtain” began to be used to refer to the “wall” separating capitalism and socialism.
Stagnation is a designation used in journalism for a period in the history of the USSR, covering approximately two decades (1964-1982). In official Soviet sources of that time, this period was called developed socialism.
The Cuban Missile Crisis was an extremely tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States. It arose after the deployment of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba, which was considered by the Soviet leadership as a response to the deployment of American missiles in Turkey and Italy, as well as to the threat of an invasion of American troops in Cuba. The most acute crisis that brought the world to the brink of nuclear war was eliminated due to the sober position taken by the top leaders of the USSR (led by N. S. Khrushchev) and the USA (led by President J. Kennedy), who realized the mortal danger of the possible use of nuclear missiles weapons. On October 28, the dismantling and removal of Soviet nuclear missile ammunition from Cuba began. In turn, the US government announced the lifting of quarantine and the abandonment of the invasion of Cuba; it was also confidentially announced that American missiles would be withdrawn from Turkey and Italy.
Cooperation is a form of labor organization in which a significant number of people jointly participate in one or different, but interconnected labor processes, as well as a set of institutionalized voluntary mutual aid associations of individuals or organizations to achieve common goals in various areas of the economy. Based on share participation.
“Cosmopolitanism” (from the Greek “citizen of the world”) is the ideology of world citizenship, the denial of national patriotism. Refusal of national, cultural traditions, state and national sovereignty in favor of the so-called. “universal human values”. The campaign against cosmopolitans unfolded in the USSR in the post-war years. They were accused of being apolitical and lacking ideas, of “kowtowing to the West.” It resulted in rampant nationalism, persecution and repression against national minorities.
“Lysenkoism” is the name of a political campaign that resulted in the persecution and defamation of geneticists, the denial of genetics and a temporary ban on genetic research in the USSR. Refers to events that took place in scientific biological circles from approximately the mid-1930s to the first half of the 1960s. The events took place with the direct participation of politicians, biologists, philosophers, including the head of state himself, I.V. Stalin, T.D. Lysenko (who over time became a symbol of the campaign) and many other people.
Multi-party system is a political system in which there can be many political parties that theoretically have an equal chance of winning a majority of seats in the country's parliament. It began to take shape in the USSR in 1990 after the Third Congress of People's Deputies abolished Article 6 of the Constitution, which established the leading role of the CPSU.
New political thinking is a new philosophical and political concept put forward by M.S. Gorbachev, the main provisions of which included: rejection of the conclusion about the split of the world into 2 opposing socio-political systems; recognition of the world as integral and indivisible; declaration of the impossibility of solving international problems by force; declaring as a universal way to resolve international issues not the balance of power of the two systems, but the balance of their interests; rejection of the principle of proletarian internationalism and recognition of the priority of universal human values over class, national, ideological, etc. Led to the end of the Cold War.
Nomenklatura - officials appointed by the authorities, the ruling stratum that dominates the bureaucratic system of government. Soviet nomenklatura: a list of the most important positions in the state apparatus and public organizations.
STR (scientific and technological revolution) is a radical qualitative transformation of the productive forces based on the transformation of science into a leading factor in the development of society, production, and direct productive force. Began in the middle of the 20th century. It sharply accelerates scientific and technological progress and has an impact on all aspects of society.
“Thaw” is a common designation for changes in the social and cultural life of the USSR that began after the death of I.V. Stalin (1953). The term “thaw” goes back to the title of the story by I. G. Ehrenburg (1954-1956). The “thaw” period was characterized by a softening of the political regime, the beginning of the process of rehabilitation of victims of mass repressions of the 1930s - early 50s, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, and some weakening of ideological control in the field of culture and science. The 20th Congress of the CPSU played an important role in these processes, condemning Stalin’s cult of personality. The “Thaw” contributed to the growth of social activity in society. However, positive changes in the mid-50s. were not further developed.
Passport regime is one of the means for monitoring suspicious persons in the areas of protecting state security. While monitoring their own subjects and arriving foreigners, the authorities may require identification from them, as well as proof that they are not a danger to public peace. Official documents identifying a citizen and containing information about his gender, age, marital status, and place of residence were introduced on December 27, 1932. By the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of April 8, 1968, new rules for registration and deregistration of citizens in rural areas were introduced.
