Report on the Congress of Vienna during the time of Napoleon. Congress of Vienna

The Vienna Congress was the last world show, obviously ending a big, long and unusually noisy season for everyone

Mark Aldanov,Saint Helena, small island

A few words about the results of the Congress of Vienna, which completed its work in early June 1815. The rapid return of Napoleon from the island of Elba and the restoration of the French empire accelerated the resolution of controversial issues that had been agitating the minds of the meeting participants for several months. On May 3, treaties were signed between Russia, Austria and Prussia, which determined the fate of the Duchy of Warsaw, as well as between Prussia and Saxony.

Congress of Vienna
Book illustration

The Russian Sovereign left the congress two weeks before its end, having previously signed a manifesto About the raising of arms against the thief of the French throne by all powers that preserve the law of piety and truth. He went to the location of his army, which, under the leadership of Field Marshal Barclay de Tolly, was advancing towards the Rhine.

On June 8, the act of the German Confederation was adopted, and the next day, June 9, the Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna, consisting of 121 articles, cemented the new borders of states established as a result of the redistribution of Europe. In addition to the articles, the Final Act included 17 annexes, including the treaty on the division of Poland, the declaration on the abolition of the trade in blacks, the rules of navigation on border and international rivers, the provision on diplomatic agents, the act on the constitution of the German Confederation and others.

So, according to the decision of the Congress of Vienna, Poland was divided. Most of the Duchy of Warsaw, under the name of the Kingdom of Poland, became part of the Russian Empire. Alexander I received the title of Tsar of Poland. From now on, thanks to the fact that in 1809, according to the Treaty of Friedrichsham, Finland came under the scepter of the Russian emperor, moving Swedish possessions away from Russian borders to the Arctic Circle and the Gulf of Bothnia, and in 1812 - Bessarabia, with powerful water barriers in the form of the Prut and Dniester rivers, in the west an empire of sorts was created safety belt, which excluded a direct enemy invasion of Russian territory.

Duchy of Warsaw 1807-1814.
Borders of Poland according to the decisions of the Congress of Vienna 1815: light green - the Kingdom of Poland as part of Russia, blue - the part that went to Prussia, red - the free city of Krakow

The western lands of Greater Poland with Poznan and Polish Pomerania returned to Prussia. And Austria received the southern part of Lesser Poland and most of Red Rus'. Krakow became a free city. The Congress of Vienna declared the granting of autonomy to the Polish lands in all its parts, but in fact this was carried out only in Russia, where, by the will of Emperor Alexander I, known for his liberal aspirations, the Kingdom of Poland was granted a constitution.

In addition to part of the Duchy of Warsaw, Prussia received North Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland, Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen. The north of Italy returned to Austrian control: Lombardy and the Venetian region (Lombardy-Venetian Kingdom), the duchies of Tuscany and Parma, as well as Tyrol and Salzburg.

Map of the German Confederation, 1815

In addition to the Polish issue, the German question was a stumbling block at the negotiations in Vienna. The victorious powers were afraid of the formation of a monolithic German state in the very heart of Europe, but were not against the creation of a kind of confederation that served as an outpost at the borders of unpredictable France. After much debate within the borders of the former Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, the German Confederation was created - a confederation of different-sized German states: kingdoms, duchies, electors and principalities, as well as four city-republics (Frankfurt am Main, Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck). Four countries - Austria, Prussia, Denmark and the Netherlands - belonged to the union with only part of their possessions. There were no strong economic ties, common legislation, common finances, or diplomatic services between these sovereign states. The only central authority was the Federal Diet, which met in Frankfurt am Main and consisted of representatives of the governments of the states that were part of the German Confederation. The Austrian Emperor presided over the Diet. The goal of the Union was also very modest: Preservation of external and internal security of Germany, independence and inviolability of individual German states.

England in Europe received Gibraltar, Malta, the Ionian Islands, and with them a dominant position in the Mediterranean Sea; in the North Sea - the Helgoland archipelago. In addition, it secured part of the conquered French and Dutch colonies: the Lucay Islands and Tobago in the West Indies, Mauritius east of Madagascar, and the cotton districts of the Netherlands Guinea, which further strengthened the maritime power of the British Crown.

Belgium was incorporated into the Kingdom of the Netherlands under the auspices of William I of Orange-Nassau. France's ally Denmark lost Norway, which was transferred to Sweden, but received German Schleswig and Holstein. Switzerland, which included Wallis, Geneva and Neuchâtel, expanded its lands and acquired strategically important Alpine passes. It constituted a confederation of free, independent and neutral cantons. Spain and Portugal remained within their previous borders and returned to their ruling royal dynasties (the Spanish Bourbons and Braganzas, respectively).

