The lexical meaning of a word is accompanied by its grammatical meaning. The differences between these two types of values ​​are:

• 1. Grammatical meanings are abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb aspect is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical one, so it characterizes only a specific word. So, the lexical meaning of the word table“a piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal plate on supports or legs” is a semantic property of this particular word.
• 2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the stem of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal).

So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, noun teacher in a sentence And that one, who do I consider to be a teacher?, like a shadow passed...(Akhm.) expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, masculine gender, singular number, instrumental case. The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called partial (or general categorical); These are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, processivity in a verb, etc. The partial meaning of a word is supplemented and specified by private (or partial categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by private categorical grammatical meanings of animate/inanimate, gender, number and case.

Formal grammar

Let us characterize two types of formal grammatical means - paradigmatic and syntagmatic. The morphological (inflectional) paradigm of a word is the totality of all grammatical varieties (word forms) of a given word. The ability of a word to form a paradigm is called word inflection. Some words do not have inflection: they always appear in the same form (such as, for example, the function words r/, By, only). Such words have a zero paradigm. But most words in the Russian language do not have a zero paradigm. Thus, the morphological inflectional paradigm of the word school formed by word forms: school, schools, school, school, school, (O) school; schools, schools, schools, schools, (O) schools.

There are two types of word forms: synthetic (simple) and analytical (compound). Synthetic word forms consist of a word stem and inflectional affixes - endings,

inflectional suffixes and postfixes. For example: house-o(zero ending), school; fast(superlative inflectional suffix and ending), read(verb inflectional suffix and ending), running(inflectional suffix of participle and ending). One synthetic word form can have from one to three inflectional affixes; for example, in the verb form checking-l"-i-s (Essays were checked by two examiners) grammatical meanings are expressed by the inflectional suffix of the past tense ending -And and an inflectional postfix of the passive voice -s.

Auxiliary words participate in the formation of analytical word forms, playing the same role as inflectional affixes in the structure of synthetic word forms. For example, by adding the future tense form of the auxiliary verb be to the infinitive of an imperfective verb ( read, run etc.) an analytical form of the future tense is formed (I will read, we'll run); adding an auxiliary word to the past tense form of the verb would the subjunctive form is formed (I would read, would run).

Sometimes the paradigm of a word contains both synthetic and analytical word forms (cf.: strongest And strongest; warmer And warmer). In the paradigms of nouns, numerals and pronouns - only synthetic word forms; Adjectives, verbs, adverbs and impersonal predicative words are characterized by both synthetic and analytical word forms.

Inflection has always been the main object of morphological analysis, because endings and inflectional suffixes as part of synthetic word forms, auxiliary words as part of analytical word forms are effective means of expressing grammatical meanings. Thus, thanks to the opposition of endings in word forms student - students, magazine - magazines the meanings of a number are expressed; in contrast to word forms decided - I decide - I will decide temporary values ​​are expressed.

Inflectional affixes of all the above types and auxiliary words belong to the paradigmatic means of expressing the grammatical meaning of a word (since they participate in the formation of the inflectional paradigm of the word). In addition to the main paradigmatic means, some words also contain additional ones, often accompanying the main means of expressing grammatical meaning:

• 1) alternation (or alternation) of phonemes in the stem [run - run; dream - sleep("fluent" vowel)];
• 2) extension, truncation or alternation of stem-forming suffixes in the stem [brother - brothers ("brother); peasant - peasants?; give - I let you dance - I dance (dance-u")-u)]
• 3) suppletivism - alternation of roots (I’m walking - walking; man - people);
• 4) changing the place of stress (tree - trees; was - were).

The grammatical meanings of words are expressed not only paradigmatically, but also syntagmatically, i.e. in a phrase. For example, in phrases A new book, new books the meaning of a number is expressed not only by the ending of the noun, but also by the ending of the adjective that agrees with it. Here, paradigmatic and syntagmatic means of expressing grammatical meanings complement one another. And in cases where there are no paradigmatic means of expressing grammatical meaning, the only formal means of detecting this meaning becomes the grammatical syntagmatics (combinability) of the word. For example, if a noun does not have externally distinct endings, i.e. is "inflexible" (like coat, CHP), the grammatical meaning of a number can only be expressed “beyond” the noun itself, in consistent forms of the adjective (new/new coats, powerful/powerful thermal power plants). These examples show that morphology, as a grammatical study of a word that actually functions in speech, must take into account all means of expressing the grammatical meanings of a word, both paradigmatic and syntagmatic.

Words are the building materials for any language. Sentences and phrases are built from them, with their help we convey thoughts and communicate. The ability of this unit to name or designate objects, actions, etc. called a function. The suitability of a word for communication and transmission of thoughts is called its

Thus, the word is the basic, main structural unit of language.

Every word in Russian has a lexical and grammatical meaning.

Lexical is the relationship between the sound (phonetic) design of a word, its sound, and phenomena of reality, images, objects, actions, etc. It can be said more simply: this is the meaning. From a lexical point of view, the words “barrel”, “bump”, “point” are different units because they denote different objects.

The grammatical meaning of a word is the meaning of its forms: gender or number, case or conjugation. If the words “barrel” and “dot” are considered grammatically, then they will be absolutely the same: creatures. feminine, standing in the nominative case and singular. number.

If you compare the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word, you can see that they are not the same, but are interconnected. The lexical meaning of each of them is universal, but the main one is fixed at the root. (For example: “son”, “sonny”, “sonny”, “sonny”).