Perestroika is the policy of the leadership of the CPSU and the USSR, carried out from 1985 to August 1991. The initiators of perestroika (M.S. Gorbachev, A.N. Yakovlev and others) wanted to bring the Soviet economy, politics, ideology and culture in line with universal human ideals and values. Perestroika was carried out extremely inconsistently and, due to contradictory efforts, created the preconditions for the collapse of the CPSU and the collapse of the USSR in 1991.
Human rights activists are individuals who criticized the evils of the socialist system in the USSR, opposed the violation of human rights, and proposed ways to reform and democratize the economic and political system of the USSR. The human rights movement operated in the 60s and 70s. Its active participants: Sakharov, Orlov, Solzhenitsyn, Voinovich, Grigorenko, Yakunin and others. Human rights activists published an illegal newsletter in which they published information about human rights violations in the USSR. Participants in the movement were subjected to brutal repression by the KGB. They contributed to the preparation of perestroika
A putsch is a coup d'état carried out by a group of conspirators, an attempt at such a coup. The events of August 19-20, 1991 in Moscow are applicable to the term; the State Emergency Committee’s attempt to remove USSR President M. Gorbachev from power contributed to the rapid collapse of the USSR.
Détente of international tension - improving relations between countries with different socio-political systems during the Cold War. The term appeared and was actively used in the mid-70s. XX century, when a series of agreements and treaties were concluded between the USSR and the USA recognizing the post-war borders in Europe as inviolable, the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe was signed
Rehabilitation - restoration (by court or administrative procedure) of rights, restoration of a good name, former reputation. The reform pursued the goal of getting rid of the excess money supply in cash circulation and at least partially solving the problem of shortages on the commodity market of the USSR
Market economy is a socio-economic system developing on the basis of private property and commodity-money relations. A market economy is based on the principles of free enterprise and choice. The distribution of resources, production, exchange and consumption of goods and services are mediated by supply and demand. The system of markets and prices, competition are the coordinating and organizational mechanism of a market economy and largely ensure its self-regulating nature. At the same time, in the economic systems of developed countries, a certain degree of government intervention is carried out (ensuring the general conditions for the functioning of a market economy, implementing social protection measures, etc.).
Samizdat is a method of illegal distribution of literary works, as well as religious and journalistic texts in the USSR, when copies were made by the author or readers without the knowledge or permission of official bodies, usually by typewritten, photographic or handwritten methods. Samizdat also distributed tape recordings of A. Galich, V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava, Y. Kim, emigrant singers, etc.
CIS, Commonwealth of Independent States - an interstate association formed by Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. In the Agreement on the Creation of the CIS (signed on December 8, 1991 in Minsk), these states stated that the USSR, in conditions of deep crisis and collapse, was ceasing to exist, and declared their desire to develop cooperation in political, economic, humanitarian, cultural and other fields. On December 21, 1991, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan joined the Agreement and signed, together with Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, the Declaration on the Goals and Principles of the CIS in Almaty. Later Georgia joined the CIS. In 1993, the CIS Charter was adopted, which defined the main areas and directions of cooperation. CIS bodies: Council of Heads of State, Council of Heads of Government, Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Interstate Economic Council, Interparliamentary Assembly centered in St. Petersburg, etc. The permanent body of the CIS is the Coordination and Consultative Committee in Minsk.
Economic councils are territorial councils of the national economy in the USSR in 1957-1965, created instead of sectoral ministries.
The shadow economy is a term that refers to all types of economic activity that are not taken into account by official statistics and are not included in GNP.
Commodity shortage - lack, shortage; a product that is not in sufficient quantity.
The Helsinki Process is a process of restructuring the European system of international relations on principles designed to ensure peace, security and cooperation. The Helsinki process began with the final act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (1975).
“Cold War” is a period in the history of international relations from the second half of the 40s to 1991. The “Cold War” is characterized by the confrontation between two superpowers - the USSR and the USA, two world socio-political systems in the economic, ideological and political spheres using psychological means of influencing the enemy. Confrontation on the brink of war.
The people of the sixties are representatives of the Soviet intelligentsia, mainly of the generation born approximately between 1925 and 1935. The historical context that shaped the views of the “sixties” was the years of Stalinism, the Great Patriotic War and the era of the “thaw”.