Map of Italy in 1815

And finally, Italy, which, in the aptly caustic expression of Prince Metternich, after the decisions of the Congress of Vienna is nothing more than a geographical concept. Its territory was fragmented into eight small states: in the north two kingdoms - Sardinia (Piedmont) and Lombardo-Venetian, as well as four duchies - Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Lucca; in the center is the Papal States with Rome as its capital, and in the south is the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples-Sicilian). Thus, in Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, the Kingdom of Naples (Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), after bloody battles and the flight of King Joachim Murat, was returned to the Bourbons, and Savoy, Nice were returned to the restored Kingdom of Sardinia and Genoa was given.

Map of Europe after the Congress of Vienna

As Russian historian Lieutenant General Nikolai Karlovich Schilder summarized: Russia has increased its territory by about 2100 square meters. miles with a population of over three million; Austria acquired 2300 sq. miles with ten million people, and Prussia 2217 square meters. miles with 5,362,000 people. Thus, Russia, which bore the brunt of the three-year war with Napoleon on its shoulders and made the greatest sacrifices for the triumph of European interests, received the least reward. Regarding the most significant territorial acquisitions of the Austrian Empire, Schilder is echoed in the St. Petersburg letters by the French politician and diplomat Joseph-Marie de Maistre: she (Austria) managed to get a huge win in a lottery for which she did not buy tickets...

So, unprecedented either in the number of crowned participants, or in the duration of diplomatic disputes, or in the abundance of intrigues, or in the number of celebrations and holidays, or in the size and brilliance of diamonds at balls, the pan-European summit drew a final line under the twenty-year era of the Napoleonic wars.

pro100-mica.livejournal.com

A few words about the results of the Congress of Vienna, which completed its work at the beginning of June 1815. As we remember, the rapid return of Napoleon from the island of Elba and the restoration of the French empire accelerated the resolution of controversial issues between the victorious countries that had been agitating the minds of the meeting participants for several months. On May 3, 1815, treaties were signed between Russia, Austria and Prussia, which determined the fate of the Duchy of Warsaw, as well as between Prussia and Saxony.

Congress of Vienna
Book illustration

On June 8, the Act of the German Confederation was adopted, and the next day, June 9, the Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna, consisting of 121 articles, cemented the new borders of states established as a result of the redistribution of Europe. In addition to the articles, the Final Act included 17 annexes, including the treaty on the division of Poland, the declaration on the abolition of the trade in blacks, the rules of navigation on border and international rivers, the provision on diplomatic agents, the act on the constitution of the German Confederation and others.

Duchy of Warsaw 1807-1814.
Borders of Poland according to the decisions of the Congress of Vienna 1815: salad color - the Kingdom of Poland within Russia,
blue - part that went to Prussia, red - free city of Krakow

Map of the German Confederation, 1815

England in Europe received Gibraltar, Malta, the Ionian Islands, and with them a dominant position in the Mediterranean Sea; in the North Sea - the Heligoland archipelago. In addition, it secured part of the conquered French and Dutch colonies: the Lucay Islands and Tobago in the West Indies, Mauritius east of Madagascar, and the cotton districts of the Netherlands Guinea, which further strengthened the maritime power of the British Crown.

Map of Italy in 1815

And finally, Italy, which, in the aptly caustic expression of Prince Metternich, after the decisions of the Congress of Vienna is nothing more than a geographical concept. Its territory was fragmented into eight small states: in the north two kingdoms - Sardinia (Piedmont) and Lombardo-Venetian, as well as four duchies - Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Lucca; in the center is the Papal States with Rome as its capital, and in the south is the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Neapolitan-Sicilian). Thus, in Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, the Kingdom of Naples (Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), after bloody battles and the flight of King Joachim Murat, was returned to the Bourbons, and Savoy, Nice were returned to the restored Kingdom of Sardinia and Genoa was given.

Map of Europe after the Congress of Vienna

As Russian historian Lieutenant General Nikolai Karlovich Schilder summarized: Russia has increased its territory by about 2100 square meters. miles with a population of over three million; Austria acquired 2300 sq. miles with ten million people, and Prussia 2217 square meters. miles with 5,362,000 people. Thus, Russia, which bore the brunt of the three-year war with Napoleon on its shoulders and made the greatest sacrifices for the triumph of European interests, received the least reward. Regarding the most significant territorial gains of the Austrian Empire, Schilder echoes Petersburg letters French politician and diplomat Joseph-Marie de Maistre: she (Austria) succeeded get a huge win in a lottery for which she did not buy tickets...