The grammatical meaning of a word is conveyed using word-forming morphemes: endings and formative suffixes. So, “forest”, “forester”, “forester” will be quite close: their meaning is determined by the root “forest”. From a grammatical point of view, they are completely different: two nouns and an adjective.

On the contrary, the words “came”, “arrived”, “ran up”, “ran up”, “flew off”, “shot down” will be similar in grammatical orientation. These are verbs in the past tense form, which are formed using the suffix “l”.

The following conclusion follows from the examples: the grammatical meaning of a word is its belonging to a part of speech, the general meaning of a number of similar units, not tied to their specific material (semantic) content. “Mom”, “Dad”, “Motherland” - creatures. 1 declension, in the form I.p., singular. numbers. "Owl", "mice", "youth" are feminine nouns. gender, 3 declensions, standing in R.p. The grammatical meaning of the words “red”, “huge”, “wooden” indicates that these are adjectives in the form husband. kind, singular numbers, I.p. It is clear that the lexical meaning of these words is different.

The grammatical meaning of a word is expressed in a certain form, corresponding to the position of words in a sentence (or phrase), and is expressed using grammatical means. Most often these are affixes, but often the grammatical form is formed using function words, stress, word order or intonation.

Its appearance (name) directly depends on how the form is formed.

Simple (they are also called synthetic) grammatical forms are formed within a unit (with the help of endings or formative suffixes). The case forms (not) of mother, daughter, son, Motherland are formed using endings. the verbs “wrote”, “jumped” - using the suffix and the verb “jumped” - using the suffix “l” and the ending “a”.

Some forms are formed outside the lexeme, and not inside it. In this case, there is a need for function words. For example, the verbs “I will sing” and “let us sing” are formed using function words (verbs). The words “will” and “let’s” in this case have no lexical meaning. They are needed to create, in the first case, the future tense, and in the second, the incentive mood. Such forms are called complex or analytical.

Grammatical meanings are defined into systems or clusters of gender, number, etc.

MORPHOLOGY

A branch of the science of language that studies the ways of expressing grammatical expressions, patterns of word change, grammatical classes of words and their inherent grammatical categories.

Concept of grammatical meaning

A generalized meaning that is regularly expressed in a language using typed means - The gloggy kuzdra Shteko budlaned the bokra and curled the bokrenka

Signs of grammatical meanings

Abstractness

Regularity

Mandatory

Class-wide prevalence

List privacy

Languages ​​differ in what meanings they choose as grammatical meanings.

Types of grammatical meanings

1) Nominative - reflect extra-linguistic reality (reflects reality)

2) Syntactic - are not associated with extra-linguistic reality, they reflect only the ability of a given word form to be combined with other word forms (reflect the features of compatibility (gender of nouns))

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings

1) Synthetic - grammatical meaning using affixes. ( Walked- past tense, masculine)

Suppletivism ― expression of grammatical knowledge through the exchange of stems ( person people )

2) Analytical - use of function words ( if- subjunctive mood)

Both methods are typical for the Russian language.

Grammatical form and word form

Grammatical form - a linguistic sign in which the grammatical meaning finds its regular expression. In speech, in specific statements, a word appears in one of its grammatical forms.

Word form - a word in some grammatical form.

Morphological paradigm

Morphological paradigm of the word - a system of grammatical forms of one word

wood ― 24, table- 12 components

Complete Paradigm - includes the entire set of forms characteristic of a given part of speech.

Redundant Paradigm - contains redundant components ( waving)

The youth- 6, incomplete, trousers- 6, incomplete.

The concept of grammatical category

Grammatical forms are grouped into grammatical categories.

Singular form + Plural form = Grammatical category of number

Types of grammatical categories

Binary/non-binary

Inflectional/non-inflectional

The problem of parts of speech in English

The study of the question of the number of parts of speech in a particular language goes back to ancient grammarians.

When isolating parts of speech, you can use different approaches. In Russian grammar of the 21st and 20th centuries, several approaches have emerged:

1) Formal - the main classification criteria are the features of inflection and a set of grammatical characteristics.

2) Synthetic function of the word

3) Logical, lexical-semantic (general categorical meaning of the word

In modern Russian studies, the classification of parts of speech takes into account several approaches:

Part of speech is a class of words that is characterized by:

2) General set of grammatical categories

3) General syntactic functions

4) Word-formation features.

Several options for modern classification of parts of speech

1) School grammar - 10 parts of speech

1. Grammar 80 also presents a classification of 10 parts of speech. Significant parts of speech - noun, pronoun, adjective, numeral, adverb, verb

Functional - preposition, conjunction, particle, interjection

2) A.N. Tikhonov

Nominatives - noun, adjective, participle, numeral, pronoun, verb, gerund, adverb, state category.

Functional - preposition, conjunction, particle,

Interjection

Onomatopoeia

Modal (obviously, certainly, probably)

Any classification of parts of speech is always the result of compromises between different approaches.

SIGNIFICANT PARTS OF SPEECH IN RYA

NOUN

Part of speech that denotes an object and carries out this meaning in the grammatical categories of gender, number, case, animate/inanimate

Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns.

A group of words that exhibit originality in the expression of certain grammatical categories.

First level of division

At the first level of division, all nouns can be divided into 2 groups:

1) Own - call individual items

Names "Bolshevik"

They have either only st or only pl shape

2) Common nouns - name an object according to its belonging to a particular class.