1992–…
A share is an issue-grade security that gives the owner the right to receive income or dividends depending on the amount of profit of the joint-stock company.
Exchange - an institution in which the purchase and sale of securities (stock exchange), currency (currency exchange) or mass goods sold according to samples (commodity exchange) is carried out; building where stock exchange transactions are carried out. In Russia, the first stock exchange arose in 1703 in St. Petersburg.
Near Abroad is a collective name for the CIS countries (and sometimes the Baltics), which emerged in Russia in 1992 after the collapse of the USSR. The term is more historical and cultural in nature than geographical. Among the countries belonging to the near abroad there are those that do not have a common border with the Russian Federation (Moldova, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan), while some states directly bordering it do not belong to the near abroad (Finland , Norway, Poland, Mongolia, China, North Korea).
Voucher, privatization check - in the Russian Federation in 1992-1994, a government security (to bearer) for a designated purpose with a specified nominal value. The privatization check was used in the process of privatization of enterprises and other property (federal, republics within the Russian Federation, autonomous regions and autonomous districts, Moscow and St. Petersburg). All citizens of the Russian Federation were entitled to receive a privatization check.
Devaluation is an official decrease in the gold content of a monetary unit or a depreciation of the national currency in relation to gold, silver or some national currency, usually the US dollar, Japanese yen, German mark.
Default - the economic crisis of 1998 in Russia was one of the most severe economic crises in the history of Russia. The main reasons for the default were: Russia's huge public debt generated by the collapse of Asian economies, a liquidity crisis, low world prices for raw materials, which formed the basis of Russia's exports, as well as populist economic policy of the state and the construction of the GKO pyramid (state short-term obligations). The actual default date is August 17, 1998. Its consequences seriously affected the development of the economy and the country as a whole, both negatively and positively. The ruble exchange rate against the dollar fell more than 3 times in six months - from 6 rubles per dollar before the default to 21 rubles per dollar on January 1, 1999. The trust of the population and foreign investors in Russian banks and the state, as well as in the national currency, was undermined. A large number of small businesses went bankrupt and many banks collapsed. The banking system collapsed for at least six months. The population lost a significant part of their savings, and their standard of living fell. However, the devaluation of the ruble has allowed the Russian economy to become more competitive.
Impeachment (from the English “censure, accusation”) is a special procedure for holding senior officials accountable (through the lower house of parliament).
Conversion is the transfer of military-industrial enterprises to the production of civilian products.
Corruption is a criminal activity in the sphere of politics, which consists in the use by officials of the rights and power entrusted to them for the purpose of personal enrichment and growth of influence resources. The result of corruption is the degradation of power and increased crime.
Price liberalization is an element of the economic policy of the Russian government, which consisted of abandoning state regulation of prices for most goods (since 1992)
Nanotechnology is the technology of objects whose dimensions are about 10-9 m (atoms, molecules). Nanotechnology processes obey the laws of quantum mechanics. Nanotechnology includes the atomic assembly of molecules, new methods of recording and reading information, local stimulation of chemical reactions at the molecular level, etc.
National projects are a program for the growth of “human capital” in Russia, announced by President V. Putin and implemented since 2006. The head of state identified the following as priority areas for “investment in people”: healthcare; education; housing; Agriculture.
A presidential republic is a republican form of government in which, according to the Constitution, supreme power belongs to the president. The President can be elected by popular vote, parliament or any institution (Constituent Assembly, Congress of People's Deputies, etc.). Once elected, the president in a presidential republic receives the following advantages: he cannot be recalled or re-elected without emergency circumstances provided for by the Constitution; enjoys the constitutional right to convene and dissolve parliament (subject to certain procedures); the right of legislative initiative; dominant participation in the formation of the government and in the selection of its head - the prime minister. According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the president has the right to continue to exercise his functions even after, as a result of general elections or the current political situation, the balance of forces in parliament has changed in favor of the opposition to the president, his election program and political course. Moreover, due to the impossibility under these conditions to continue the policy he proclaimed, the president, based on the results of the referendum and the implementation of other procedures provided for by the Constitution, can exercise the constitutional right to dissolve parliament and hold early elections. This form of government developed in the Russian Federation after the October crisis of 1993.