But the main result of the Congress of Vienna was the creation of a new system of international relations in Europe (called Vienna), based on the dominance of four great powers- Russia, England, Austria, Prussia, which was joined by France in 1818 after the withdrawal of the allied troops.

Congress of Vienna

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Participants of the Vienna Congress

The Congress of Vienna of 1814-1815 was a pan-European conference, during which a system of treaties was developed aimed at restoring the feudal-absolutist monarchies destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789 and the Napoleonic Wars, and new borders of European states were determined. At the congress held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. chaired by the Austrian diplomat Count Metternich, representatives of all European countries (except the Ottoman Empire) participated. The negotiations took place in conditions of secret and overt rivalry, intrigue and behind-the-scenes deals. Contents [remove]

1 Background

2 Participants

3 Solutions

4 Meaning

5 See also

7 Literature

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Background

On March 30, 1814, the Allies entered Paris. A few days later, Napoleon abdicated the throne and went into exile on the island of Elba. The Bourbon dynasty, overthrown by the revolution, returned to the French throne in the person of Louis XVIII, brother of the executed King Louis XVI. The period of almost continuous bloody European wars is over.

Restoring, if possible, the old absolutist-noble regime - in some places a serfdom, in others a semi-serf regime - such was the social fundamental basis of the policy of the powers that united after the end of the war. This utopian goal in itself made the achievements of the powers that defeated France in 1814 fragile. The complete restoration of the pre-revolutionary regime both in the economy and in politics after the crushing blows dealt to it by the French Revolution and Napoleon turned out to be not only difficult, but also hopeless .

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Participants

Russia was represented at the congress by Alexander I, K.V. Nesselrode and A.K. Razumovsky (Johann von Anstett took part in the work of the special commissions);

Great Britain - R. S. Castlereagh and A. W. Wellington;

Austria - Franz I and K. Metternich,

Prussia - K. A. Hardenberg, W. Humboldt,

France - Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord

Portugal - Pedro de Sousa Holstein de Palmela

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All decisions of the Congress of Vienna were collected in the Act of the Congress of Vienna. Congress authorized the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands, but all other Austrian possessions returned to Habsburg control, including Lombardy, the Venetian region, Tuscany, Parma and the Tyrol. Prussia received part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was returned to the Bourbons. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon became part of the Russian Empire under the name the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian Emperor Alexander I became the Polish king.

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Meaning

The Congress determined the new balance of power in Europe that had developed towards the end of the Napoleonic wars, designating for a long time the leading role of the victorious countries - Russia, Austria and Great Britain - in international relations.

As a result of the congress, the Vienna System of International Relations was formed and the Holy Alliance of European States was created, which had the goal of ensuring the inviolability of European monarchies.

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see also

Holy Alliance

Treaty of Paris (1814)

Treaty of Paris (1815)

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Applications:

Russian-Austrian Treaty (English)

Russo-Prussian Treaty

Das europäische Mächtesystem beginning 1815

kalenderblatt.de: Wiener Kongress

Der Wiener Kongress 1815

The Vienna System of International Relations (Concert of Europe System) is a system of international relations that developed after the Napoleonic Wars. It was normatively enshrined by the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. The congress, held in Vienna under the chairmanship of Metternich, was attended by representatives of all European states with the exception of the Ottoman Empire. Within the framework of this system, the concept of great powers was formulated for the first time (then primarily Russia, Austria, Great Britain), and multilateral diplomacy finally took shape. Many researchers call the Vienna defense system the first example of collective security, which was relevant for 35 years, before the start of the Crimean War. Diplomatic ranks (ambassador, envoy and charge d'affaires) and four types of consular posts were also systematized and unified. Diplomatic immunity and diplomatic valise were defined.

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Features of the Vienna system of international relations

Europe after the Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna played a key role in the formation of a stable paradigm of relations between leading European states. The era of the “Concert of Europe” began - the balance of power between European states. The European concert was based on the general consent of large states: Russia, Austria, Prussia, France, Great Britain. Any aggravation of relations between them could lead to the destruction of the international system.

In contrast to the Westphalian system of international relations, the elements of the Vienna system were not only states, but also coalitions of states.