Next level of division

- Real

1) Special values ​​- denote a homogeneous mass of matter that can be divided into parts, but cannot be counted ( milk)

2) Grammatical features: only one number form

3) Word formation - most of it - is not derivative

In speech, real nouns that have only a neuter form can in some cases form a plural form ( dry wines)

The meaning of the noun changes (type, quantity)

- Collective

a set of persons or objects as one indivisible whole (youth , students). All collective nouns have only singular forms. Collective nouns are usually derived. Must be distinguished from concrete nouns like people, class, group, detachment, herd.

Material and collective are closely related to each other. Sometimes it is difficult to answer the question whether it is real or collective. Sometimes they even talk about material-collective (dust)

- Distracted (abstract)

They only have a singular form. Many are derivatives. In some cases, nouns can be plural ( joys of life, happy dreams, annual readings) since the meaning of nouns changes.

- Common nouns

Show originality in the expression of grammatical categories. Boring, sweet tooth. The main feature is that in different contexts it can be either feminine or masculine. These include nouns with inflection a, most often colloquial style, abbreviated names - Sasha, Zhenya, Valya. Sometimes some indeclinable nouns are classified as counterpart. Not to be confused with common nouns doctor, teacher, officer, which can name persons of the feminine gender, but the words themselves remain masculine.

- Specific nouns

words that name countable objects that can be presented separately and counted. They have two number forms and are the standard of a noun as a part of speech. However, a small group of concrete nouns have only a plural form. ( sled)

Animacy

Animation/inanimation

Basic rule - In the plural, V.p. = R.p - animate, V.p. = I.p. - inanimate.

The rule was formed for the plural, since the grammatical category of number is most clearly expressed in the plural. For two groups of masculine nouns ( student, sentry) the rule also works in the singular.

In the Russian language, lexical and grammatical animation may not coincide. There are also nouns that experience fluctuations in the expression of animation - inanimateness. I see dolls - I see dolls. There are nouns that are animate in one meaning, but not in another. Stars. The youth- outside the grammatical category, since there is no plural.

In school grammar they talk about masculine, feminine, neuter gender.

Zaliznyak proposed a fourth gender - paired, words with only a plural form. ( gate, clock). He suggested talking about 7 concordant classes:

1 - m.r. neod.

2 - m.r. od.

3 - f.r. neod.

4 - f.r. od.

5 - av.r. inod.

6 - avg.

7 - paired gender.

Gender in English is expressed in morphological, syntactic and lexical-semantic ways.

Morphological - expressing the grammatical meaning of gender using inflections. This method is usually called inconsistent, since homonymous endings can have meanings of different genders. Table, daughter

Syntactic - expression of gender through the form of a word that agrees with the noun. In addition to concordant words, this function can be performed by predicate forms in the past tense or in the subjunctive mood.

Lexico-semantic - is based on the relationship between the grammatical meaning of gender and the lexical meaning of gender. This method is relevant only for a small number of nouns that name people. For these nouns, gender is nominative. For everyone else, syntactic.

Sometimes the meaning of gender is determined by the lexical meaning of gender, also in some zoonyms.

Singular

1) The main meaning is the meaning of singularity, that is, an indication of one object

2) Generalized-collective meaning - the singular form indicates a set of objects, understood as a collection. During the session, the student rests

3) Distributive\distributive - the singular form indicates an object that is owned by several persons at the same time. Open the textbook to... page.

Plural

1) Basic meaning - The meaning of a separate set. From 2 to many.

2) Collective set - the plural form indicates a collection of people, united according to some characteristic. He lived among the English for a long time

3) Hyperbolic set - indicates a deliberate elimination from a specific singularity; this can be observed in two cases.

Indicates the importance of an item We have guests - our daughter

To express reproach, censure We didn't study at universities

4) Continuous set - has the meaning of duration, special extent, intensity. Snow and ice all around

Question about case meaning.

Case meaning is a meaning associated with expressing the meaning of a noun to other words in a phrase or sentence.

Currently, the following types of case meanings are distinguished:

1) Subjective meaning

2) Object value

3) Definitive

4) Circumstantial

5) Some scientists highlight the collective/adding meaning.

These meanings are not assigned to a specific case form.

1) Subject meaning ― the meaning of a real figure, the bearer of a sign or state. People are walking down the street. The students are cold

2) Object value - the meaning of the relationship of an object to the action that applies to this object. We are drinking tea

An object value can be of different types:

Direct object value. Real object. To fish

Internal object. The object of speech, thought, feeling. Reminisce about the trip.

Destination object. I'm giving a lecture to students.

Object means. Seal with glue

Intermediary object. Send the parcel through the conductor

There are other types of objects.

3) Definitive meaning - the meaning of nouns that characterizes an object according to some characteristic:

Properly defining Girl in a hat. Brick house.

Predicative-definitive My brother is handsome

4) Circumstantial meaning - the meaning of a noun that characterizes an action or attribute in terms of measure, time, and so on.

1) Temporary - come back in May

2) The meaning of place - have a walk in the forest

3) Causal - cry over a mistake

4) Conditional - be careful when flying

5) The meaning of the goal - send for a doctor

6) Measures and degrees - bogged down

7) Concessive - against advice, he left

8) Image and method of action - sing in a bass voice

5) Collective meaning ― the value of completing informationally incomplete units in a sentence. He was known as a talker (he was known as- incomplete). His name was Vanya (his name was- incomplete)

The meaning the case expresses is influenced by several factors: the form of the noun itself, its meaning, the form and meaning of the word with which the noun is associated, the presence/absence of a preposition, and the nature of the preposition.