Privatization is the transfer or sale of part of state property to private ownership.
Separation of powers is a characteristic feature of the rule of law, based on the principle of separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers.
A referendum (Latin referendum - something that must be communicated) is a popular vote held on any important issue of public life.
The Federation Council - according to the 1993 Constitution, the upper house of the parliament of the Russian Federation - the Federal Assembly.
The Federal Assembly - according to the Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993, the parliament is a representative and legislative body. Consists of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma.
“Shock therapy” is a course to improve the economy through its accelerated transfer to a market economy. Conducted by the team of E.T. Gaidar (A.N. Shokhin, A.B. Chubais) in 1992-1994. (Gaidar reforms).
The role of historical dictionaries is extremely important not only for the development of linguistic science. They have great general cultural significance, making knowledge of the native language and its norms more conscious, providing answers to questions that arise in the process of using words, and awakening linguistic reflection.
In Russian historical lexicography, two ways of describing language development have developed: diachronic description (in dictionaries with a wide chronological framework) and description according to synchronous sections or periods, conventionally accepted as one synchronous section.
In the first case we are talking about dictionaries of “evolution”, or diachronic dictionaries themselves, in the second - about dictionaries of “state”, or dictionaries of “synchronous (horizontal) slice”. Diachronic dictionaries, having a wide chronological framework, reflecting the large periods to which the described material belongs, recreate (to one extent or another) the history of a word during the era of language development that the dictionary describes. “Synchronous slice” dictionaries, presenting the vocabulary of certain periods in the history of a language, usually recreate the dynamics of the functioning of a word in more detail.
The three largest historical dictionaries currently being published (“Dictionary of the Russian language of the 11th-17th centuries,” “Dictionary of the Old Russian language (XI-XIV centuries), “Dictionary of the Russian language of the 18th century”) demonstrate both ways of describing language development: “ Dictionary of the Russian language XI-XVII centuries." refers to the diachronic dictionaries proper, and the “Dictionary of the Old Russian Language (XI-XIV centuries)” and “Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 18th Century” - to the “horizontal section” dictionaries.
“Dictionary of the Russian language XI-XVII centuries.” is a diachronic dictionary of explanatory-translation type [Bogatova 2007]. It covers the lexical composition of the Russian language over seven centuries - from the ancient Kiev period to the beginning of the formation of the Russian nation. The dictionary is a reference tool necessary for reading ancient Russian texts of various genres (chronicles, charters, private correspondence, codes of laws, hagiographic literature, etc.). A dictionary entry usually presents the earliest use of a word and its most recent fixation, which gives some idea of the historical movement of vocabulary.
“Dictionary of the Old Russian Language (XI-XIV centuries)” is a dictionary of the language of the Old Russian period, covering as sources a wide range of written monuments of Ancient Rus' (chronicles, chronicles, lives, teachings, praises, legal literature, charters, including birch bark, inscriptions on objects of material culture) until the era of the formation of modern East Slavic peoples and languages. By type it is also an explanatory and translation dictionary: the meanings of Old Russian words are explained or translated in it using the means of the modern Russian language.
“Dictionary of the Russian language of the 18th century.” is a description of Russian vocabulary over the course of one century, constituting an important stage in the development of the Russian language, which culminated in Pushkin’s time with the creation of a modern literary language on a national basis. The exact chronological scope of the dictionary is the 90s. XVII century (beginning of the Petrine era) and 10s. XIX century The material base of the dictionary is a card index containing more than two million quotations from a wide range of sources, including Russian and Book Slavic books, original and translated, works of fiction, journalism, scientific books and textbooks, business documents, epistolary heritage of the century, diaries, notes etc.
A variety of historical dictionaries of “synchronous section” are dictionaries of individual written monuments (for example: “Dictionary-reference book “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign””, “Dictionary “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik”).