One of the foundations of the European concert was the principle of maintaining a balance of power. Responsibility for this rested with large states. This responsibility was realized through the holding of a large number of international conferences to resolve problems that threatened the world. Among such conferences, the Paris Congress of 1856, the London Conference of 1871, and the Berlin Conference of 1878 were important.

Within the limits of the balance of power, states could change the composition of allies to ensure their own interests, without violating the general structure of alliances and the nature of international relations.

The Concert of Europe, while remaining a form of hegemony for large states, for the first time effectively limited the freedom of action of these states in the international arena.

Although annexations and indemnities remained forms of international practice, large states no longer considered dismemberment or the liquidation of another great power as a real goal.

During the existence of the Vienna system, the concept of political balance acquired a broader interpretation. Thanks to the balance of power established by the Vienna System, wars and armed conflicts in Europe temporarily almost cease, with the exception of minor ones.

The Vienna international system had the goal of establishing the balance of forces established as a result of the Napoleonic wars and consolidating the borders of national states. Russia finally secured Finland, Bessarabia and expanded its western borders at the expense of Poland, dividing it between itself, Austria and Prussia.

The Vienna system recorded a new geographical map of Europe, a new balance of geopolitical forces. This system was based on the imperial principle of control of geographical space within the colonial empires. During the Vienna system, the empires were finally formed: British (1876), German (1871), French (1852). In 1877, the Turkish Sultan took the title “Emperor of the Ottomans.” Russia became an empire much earlier - in 1721.

Despite the end of the global isolation of civilizations and cultures, the Vienna system, like the previous Westphalian one, had a Eurocentric character. At first, the Westphalian system did not have a global character; it covered Western and Central Europe. Later it integrated Eastern Europe, Russia, the Mediterranean, and North America into its sphere of action. The Vienna system of international relations covered, in fact, only the European space, and to some extent, those territories for which the leading states of the Concert of Europe fought colonial struggles or were ruled as colonies. China remained outside the Vienna System, which, as a result of the Opium Wars and unequal treaties imposed by leading European states, was placed in a semi-colonial position. Japan, which began to “open up” to the world in the second half of the 19th century, was also not included in the Vienna System. At the same time, during the period of the Vienna system, European history began to gradually turn into world history.

Colonies were not officially established at the Congress of Vienna. One of the main reasons for the First World War would be the struggle for the redistribution of colonial empires.

Modernization processes, the development of capitalist relations, and bourgeois revolutions were actively taking place.

The peculiarities of the Vienna system consisted not only in the general interest in maintaining the status quo, but also in the difference in the civilizational and modernization levels of its participants. Great Britain and France have already entered the process of scientific and technological progress; Austria and Prussia lagged significantly behind in this area. A feature of the geopolitical reality of that time was that Russia, the leading state of the Congress of Vienna, the guarantor of peace and stability in Europe, had hardly been touched by technological progress at all.

During the development of the Vienna system, its participants were identical in essence (monarchy), so for a long time it was homogeneous.

Researchers note the exceptional stability of the system. Despite wars, revolutions, and international crises, the defense system has remained virtually unchanged. In fact, from the time of the Congress of Vienna until the outbreak of the First World War, the list of leading powers did not change.

The principles that were shared by the ruling elites of the leading powers were distinguished by their similarity in their vision of international situations. In fact, this led to the desire of the leading powers to solve international problems through compromises and coalition agreements.

The existence of the Concert of Europe became a period of development of classical diplomacy. The Concert of Europe system covered the political sphere, and the influence of internal economic processes on foreign policy was indirect, manifesting itself only in the most crisis situations. The sphere of diplomacy had exceptional autonomy in solving certain problems. Therefore, diplomats were not limited by any domestic political or economic factors.

During the existence of the Concert of Europe system, unified regulations were formulated and adopted by all civilized countries on the peaceful resolution of conflicts, as well as on the conduct of military operations, on the treatment of prisoners, etc.

The interests of almost all the great European powers (except Great Britain and Russia) were concentrated in Europe. At the same time, colonization was actively taking place in the world.