ADJECTIVE

- a part of speech that denotes a non-procedural feature of an object and expresses this meaning in the grammatical categories of gender, number, case, as well as categories of degrees of comparison and completeness of brevity

Comparative degree form

Indicates a greater or lesser degree of a characteristic compared to something.

FSS can be synthetic and analytical.

Synthetic - is formed using three suffixes: e, ee, she ( louder, whiter, more) Productive - her. The simple form of the comparative degree is not formed from an adjective with the suffixes sk, suffixes of subjective assessment ( weak), from an adjective with the suffixes ush, yush (transmissible), l ( experienced), from compound adjectives ( long-armed), with the prefix not ( difficult). There are other restrictions.

Analytical - is formed using auxiliary words more and less. Absent in group 80.

The meaning of the form of degrees of comparison.

Comparative degree (comparative) - has two main meanings.

1) a characteristic is inherent in one object to a greater or lesser extent than another. A cat is smarter than a dog

2) a feature of the same object in one situation is presented to a greater or lesser extent than in another. Winter is colder this year

The analytical form has fewer restrictions in education.

The simple comparative form is usually part of the predicate. Analytical can be both a predicate and a definition.

Superlatives

Traditionally, the meaning of superlative forms is defined as the maximum degree of manifestation of a characteristic.

The superlative form is also formed synthetically and analytically.

Simple - eish, aish. Composite - most, most, least, all (total) + synth. Comparative degree form ( most beautiful of all, most important).

The superlative form, which has the meaning of the highest degree of manifestation of a characteristic, is called superlative

However, superlatives can simply mean great degrees. (elative) most beautiful building. (not the most beautiful building in the city)

Most modern linguists do not believe that adjectives have superlative forms.

For the formation of synthetic forms, the same restrictions apply as for the formation of comparative forms. The superlative form formed with the word most contains an adjective in the positive degree. The shortest road, the tightest way, the best option- exception.

NUMERAL

In language, the idea of ​​quantity can be conveyed by different means: the grammatical category of number, with the help of nouns ( hundred, dozen), also using special words called numerals.

Whether the numeral is a part of speech is an ambiguous question. In school practice, numerals include quantitative, ordinal, collective, and fractional numerals. In Grammar 80, numerals include only cardinal numerals and collective numerals. Ordinal ones belong to adjectives, and fractional ones are considered as a combination of words belonging to different parts of speech. Numerals also include words such as many and few. Tikhonov's concept excludes many and few, but includes fractional numerals, cardinal and collective numerals. Panov's concept is ordinal, and cardinal and ordinal numbers are forms of the same word.

A concept that distinguishes cardinal, ordinal and collective numerals within numerals.

Numeral ― a part of speech that denotes the number and order of objects when counting and expresses these meanings in the grammatical categories of case (consistently) and in the grammatical categories of gender and number (not sequentially). There are three lexico-grammatical categories in the composition of numerals:

1) quantitative

2) ordinal

3) collective

Some linguists distinguish only quantitative and ordinal, and collective ones are classified as quantitative.

According to their structure, all numerals are divided into simple ones, having one root ( forty, five, five), complex, having two roots ( fifty) and compounds consisting of two or more words ( thirty five, three thousand thirty)

Lexico-grammatical categories of cardinal numerals:

Cardinal numbers mean:

1) abstract quantity ( 8 + 3 becomes 11)

2) quantity as a sign of an object ( two years, five books)

3) place of the object when counting ( house six)

Grammatical features:

NEVER inflected by numbers (outside the grammatical category of numbers)

They change according to cases, but the case of the numeral does not express either subjective or objective meaning, but only indicates the syntactic connection of the numeral with the noun.

Do not change by gender except for words one-one-one, two-two.

Synthetic features:

From 1 to 4 in the nominative and accusative cases are combined with a singular noun

In the nominative and accusative cases, they control the noun ( three cups, five tables), in other cases they agree with nouns

Features of some cardinal numbers:

One is considered differently by linguists, sometimes it is not classified as a numeral and is called a pronominal adjective, or a countable adjective (grammar 70), some believe that it is a numeral only in compound numerals. The differences in opinions are explained by the fact that the word one behaves differently from other numerals: it changes in gender and number, and always agrees with the noun. In addition, in addition to the quantitative meaning, the word one has some meaning, separate, etc. Thus, the word one behaves like a numeral only in compound numerals. In all other cases - a pronominal adjective.

A thousand, a million, a billion in school grammar are numerals, and grammar 80 clearly refers to nouns, since they change according to numbers. There is a point of view according to which it makes sense to call these words nouns only in cases where they either do not name an exact number (a million problems) or are used in the plural form.

Rule of use with the preposition by:

- Two, one and a half, three, four, ninety, one hundred, two hundred, three hundred, four hundred are used in the accusative case, coinciding with the nominative. They took two hundred rubles.

The rest have variant forms ( took five rubles or took five rubles)

One is always in the dative form ( handed out one pencil each)

Lexico-grammatical category of collective numerals:

Formed from quantitative using the suffixes o, j, ( two, two) and uh, er ( damn, four)

The norm limits the number of collective numerals from two to ten, but there are others. It is traditionally believed that the meaning of collective numerals is a designation of quantity as a collection. But many linguists do not agree with this statement and believe that collective numerals are no different in meaning from cardinal ones.