Based on the nature of vocabulary selection (by the completeness/incompleteness of the vocabulary), historical dictionaries can be divided into complete (thesaurus type) and differential. Complete dictionaries (“Dictionary of the Russian language of the 11th-17th centuries,” “Dictionary of the Old Russian language (XI-XIV centuries), “Dictionary of the Russian language of the 18th century”) are compiled with a focus on the entire vocabulary of the language of a particular period, and differential One way or another, they segment the vocabulary, isolate one layer (this could be, for example, terms, nominations, professionalisms, anthroponyms, toponyms, phraseological units, etc.). Based on the principle of territorial coverage of written monuments, historical dictionaries are divided into general (for example, the above-mentioned dictionaries of the Russian language of the 11th-17th centuries, 11th-14th centuries, 18th centuries) and regional, which describe the written monuments of individual territories. A special group among historical dictionaries are the so-called aspect dictionaries, which describe one aspect of a word (for example, stress, frequency). There are other types of historical dictionaries [Kozyrev, Chernyak 2014].
Arapova N. S. Calques in the Russian language of the post-Petrine period: the experience of a dictionary. M.: Publishing house Moek. state Univ., 2000. 319 p.
Belova O. V. Slavic bestiary: dictionary of names and symbols / Ros. acad. Sciences, Institute of Slavic Studies; resp. ed. A.A. Turilov. M.: Indrik, 2001. 318 p. . Vasiliev A. I. Dictionary of phraseological units of the Old Russian language [about 900]. Elets: Elets. state University named after I.A. Bunina, 2011. 382 p. Galiullin K.R., Martyanov D.A. Dictionary of the language of Russian proverbs and sayings of the late 17th - first half of the 18th century: collection of proverbs from the Petrovskaya Gallery. Kazan: Kazan Publishing House, state. Univ., 2006. 188 p.
Epishkin N.I. Historical dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian language. M.: ETS, 2010.
Eskova N.L. Norms of the Russian literary language of the 18th-19th centuries: stress, grammatical forms, word variants: dictionary, explanatory articles. M.: Manuscript monuments of Ancient Rus', 2008. 960 p. (Studia philologica).
Isaev M.L. Explanatory dictionary of ancient Russian legal terms: From treaties with Byzantium to charter documents of the Moscow state. M.: Spark, 2001. 119 p.
Dictionary of the Old Russian language: (XI-XIV centuries): in 10 volumes / USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Russian. language; Ch. ed. R.I. Avanesov, I.S. Ulukhanov, V.B. Krysko. M.: Russian language [other], 1988-2012. T. 1-9.
Dictionary “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik / St. Petersburg. state University, Interdepartment. words cab. them. B.A. Larina; redol. : EAT. Isserlin et al. [Rep. playback ed. 1981]. St. Petersburg : Publishing house St. Petersburg. state Univ., 2007. 235 p.
Dictionary of everyday Russian language of Moscow Rus' of the XVI-XVII centuries / St. Petersburg. state University, Interdepartment. words cab. them. B.A. Larina; Ross. acad. Sciences, Institute of Linguistics, Research; S.N. Varina et al.; ed. O.S. Mzhelskaya. St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2004-2013. Vol. 1-5.
Dictionary of the Russian language XI-XVII centuries. / USSR Academy of Sciences - RAS, Institute of Russian. language; Ch. ed. S. G. Barkhudarov, F. P. Filin, D.N. Shmelev, G.A. Bogatova, V.B. Krysko. M.: Nauka, 1975-2008. Vol. 1-28.
Dictionary of the Russian language of the 18th century / USSR Academy of Sciences - RAS, Institute of Russian. language, Institute of linguistics, research; Ch. ed. Yu.S. Sorokin, Z.M. Petrova; ed. L.L. Kutina, E.E. Birzhakova. L. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, St. Petersburg. ed. company, 1984-2012. Vol. 1 - 19 [A - Planger].
Dictionary-reference book “Words about Igor’s Campaign” / comp. V.L. Vinogradova; ed. B.L. Bogorodsky, B.A. Larina, D.S. Likhacheva, O. V. Tvorogova. M.; L.: Science, 1965-1984. Vol. 1-6.
Chernykh P.Ya. Historical and etymological dictionary of the Russian language: 13,560 words [in 2 volumes]. 8th ed., erased. M.: Russian language - Media, 2007. T. 1-2. . 2nd ed., rev. and additional M.: Publishing house Moek. state region ped. Univ., 2008. 297 p. .
The basic principle of constructing dictionaries of this type is to present the vocabulary of a certain period in the history of the Russian language, indicating its meaning.