The Holy Alliance (French La Sainte-Alliance, German Heilige Allianz) is a conservative alliance of Russia, Prussia and Austria, created to maintain the international order established at the Congress of Vienna (1815). The statement of mutual assistance of all Christian sovereigns, signed on September 14 (26), 1815, was subsequently gradually joined by all the monarchs of continental Europe, except for the Pope and the Turkish Sultan. Not being in the exact sense of the word a formalized agreement of the powers that would impose certain obligations on them, the Holy Alliance, nevertheless, went down in the history of European diplomacy as “a close-knit organization with a sharply defined clerical-monarchist ideology, created on the basis of the suppression of the revolutionary spirit and political and religious free-thinking, wherever they appear." Contents [remove]

1 History of creation

2 Congresses of the Holy Alliance

2.1 Aachen Congress

2.2 Congresses in Troppau and Laibach

2.3 Congress in Verona

3 Collapse of the Holy Alliance

4 Bibliography

6 Notes

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History of creation

After the overthrow of Napoleon and the restoration of pan-European peace, among the powers that considered themselves completely satisfied with the distribution of “rewards” at the Congress of Vienna, the desire to preserve the established international order arose and strengthened, and the means for this was the permanent union of European sovereigns and the periodic convening of international congresses. But since the achievement of this was contradicted by the national and revolutionary movements of peoples seeking freer forms of political existence, such aspiration quickly acquired a reactionary character.

The initiator of the Holy Alliance was the Russian Emperor Alexander I, although when drawing up the act of the Holy Alliance, he still considered it possible to patronize liberalism and grant a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland. The idea of a Union arose in him, on the one hand, under the influence of the idea of becoming a peacemaker in Europe by creating a Union that would eliminate even the possibility of military clashes between states, and on the other hand, under the influence of the mystical mood that took possession of him. The latter also explains the strangeness of the very wording of the union treaty, which was not similar either in form or in content to international treaties, which forced many specialists in international law to see in it only a simple declaration of the monarchs who signed it.

“In the name of the Most Holy and Undivided Trinity,” the document read, “Their Majesties ..., having felt the inner conviction of how necessary it is for the powers to subordinate the image of mutual relations to the high truths inspired by the law of God the Savior, they solemnly announce that the subject of this act is to open before the face the universe, their unshakable determination... to be guided... by the commandments of the holy faith, the commandments of love, truth and peace... On this basis...

I. in accordance with the words of the sacred scriptures, commanding all people to be brothers, the contracting monarchs will remain united by the bonds of real and indissoluble brotherhood and, considering themselves as if they were fellow-countrymen, they will in any case and in every place begin to give each other assistance, reinforcement and assistance; in relation to their subjects and troops, they, like fathers of families, will govern them in the same spirit of brotherhood...

II. Let the single prevailing rule be... to bring services to each other, to show mutual goodwill and love, to consider everyone to be members of a single Christian people, since the allied sovereigns consider themselves to be appointed by Providence to govern the branches of a single family... thus confessing that the Autocrat of the Christian people ... there truly is none other than the One to whom the power actually belongs, since in Him alone are found the endless treasures of love, knowledge and wisdom...”

Signed on September 14 (26), 1815 by three monarchs - Emperor Francis I of Austria, King Frederick William III of Prussia and Emperor Alexander I, at first it did not arouse anything other than hostility towards itself in the first two.

According to Metternich, who was also initially suspicious of the idea of the Holy Alliance, this “undertaking,” which “even according to the thoughts of its culprit should have been only a simple moral manifestation, in the eyes of the other two sovereigns who gave their signatures, had no such significance,” and subsequently “Some parties hostile to the sovereigns only referred to this act, using it as a weapon in order to cast a shadow of suspicion and slander on the purest intentions of their opponents.”

The same Metternich assures in his memoirs that “The Holy Alliance was not at all founded in order to limit the rights of peoples and favor absolutism and tyranny in any form. This Union was the only expression of the mystical aspirations of Emperor Alexander and the application of the principles of Christianity to politics. The idea of sacred union arose from a mixture of liberal ideas, religious and political." Subsequently, however, Metternich changed his mind about the “empty and crackling document” and very skillfully used the Holy Alliance for his reactionary purposes.

The content of this act was extremely vague and flexible, and the most varied practical conclusions could be drawn from it, but its general spirit did not contradict, but rather favored, the reactionary mood of the then governments. Not to mention the confusion of ideas belonging to completely different categories, in it religion and morality completely displace law and politics from the areas that undoubtedly belong to the latter. Built on the legitimate basis of the divine origin of monarchical power, it establishes a patriarchal relationship between sovereigns and peoples, and the former are charged with the obligation to rule in the spirit of “love, truth and peace,” and the latter must only obey: the document does not at all talk about the rights of the people in relation to power mentions.