Grammatical features:

Outside the grammatical category of number

Outside the grammatical category of gender

Case does not express meaning, but indicates compatibility with a noun

Synthetic features:

Compatibility with nouns: collective numbers can be combined with masculine nouns or with words of the general gender ( two friends, three onlookers), but cannot be combined with feminine nouns.

Can be combined with nouns pluralia tantum ( two hours, three days)

Collective numbers combine with nouns children, guys, people, faces.

Can be combined with nouns with the meaning of non-adulthood ( seven kids)

Can be combined with substantivized adjectives ( two sick)

Can be combined with personal pronouns ( there are three of us)

Some classify both as collective numerals, but they do not have a numerical meaning, so it is advisable to consider them pronouns. In addition, these words have different rules for compatibility with nouns.

Lexico-grammatical category of ordinal numbers:

Call the serial number of the item when counting.

Grammatical features:

Can vary by case, number, gender

Always agree with nouns

Declension of numerals:

Ordinals are inflected as relative adjectives (adjective type)

The rest, according to the nature of the endings, are distinguished by 6 types of declination:

3) 50, 60, 70, 80

4) 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900

5) 40, 90, 100, one and a half, one and a half hundred

6) collective

PRONOUN

On the one hand, they are used as independent words, on the other hand, they do not name phenomena or objects, but only point to them. Many linguists believe that pronouns appeared before names.

Distinguishing features:

1) Pronouns are characterized by the correlation of the same word with a wide range of objects in the surrounding reality. The direction in each individual case may mean different persons and different objects

2) Functions:

Diectic - indication of the condition of the speech act. Correlating what is said with the conditions of the speech act and its participants. I write (the speaker writes), I am the speaker, you are the listener, he is the third person.

First and second person pronouns referring to the speaker (I, we) or the listener (you, you). Also demonstrative pronouns, referring to the object to which the speaker’s pointing gesture is directed (that, this, this, that..)

Anaphoric — correlation of this message with other messages. This is a function of referring to something known. They can replace names of objects, actions, and even entire sentences in the text. My brother came and said that he was leaving. N Ikolay got ready and left. Petya did the same. I will write him letters if necessary.

Perform:

Third person personal pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns

Returnable (themselves, each other)

Relative pronouns

Emotional-evaluative function ― Your Olga (at the end of the letter)

effimism - function of taboo - one hundred and one questions about “this”

Classification of pronouns.

1) Traditional.

- Personal - indicate participants in a speech act.

- Refundable - myself. This pronoun does not have a nominative case, which indicates that the object or addressee of the action is the same as the subject of the action.

- Possessives - the item belongs to the first, second or third party. ( my, yours, his, yours(belonging to what is named as the subject) his, her, theirs― personal pronouns with possessive function

- Index fingers (that, this, such, this, that) - highlight objects or signs associated with participants in a speech act or speech space.

- Definitive - indicate generalizing signs ( everyone, everyone, any, all) or excretory ( himself, the most)

- Interrogative (who, what, which, which, whose)

- Relative coincide with interrogatives, but fundamentally differ from them in syntactic function, acting as allied words - The boy broke a vase that was on the table.

- Undefined - affixes not, postfixes -that, -or, -something, affixoid something- Indicates something unknown to the speaker

- Negative - no and no. Absence of objects, signs, circumstances.

The traditional classification does not take into account the pronoun each other. This pronoun is often classified into a special category called reciprocal.

2) Functional-semantic classification:

Personal, possessive, reflexive + each other, emphasizing-demonstrative ( this, that, such, such), excretory-enhancing ( himself, the most), interrogative, relative, indefinite, generalized distributive ( every, any, all, everyone), negative.

3) Formal grammatical classification:

1) pronouns nouns - indicate a person or object, case is expressed sequentially, gender and number are not sequential (personal, reflexive, some interrogatives ( who what), some negative ( nobody, nothing), some undefined ( someone, someone)

2) pronouns adjectives - indicate a feature, express meaning in dependent grammatical categories of gender, number, case. ( yours, mine, yours, ours, some, some)

3) numeral pronouns - indicate an indefinite quantity, outside the grammatical category of number and have the same features of compatibility with nouns. ( how much, how much)

4) pronouns adverbs - immutable pronouns ( here, there, from there, somewhere, someday...) Some linguists classify them as adverbs.

Declension Features

The declension of personal pronouns is characterized by a change in the stem in indirect cases. I, me, me, we, us.

Pronouns he she it when combined with a preposition, they have forms with the initial phoneme n. With him, with her, about them

The pronoun self does not have a nominative case form

The grammatical features of other pronouns, namely adjectives, adverbs, numerals, completely repeat the features of the corresponding part of speech.

VERB

The verb in Russian is opposed to names, as it has its own set of grammatical categories. It also denotes a feature of an object, but this is a special feature – a feature as a process.

Verb - a part of speech that denotes a procedural feature and expresses this meaning in the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, mood, tense, etc. The main function is the predicate.

Verb paradigm

Also more complex than the naming paradigm.

3 groups of verb forms.

1) The infinitive is the initial form of the verb, but it is very conditional.

2) Conjugated forms (predicative)

3) Non-conjugated forms (attributive) participles and gerunds. Not all scientists refer to it as a verb.

Each of these groups is characterized by a special set of grammatical categories.