The first historical dictionary is “Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language based on written monuments” by I.I. Sreznevsky (ed.
1893, 1902, 1912). Dictionary in 4 volumes. It reflects the vocabulary of various monuments of Russian writing of the 11th–16th centuries. The meanings of words are explained mainly by synonyms; in most cases translations are provided into Latin, less often Greek. We turn to this dictionary when we need to find out with what meaning in the Old Russian language this or that word was used, which was found in a literary work, for example, in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” However, this dictionary is not without shortcomings that must be taken into account when using the dictionary: 1) lack of explanation of some words; 2) sometimes the chronological principle of presenting the meanings of words is violated; 3) in a number of dictionary entries, references to individual sources are unclear.
In 1975, the first issue of the Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 11th-17th centuries was published. edited by S.G. Barkhudarov, in 1997 - 22nd issue, the publication of the dictionary is not completed. This dictionary differs from the first in that it presents the vocabulary of another period: the 17th century. In addition, the meanings of the head words are more consistently specified. The illustrative part provides two examples or one; two examples in the case when a word has ceased to be actively used in modern Russian, the first example is the time of the word’s appearance, the second example reflects the end of the active use of the word. One example is given if the word continues to be actively used in the Russian language. Using these examples, you can determine the time of the appearance and existence of the word.
The dictionary materials help when reading historical texts and studying the patterns of development of the Russian language.
In the period from 1984 to 1996, 9 issues of “Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 18th Century” by Yu.S. Sorokin were published. The release of the dictionary is also not finished.
Unlike the previous two, this dictionary includes new vocabulary from another century: the 18th century.
Historical dictionaries are complemented by onomastic dictionaries, which provide historical information about proper names. In 1903, the “Dictionary of Old Russian Proper Names” was published by N.M. Tupikov. This dictionary contains Old Russian names and patronymics.
In 1966, N.A. Petrovsky’s “Dictionary of Russian Personal Names” was published. The dictionary, however, does not always give the origin of proper names.
In the same year, V.A. Nikonov published “A Brief Toponymic Dictionary.” The dictionary tells about the history, origin and fate of four thousand geographical names.
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More on the topic Historical dictionaries:
- 48. Lexicography - theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. Types of dictionaries.
- 28. Lexicography. Basic types of dictionaries. Explanatory dictionaries, principles of their compilation.
- 28.Active lexicology and explanatory dictionaries. Elements of encyclopedic information in the explanatory dictionary.
Historical Dictionary
A lexicographic publication that aims to reflect the history of words of one language throughout their existence in a given language - from the time of its formation of the first written monuments) to the present, or limited to a certain significant historical period. The historical dictionary records the phonetic, graphic, morphological variations of a word, the main changes in its semantics and pragmatic characteristics (degree of usage, prevalence in different language subsystems, stylistic affiliation, etc.)
Strictly speaking, the genre of the historical dictionary itself is still absent in Russian lexicography (dictionaries that are conventionally called “historical” - “Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language based on written monuments” by I. I. Sreznevsky, “Dictionary of the Old Russian language (20th-20th centuries. )", "Dictionary of the Russian language of the 20th - 20th centuries" and others - in essence they are not, since they represent a static description of vocabulary and semantics, even if they combine lexical material from different time slices; they provide information that should be; form the basis of diachronic research, but do not present the dynamics of the lexical composition)
To some extent, the exception is the “Dictionary of the Russian language of the 20th century” .\/SPb., 1984-), in which historical analysis is present in the form of notes that clarify various moments in the evolution of individual words (the entry of a word into the lexicon, the growth of usage, its extinction, disappearance words, semantic and stylistic changes), but this vocabulary is limited to a narrow chronological framework.
A brief conceptual and terminological reference book on etymology and historical lexicology. - Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Russian Language named after. V. V. Vinogradov RAS, Etymology and history of words in the Russian language. J. J. Varbot, A. F. Zhuravlev. 1998 .
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Books
- Historical Dictionary. More than 2000 articles on the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day, Natalya Georgievna Georgieva, Alexander Sergeevich Orlov, Vladimir Anatolyevich Georgiev. The publication continues the series of educational books on the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day, written by the authors of the dictionary (“History of Russia”, “Anthology of the History of Russia”, “History of Russia in…