Finally, obliging sovereigns to always “give each other assistance, reinforcement and assistance,” the act does not say anything about exactly in what cases and in what form this obligation should be carried out, which made it possible to interpret it in the sense that assistance is obligatory in all cases. in cases where subjects will show disobedience to their “legitimate” sovereigns.

This last one is exactly what happened. Alexander I himself began to look at the Holy Alliance in precisely this way: “I,” he told the French commissioner at the Verona Congress regarding the Greek uprising, “am leaving the Greek cause because I saw in the Greek war a revolutionary sign of the times. Whatever they do to hinder the Holy Alliance in its activities and suspect its goals, I will not give up on it. Everyone has the right to self-defense, and monarchs should also have this right against secret societies; I must defend religion, morality and justice." With such a view of the struggle of Christian Greeks with Muslim Turks as a revolt of rebellious subjects, the very Christian character of the Holy Alliance disappeared and only the suppression of the revolution, whatever its origin, was meant. All this explains the success of the Holy Alliance: soon all other European sovereigns and governments joined it, not excluding Switzerland and the German free cities; Only the English Prince Regent and the Pope did not sign to it, which did not prevent them from being guided by the same principles in their policies; only the Turkish Sultan was not accepted into the Holy Alliance as a non-Christian sovereign.

In England, the creation of the Holy Alliance was viewed with the greatest suspicion. The parliamentary opposition, during the debate on foreign policy in the House of Commons, made a special request to the government on this matter. Members of the chamber demanded an answer to the question why the agreement was concluded without the participation of England, what is the true meaning of this unusual international act, whether it is directed against the interests of Great Britain and in what relation it stands to other agreements between the allies in the anti-Napoleonic coalition. R.S. Castlereagh replied that the Act of the Holy Alliance does not contradict the mutual obligations of the allies, that its text was communicated to him by Alexander I even before signing, and later the three sovereigns turned to the prince regent with an invitation to join the treaty.

Whether there was a need for such an agreement or not is another question. But if Emperor Alexander is sincerely guided by the spirit that permeates this document, which I, for my part, have no doubt about, then Europe and the whole world can only be most sincerely congratulated on this. If Emperor Alexander wishes to strengthen his glory on such a basis, then future generations will appreciate this noble decision. Having done so much for humanity with the help of weapons, how could he better use his influence on the sovereigns of Europe than by ensuring a long and beneficial peace?

Castlereagh explained England's non-participation in the treaty by the fact that, according to the English constitution, the king does not have the right to sign treaties with other powers.

Signifying the character of the era, the Holy Alliance was the main organ of the pan-European reaction against liberal aspirations. Its practical significance was expressed in the resolutions of a number of congresses (Aachen, Troppaus, Laibach and Verona), at which the principle of intervention in the internal affairs of other states was fully developed with the aim of forcibly suppressing all national and revolutionary movements and maintaining the existing system with its absolutist and clerical-aristocratic trends.

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Congresses of the Holy Alliance

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Aachen Congress

Main article: Congress of Aachen

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Congresses in Troppau and Laibach

Main article: Congress of Troppau

Main article: Laibach Congress

1820-1821

Typically considered together as a single congress.

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Congress in Verona

Main article: Congress of Verona

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Collapse of the Holy Alliance

The system of the post-war structure of Europe, created by the Congress of Vienna, contradicted the interests of the new emerging class - the bourgeoisie. Bourgeois movements against feudal-absolutist forces became the main driving force of historical processes in continental Europe. The Holy Alliance prevented the establishment of bourgeois orders and increased the isolation of monarchical regimes. With the growth of contradictions between the members of the Union, there was a decline in the influence of the Russian court and Russian diplomacy on European politics.

By the end of the 1820s, the Holy Alliance began to disintegrate, which was facilitated, on the one hand, by a retreat from the principles of this Union on the part of England, whose interests at that time were very much in conflict with the policy of the Holy Alliance both in the conflict between the Spanish colonies in Latin America and metropolis, and in relation to the still ongoing Greek uprising, and on the other hand, the liberation of the successor of Alexander I from the influence of Metternich and the divergence of interests of Russia and Austria in relation to Turkey.

The overthrow of the monarchy in France in July 1830 and the outbreak of revolutions in Belgium and Warsaw forced Austria, Russia and Prussia to return to the traditions of the Holy Alliance, which was expressed, among other things, in the decisions taken at the Munich Congress of the Russian and Austrian Emperors and the Prussian Crown Prince (1833 G.); nevertheless, the successes of the French and Belgian revolutions of 1830 dealt a strong blow to the principles of the Holy Alliance, since now the two great powers, England and France, which had previously completely adhered to these principles in the sphere of international relations (and domestic ones as well), now adhered to a different policy, more favorable to bourgeois liberalism - a policy of non-intervention. Nicholas I, who initially tried to persuade the Austrian emperor to jointly act against the “usurper” of the French throne, Louis Philippe, soon abandoned these efforts.