Verb conjugations

Conjugation - usually used in the following situations:

1) Verb conjugation - changing the verb in the narrow sense by persons and numbers in the present or future simple tense, in the broad sense changing the verb by tenses, moods, persons, numbers, and so on.

2) Conjugation also refers to a system of verbal inflections in the present or future simple tense.

Depending on what inflections are presented, all verbs can be divided into two large classes: first and second conjugation.

Verb of the 1st conjugation - carry

I carry, you carry, he, she, it carries,

We carry, you carry, they carry

Verb of the 2nd conjugation - decide

I will decide, you will decide, he will decide

We will decide, you will decide, they will decide

In addition to inflections, verbs of the first and second conjugation differ from each other in the features of alternation: for verbs of the second conjugation, alternation appears only in the first person singular form ( love - love), for verbs of the first conjugation, alternation appears in four forms - second and third person singular, and first and second person plural ( bake - bake, bake, bake).

Verbs of the 1st and 2nd conjugations differ from each other in the final stem (ending), for verbs of the 1st conjugation the stem of the present or future simple tense can end in a hissing - jump, in j - blush, in a paired hard consonant - carry, verbs of the second conjugation in this case can also end in sibilants, j, and a paired soft consonant.

What is needed to determine the conjugation?

1) put the verb in the 3rd person singular form. numbers

2) Let's see if the ending is shocking

3) If the ending is stressed, then we conjugate the verb according to persons and numbers

4) If the ending is unstressed, we return to the infinitive

5) If the final of the infinitive is on it, then the 2nd, if not on it, then the 1st

6) Let’s remember, isn’t this an exception? ( shave, lay, drive, hold, breathe, offend)

The language also has different conjugated verbs - want, run, honor (honor, honor),

Verb inflections

The system of verbal inflection is characterized by greater complexity compared to the inflection of names. For each Russian verb, it is necessary to establish its belonging: a) to the inflectional class and b) to the type of conjugation

Maslov criterion

A species pair occurs if and only if the verbs have the same meaning.

Special diagnostic contexts:

1) For perfective verbs. He returned from a business trip, climbed the stairs, opened the door...

2) For imperfective verbs. Description of recurring events. Every year at this time he returns from a business trip, climbs the stairs, opens the door...

3) For imperfective verbs. Narration in the present historical. Yesterday he returned from a business trip, climbed the stairs, opened the door...

Thus, we can conclude that these verb pairs are aspectual verb pairs, since the verbs in each pair denote the same event. In contexts two and three, the use of perfective verbs is excluded, so speakers must use a verb with the same meaning, but imperfective.

Bi-aspect verbs

Look, knock, teach, and so on. It is either perfective or imperfect, but does not have a pair - unpaired verbs. Perfective tantum - perfective aspect, imperfective tantum - imperfective aspect

Among unpaired verbs there are also two-aspect verbs.

Two-aspect verbs - in different contexts they can be both perfect and imperfect verbs.

When Alexey got married, he immediately left for Paris. When Alexey got married, there were 100 guests.

Among the two-type verbs there are few native Russian verbs ( telegraph, asphalt, hospitalize)

The type of two-aspect verbs can only be determined by context.

Formation of forms of the passive voice in the Russian language.

They are formed differently for perfective and imperfective verbs.

In perfective verbs, the passive voice form is formed, as a rule, using the formative postfix -sya.

For perfective verbs, the forms of the passive voice are formed, as a rule, in an analytical way with the help of the auxiliary verb to be, in the corresponding personal form and a short passive participle.

Exceptions: He was loved everyone. This book was very easy to read.

Verbs in the passive voice form can change according to tenses, persons, numbers, and so on.

The house was built by workers last year.

Present forms

Form only imperfective verbs! Present tense forms do not have special suffixes in Russian, verb endings with the meaning of a particular person and number ( I say, you speak) also serve as a formal expression of the meaning of the present tense if they are attached to stems of the same type.

The present tense form can express several meanings.

The first value of this form is called present actual .

The present tense form in this case indicates an action coinciding with the moment of speech. I'm giving a lecture now.

The second main meaning of the present tense form is present irrelevant . In these cases, it indicates that the action is not related to the moment of speech. I'm a good swimmer. It has several subtypes: extended present - he has loved her for a long time; constant continuous - Moscow stands on 7 hills; and so on.

PARTICIPLE AND ADVISORY

They occupy a special place in the morphological paradigm of the verb, since they combine the properties of the verb and other parts of speech - adjectives and adverbs, respectively.

On this basis, participles are sometimes derived from the verbal paradigm and included in adjectives, and gerunds are included in adverbs (Peshkovsky) or are interpreted as independent parts of speech (Tikhonov).

Participle - a “hybrid” form of the verb, which has the characteristics of a verb and an adjective.

As a verb, the participle manifests itself thanks to the categories of voice, aspect and tense, lexical and grammatical signs of transitivity and reflexivity, in addition, participles fully retain the features of verbal control: to love children - loving children, to manage a plant - managing a plant.

The most important and fundamental for grammar is the concept of grammatical meaning (in other words, grammeme).

Grammatical meaning- a generalized, abstract meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and having its own regular and standard expression in the language. You can say it differently - this is a formally expressed meaning.

In morphology, this is the meaning of objectivity, feature, processivity, indication, etc. (that is, general categorical meanings inherent in certain parts of speech), as well as more specific meanings of words and word forms, such as, for example, the meanings of time, person, number, gender, case, etc.