Meanwhile, contradictions between the interests of Russia, Austria and Prussia grew.

Austria was dissatisfied with Russia's war in the Balkans: Austrian Chancellor Metternich pointed out that helping the “Greek revolutionaries” was contrary to the principles of the Holy Alliance. Nicholas I sympathized with Austria for its conservative anti-revolutionary position. Nesselrode also sympathized with Austria. In addition, support from Austria could give Russia a free hand in the Balkans. However, Metternich avoided discussing the “Turkish question”. But during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848-1849, he lost his position, and Nicholas I began to hope that Austria would change its position.

In the summer of 1849, at the request of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal Paskevich took part in the suppression of the Hungarian National Revolution. Then Russia and Austria simultaneously sent notes to Turkey demanding the extradition of the Hungarian and Polish revolutionaries. After consulting with the English and French ambassadors, the Turkish Sultan rejected the note.

Meanwhile, Prussia decided to increase its influence in the German Confederation. This led her to several conflicts with Austria. Thanks to Russian support, all conflicts were resolved in favor of Austria. This led to a cooling of relations between Russia and Prussia.

After all this, Nicholas I counted on Austrian support in the Eastern Question:

“As for Austria, I am confident in it, since our treaties determine our relations.”

But Russian-Austrian cooperation could not eliminate Russian-Austrian contradictions. Austria, as before, was frightened by the prospect of the emergence of independent states in the Balkans, probably friendly to Russia, the very existence of which would cause the growth of national liberation movements in the multinational Austrian Empire. As a result, in the Crimean War, Austria, without directly participating in it, took an anti-Russian position.

Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (1815)

In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity.

The courts, between which the Treaty of Paris was concluded on May 18 (30), 1814, gathered in Vienna, so that, as a consequence of Article XXXII of this Act, together with other Sovereigns and Powers allied to them, supplement the provisions of the said Treaty and add to them the orders that made it necessary the state of Europe at the end of the last war, wishing, moreover, to introduce into one general treaty various particular provisions signed during the negotiations, and to confirm them by mutual ratifications, they ordered their Plenipotentiaries to compile from the decisions that concern essential and indispensable benefit one Main Treaty and attach to thereto, as non-separate parts, all other provisions of the Congress: Treaties, Agreements, Declarations, Charters and other private Acts specified in this Treatise. For this purpose, the above-mentioned Courts were named their Plenipotentiaries: (...)

Those of the named Plenipotentiaries who were present at the final conclusion of the negotiations, presenting their legal powers, agreed to introduce the following articles into the Main Treaty and approve by signing the following articles:

The Duchy of Warsaw, with the exception of those regions and districts that are assigned a different purpose in the following articles, is forever annexed to the Russian Empire. By virtue of its constitution, it will be in inextricable connection with Russia and in the possession of e.v. Emperor of All Russia, his heirs and successors for eternity. His Imperial Majesty proposes to bestow, at his discretion, the internal structure of this state, which is to be under special governance. His Majesty, in accordance with the custom and order existing in the discussion of His other titles, will add to them the title of Tsar (King) of Poland.

The Poles, both Russian subjects and equally Austrian and Prussian, will have people's representatives and national state institutions that agree with the mode of political existence that each of the above-mentioned governments will recognize as the most useful and decent for them, in the circle of its possessions.

Late XVIII – early XIX centuries. were the era of the Napoleonic wars. The rapidly rising “star” of the French emperor set after the “Battle of the Nations” near Leipzig (1813). The outcome of this era was summed up by the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815).

Positions of the parties on the eve of the Congress of Vienna

The leading force at the congress was the four victorious powers, each of which had own interests:

Russia planned a complete takeover of Poland;
Prussia wanted to annex Saxony;
Austria prevented Russia from strengthening in Europe;
England feared the excessive strengthening of the continental states.

Rice. 1. Allied monarchs during the battle of Leipzig. R. Knotel. End of the 19th century..

The significance of the Congress of Vienna and its decisions

The Congress of Vienna lasted eight months (October 1814-June 1815) and ended with the signing of the “Final Act”.

He established the hegemony of four countries: Great Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia. Soon France became one of them.

Rice. 2. Congress of Vienna 1815. J.-B. Izabe. 1815.

In Europe, a political system was established, which was based on the principle of “balance of power.” The existing system had to be mothballed and strictly guarded. In France, the royal Bourbon dynasty was restored.

The main result of the congress was the redrawing of the political map of Europe in the interests of the victorious countries.

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Briefly about the results of the Congress of Vienna 1814-1815. the Austrian diplomat Metternich put it vividly: “All day I have been cutting up Europe like a piece of cheese.”

Table “Results of the Congress of Vienna”

*A country*	*Territorial changes*
	Annexation of the Duchy of Warsaw under the name of the Kingdom of Poland. Official approval of past conquests (Finland and Bessarabia).
	Annexation of the most developed part of Saxony.
	Return of all territories captured by Napoleon.
Great Britain	Consolidating the takeover of former Dutch, French, Spanish and Portuguese colonies.
	Loss of all captured territories and return to the borders of 1792
Germany	Political conglomerate of 34 states and 4 free cities.
	Consolidation of political fragmentation.

Rice. 3. Map.

Holy Alliance

The direct result of the Congress of Vienna was the formation of the Holy Alliance (September 1815), which was signed:

The Congress of Vienna is an international congress of 1814-1815, which took place after the victory of the union of European states over Napoleonic France.

Prerequisites for the convening of the Congress of Vienna

The fierce and lengthy struggle of European states against Napoleon's empire ended in the defeat of France. Naturally, the victors saw the main goal in destroying all the changes made by Napoleon to the world map, but they did not forget about themselves, seeking to preserve their interests. It was planned that all the conquests of France would be liquidated and it would remain within the borders of the state that it was before January 1, 1792.

Progress of the Congress of Vienna

The initiators of this event were the victorious states (the Russian Empire, Prussia, Austria and Great Britain), and they headed the leadership of the congress.

At the Congress of Vienna, the main characters were Russian Emperor Alexander I, Austrian Emperor Franz I and Austrian Chancellor Metternich, English Foreign Minister Lord Castlereagh, and Prussian Foreign Minister Hardenberg. The French Minister of Foreign Affairs de Talleyrand-Périgord took an equally active part in the congress. All congress participants constantly argued and bargained, but determined the main decisions.

The unity of the participants was determined by the main goal: all changes and transformations that have appeared in Europe over the past twenty years must be eliminated. Participants in the congress also sought the restoration of the rights of former monarchs who suffered as a result of past revolutionary changes and wars.

The task was to form lasting guarantees that would prevent the revival of Bonapartism in France, as well as further attempts to reshape Europe.

Equally important was ensuring the territorial requests of the winners. And here it was necessary to make changes to the map of Europe and reveal the existing colonies.

The work of the Congress was not interrupted even during Napoleon's short-term return to power. Napoleon's famous "Hundred Days" and his victorious entry into Paris did not stop the discussions taking place in Vienna. But the victory of the allied forces at Waterloo practically led to the end of the congress.

Decisions of the Congress of Vienna

The victorious powers were able to achieve a certain compromise, and on June 9, 1815, the General Act of the Congress of Vienna was signed.

As a result, the following decisions were made:

The Kingdom of Poland was part of the Russian Empire.

Holland and Belgium united and formed the United Kingdom of the Netherlands with the annexation of Luxembourg.

In Northern Italy, Lombardy and Venice united into the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom, which was governed by Austria.

The British returned the previously lost colonies and confirmed their right to own Malta.

France remained within the borders of 1792, and occupation troops were stationed on its territory, and the Bourbon dynasty was restored to the French throne.

The Pope again restored power over the Vatican and the Papal States.

The German Confederation was formed.

Denmark, an ally of France, lost Norway, which was transferred to Sweden.

Significance of the Congress of Vienna

For the first time, world powers sat down at the negotiating table to resolve controversial issues, which became a prerequisite for the creation of modern diplomacy.

All participants felt that they had created a solid foundation for peace in Europe. But only 15 years passed, and the so-called Belgian Revolution took place on the territory of the Netherlands, as a result of which the Kingdom of Belgium arose. In 1830, the Poles rebelled against Russian tsarism, which was brutally suppressed. In 1848, revolutionary unrest took place throughout Europe. They affected Italy, France, Austria and Germany and caused significant damage to the foundations of the monarchical system. But the main blow to the adopted agreements was dealt by the Crimean War of 1853-1855.