In syntax, this is the meaning of predicativeness, subject, object, qualifier, adverbial, semantics of topic-rhematic relations in a simple sentence and relationships between predicative units in a complex sentence.

Unlike the lexical meaning, the grammatical meaning is characterized by the following features:

1) the highest degree of abstraction. For word grammar house, city, closet- just objects; words home, city, closet, seventh, reading, his– are united by the same meaning of R.p., which is not related to the lexical meaning of these words. If the lexical meaning is individual for each word, then GL is common to entire groups and classes of words.

2) GL is not necessarily correlated with an extra-linguistic referent. Many GCs are only linguistic in nature. For example, nouns lake, pond have different generic meanings, although they are similar in lexical meaning. The optional connection of GPs with an extra-linguistic referent is evidenced by the fact that GPs of words that have the same referents do not always correspond in different languages. For example: ukr. – dah ( chol.r.) – Russian. roof(f.r.); Ukrainian – language(f.b.) – Russian. – language(m.r.) etc.; The same situation can be described in different ways: Student reading a book(GZ activity) – A book is read by a student(GZ passivity).

3) GE is characterized by the regularity of its expression. Each GC has a limited set of ways of expressing itself. For example, the meaning of the perfect form of a single action is expressed by the suffix - -Well- (knock, shout), D.p. value nouns are expressed using endings -y (table), -e(spring), -And (rye), i.e. different morphemes. In contrast to lexical meaning, which is relatively free, i.e. it can be chosen by the speaker at his discretion, the grammatical meaning is not chosen, it is given by the grammatical system if any word is chosen (for example, blizzard from a synonymous series), then it must be formalized as a noun male. using appropriate endings, i.e. his genus GZ must be objectified in a certain way. GLs are given by the language system.

4) Civil laws are characterized by mandatory. This sign is related to the previous one, i.e. with regularity.

GZ are those without which a certain class of words cannot be used. For example, a noun cannot be used without a specific gender, number, or case. The obligatory nature of the expression of GC is a universal criterion for determining grammatical phenomena, independent of the type of language.

In the civil knowledge system, knowledge about objects and phenomena of reality, their connections and relationships is objectified - through a system of concepts: thus, the concept of action (in the broad sense - as a procedural feature) is abstractly revealed in the general meaning of the verb and in the system of more particular categorical meanings inherent in the verb (time, type, collateral, etc.); the concept of quantity - in the Civil Code of number (category of number, numeral as a special part of speech, etc.); various relationships of objects to other objects, actions, properties - in the civil law system, expressed by case forms and prepositions.

There are different GEs: referential (non-syntactic), reflecting the properties of objects and phenomena of extra-linguistic reality, for example, the meanings of quantitative, spatial, temporal, instrument or producer of an action, and GEs are relational (syntactic), indicating the connection of word forms in phrases and sentences (conjunctive, adversative meanings conjunction constructions) or on the connection of stems with the composition of complex words (connective, word-formative meanings). A special place is occupied by GPs that reflect the speaker’s attitude to what is being discussed or to the interlocutor: subjective modality, subjective assessment, politeness, ease, etc.

It is, of course, necessary to distinguish between lexical and grammatical meanings, but one cannot assume that there is an abyss between them. In the same language, the same meaning can be conveyed both lexically and grammatically (the perfect form can be conveyed using a formative prefix, the imperfect form - using a suffix, changing suffixes, etc.; or maybe in a suppletive way: take - take, catch - catch, i.e. lexically); temporary meaning can be expressed lexically ( Yesterday I was walking home and thinking... I was walking home). With the lexical expression of the GL, we have syntagmatic convenience, because we use one word with an undivided expression of the lexical and GL (simplification, shortening of the text is observed, i.e. language economy), but at the same time a paradigmatic inconvenience arises, because the number of language code units increases. With grammatical expression, the opposite happens.

Before talking about GC, it is necessary to define grammatical form (GF). GF– in the broadest sense of the word, this is a sign in which a generalized, abstract GC finds its regular (standard) expression.

A specific word in its specific morphological form is called a word form. So, for example, the same morphological form of I.p. plural nouns are represented in Russian by different word forms ( tables, windows, walls...). All forms of an inflected word constitute its paradigm.

GK is a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. (GK of the verb tense combines - the form of the present tense (GZ of the present tense) + the form of the past tense (GZ of the past tense) + the form of the future tense (GZ of the future tense). In Russian grammar, nominal GKs are distinguished - gender, animate-inanimate, number, case, degrees of comparison; verbal – aspect, voice, mood, tense, person. The number of contrasting members within the Civil Code is different: the category of gender is three rows of word forms, the category of number is two rows of word forms, the category of case is six rows of word forms.

GC is characterized by two features:

1) opposition to civil law;

2) has a formal expression. The presence or absence of a formal expression is the main criterion for distinguishing between grammatical and conceptual categories. For example, the conceptual category of gender is inherent to all speakers, regardless of what language they communicate in: everyone distinguishes between male and female. This division is based on non-linguistic reality, therefore conceptual categories are universal and international. In contrast to the conceptual category of gender, the grammatical category of gender exists only in those languages ​​where it has a formal expression (Slavic, Baltic, German, Romance) - special endings (or articles). But for example, in English and Turkic languages ​​there are no such indicators, therefore, there is no such category as gender.

GCs are not immutable. In the process of historical development, a language can lose or acquire a general structure, or change its structure. For example, the Civil Code of time in the Old Russian language consisted of 3 members (singular, dual, plural), and in modern Russian it consisted of two (singular and plural).

All GCs can be divided into morphological and syntactic. Morphological categories include gender, number, case, aspect, tense, mood, person. The boundaries of the use of the concept of GC in syntax have not yet been fully defined. Obviously, this includes the category of communicative orientation (narrative, interrogative, incentive), the category of activity and passivity, the category of affirmativeness and negativity, the category of syntactic tense and syntactic mood, which form the paradigm of the sentence.

Classification ones are those whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word. For example, number, case, tense, mood, person, degree of comparison are inflectional categories (i.e. those whose members can be represented by different forms of the same word, within its paradigm); gender in adjectives is an inflectional category, and in nouns it is non-inflectional (i.e., classification), because nouns do not change by gender.

Lexico-grammatical categories (categories) should be distinguished from grammatical categories. These are groupings of words that are characterized by similarity of lexical meaning and at the same time have certain features in the formation of forms and in the expression of morphological categorical meanings. These categories of words are distinguished within one or another part of speech and are directly related to a certain grammatical category or categories. Thus, among nouns, the categories of proper and common nouns are distinguished; abstract, real, collective, concrete, and these oppositions are associated with the peculiarities of the expression of the category of number. Among the names of adjectives, there are categories of qualitative and relative, of which qualitative adjectives have a specific category of degree of comparison, form short forms and have a number of other features. In a verb, aspectual categories (ways of verbal action) are directly related to the category of aspect and the expression of aspect pairing, categories of reflexive verbs - with the category of voice, category of impersonal verbs - with the category of person; they all have features from the point of view of the verbal paradigm. The categories of quantitative and ordinal numbers, the semantic categories of pronouns, and the categories of qualitative and adverbial adverbs also have their own grammatical features.

A morphological description of each of the significant parts of speech includes consideration of its lexical and grammatical categories, morphological categories and paradigmatics (inflections). Functional parts of speech and interjections are characterized in terms of their functions and structure.

Types of grammar

І. Depending on the scope of the object of study:

1. General grammar- studies universal grammatical features and properties inherent in all languages ​​or a number of languages.

2. Private grammar- explores the grammatical structure of a particular language.

ІІ. Depending on the period of the grammatical structure of the language:

1. Historical (diachronic) grammar- studies the structure of language in its development or at individual previous stages; explores the changes that occur in the grammatical structure of a language over time; its variety - comparative historical grammar, which examines related languages ​​in their historical development.

2. Descriptive (synchronous) grammar- studies the state of the grammatical structure of a language in a certain period, usually corresponding to the moment the grammar was written; its variety - comparative grammar- describes the similarities and differences in the structure of related and unrelated languages ​​at any particular moment in their existence.

ІІІ. Depending on the main characteristics of the grammatical structure of the language:

1. Formal grammar- describes the grammatical structure of the language from form to meaning: the basic descriptive and normative grammars of the modern Russian language, which present systems of morphological and syntactic formal means of the language and describe the grammatical meanings contained in these formal means.

2. Functional grammar- describes the grammatical structure of a language from meaning to the forms expressing it: grammatical meanings grouped in a certain way, which are considered in their functioning together with formal means of expression specific to each context.

TOPIC No. 2: “GRAMMATIC MEANING: ITS NATURE AND FEATURES. TYPES OF GRAMMATIC MEANINGS"

Grammatical meaning(hereinafter - GZ ) is a generalized (abstract) linguistic meaning of a language unit, which is characteristic of a series of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and has a regular (standard) expression in the language.

Yes, words spring, summer, park, worker, love, happiness, blue they have the meaning of objectivity, gender, number and case; words read, thought, shouted, slept- the meaning of objectivity, GC of the past tense; words read, did, learned, assembled- GZ of the perfect form, etc. You can also call GZ of person, object, subject, predicativity, degree of comparison, etc.

The features of GL emerge most clearly when it is compared with its lexical meaning.

9. LZ does not have regular means of expression, inherent in the word as a whole.

9. GZ has a regular (standard) expression using a grammatical method and a grammatical means. Formal standard indicators of GC are called grammatical exponents.

1. The following example demonstrates the optional connection of the GP with extra-linguistic reality and the mandatory presence of an exponent for the GP, i.e. a standard formal indicator: Types of grammatical meanings

2. Actually grammatical (relational) meaning- the meaning is transitional between the lexical meaning and the actual grammatical meaning. Derivational meaning is the generalized categorical meaning of derived words of a certain word-formative structure, which is established on the basis of the semantic relationship of derived stems with the corresponding generators.

Milk – milk jug (vessel for milk); creamer, salad bowl (salad bowl), coffee pot, teapot, sugar bowl, salt shaker., that is, the name of the vessel according to the object or substance placed in it.

Switch, turntable, switch, loudspeaker etc. - all words of this series belong to the same word-formation type, since a) they have the same generating basis (all of them are verbal nouns); b) formed using the same word-formation device, formant (suffix - tel) and c) have the same word-formation meaning: ‘an object intended to perform an action called by a producing verb’.

If the lexical meaning is inherent in one word, then word-formation meanings, like grammatical ones, are characteristic of entire groups, series, categories of derivative words that are structurally homogeneous and built according to certain word-formation models. Word-formation meanings act as the basis for the formation of LL.