TACITUS PUBLIUS CORNELIUS - Roman statesman and historian.
He received a rhetorical education in Rome, where his teachers were Marcus Apr, Julius Secundus and, possibly, Quintilian. Tacitus was engaged in lawyering, in 77 or 78 he married the daughter of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who helped him in his career. Tacitus was a military tribune, quaestor, aedile and praetor, joined the Senate, and was a friend of Pliny the Younger. In 88 he became a member of the college of quindecimvirs and participated in the Secular Games. After the rebellion of Lucius Antonius Saturninus (January 89), Tacitus left Rome for several years; He probably spent this time on the Rhine as governor of one of the provinces. In 97, Nerva appointed him consul-suffect. In 112-113 Tacitus was appointed proconsul to Asia.
All of the extant works of Tacitus were written after the death of Domitian. These are “Dialogue on Orators”, “On the Life and Character of Julius Agricola” (“Agricola”), “On the Origin and Position of the Germans” (“Germany”), “History” and “From the Death of the Divine Augustus” (“Annals”). Several testimonies have come down to us about the speeches that Tacitus delivered, none of them have survived, but his views on eloquence are reflected in the Dialogue on Orators. Exploring the reasons for the decline of eloquence, Tacitus draws attention to the change in its status in Rome and the disappearance of political speeches and the imperfection of school education, which devotes most of the time to empty declamations. True eloquence finds its soil in civil strife, and not in the tranquility of the state. The dialogue ends with the thesis that the loss of freedom is the price to pay for the restoration of peace. When choosing between Cicero's classicism and Seneca's Asiaticism, Tacitus prefers Cicero.
In memory of his father-in-law, who died in 93, Tacitus wrote the biographical work Agricola, which centers on the story of the Roman conquest of Britain. Although Agricola served Domitian, Tacitus distinguishes the good of Rome from the good of the emperor and declares that even under bad princeps there can be outstanding people. Agricola refuses both servility to the princeps and the senseless struggle with him. “Germany” is a geographical and ethnographic work, where Tacitus both talks about Germany as a whole and characterizes individual tribes (Helvetians, Cimbri, Gauls, etc.).
In “Germania,” Tacitus describes the virtues of the Germans and the vices of the Romans, spoiled by the benefits of civilization.
The main works of Tacitus belong to the field of historiography. The History was written between 104 and 109 and consisted of 14 books, covering the period from the events after the death of Nero to the assassination of Domitian (69-96); Books I-IV and part V, dedicated to the years 69-70, have been preserved. The "Annals" were created from 109 to 116, they consisted of 16 books telling about the time from the death of Augustus to Nero (14-68 years). Books I-IV, parts V and VI, from XI (without beginning) to XVI (without end) have reached our time.
Tacitus declares that he will write history without anger or partiality (sine ira et studio); there is no reason to doubt the facts he presented, but their interpretation is not always objective. Tacitus wrote from a moralistic position, the main thing for him was the virtue (virtus) of a person, and the absence of it was degeneration and decline. In the foreground of Tacitus's presentation is Rome and the imperial court, which gives him an inexhaustible source for depicting the vices and shortcomings of the princeps and their entourage. He has neither interest nor sympathy for the common people and the non-Roman world.
Tacitus is pessimistic about human nature, but, as in the Dialogue, he does not deny that the principate provided peace and stability to the state. Book XV contains one of the first mentions of Christians in Roman literature (they were accused of setting fire to Rome and persecuted by Nero). In his writings, Tacitus used both his own observations and data obtained from eyewitnesses of the events, as well as the writings of his predecessors - Pliny the Elder, Fabius Rusticus, notes of Agrippina the Younger and Domitius Corbulo, Senate protocols and Roman chronicles.
Tacitus served as a source for Ammianus Marcellinus and Christian writers of late antiquity.
Essays:
Cornelii Taciti libri qui supersunt / Ed. E. Koestermann. Vol. I-II. Lipsiae, 1965-1969;
Tacitus. Works in two volumes / Rep. ed. S. L. Utchenko. St. Petersburg, 1993.
Bibliography:
Suerbaum W. Zweiundvierzig Jahre Tacitus-Forschung: Systematische Gesamtbibliographie zu Tacitus’ Annalen 1939-1980 // ANRW. Bd. II.33.2. Berlin; New York, 1990. S. 1032-1476;
Benario H. W. Six Years of Tacitean Studies. An Analytic Bibliography on the “Annales” (1981-1986) // ANRW. Bd. II.33.2. Berlin; New York, 1990. S. 1477-1498;
Benario H. W. Recent Work on Tacitus: 1984-1993 // CW. Vol. 89. 1995. P. 89-162
Illustration:
Modern statue of Tacitus. Houses of Parliament. Vein.
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, photo whose statue is presented in the article, lived from approximately the mid-50s to the 120s. He is one of the most famous personalities of Ancient Rome.
Cornelius Tacitus: biography
In his younger years, he combined service as a judicial orator and political activity. Subsequently, Cornelius Tacitus became a senator. By 97 he became consul of the highest magistracy. Having risen to the heights of political Olympus, Cornelius Tacitus observed the servility of the Senate and the arbitrariness of imperial power. After the assassination of Domitian, the Antonine dynasty took the throne. It was this period that was the first about which he began to express an opinion Cornelius Tacitus. Works, which he planned to create, had to truthfully reflect what was happening. To do this, he had to carefully study the sources. He sought to create a complete and accurate picture of events. He processed and reproduced all the accumulated material in his own manner. Effective language, an abundance of polished phrases - the basic principles that I used Cornelius Tacitus. Author focused on the best examples of Latin literature. Among them were books by Titus Livy, Cicero, and Sallust.
Information from sources
The first name he bore historian Cornelius Tacitus, is not known for certain. Contemporaries called it nomen or cognomen. In the 5th century, Sidonius Apollinaris mentioned him under the name Gaius. However, the medieval manuscripts of Tacitus himself are signed with the name Publius. The latter remained with him subsequently. The exact date of birth of Tacitus is also unknown. His birth is attributed to the 50s based on the sequence of master's degrees. Most researchers agree that Cornelius Tacitus was born between 55 and 58 years old. The exact place of his birth is also unknown. There is evidence that he was absent from Rome several times. One of them was associated with the death of his father-in-law Agricola, whose life would later be described in one of the works.
Cornelius Tacitus: photo, origin
It is believed that his ancestors came from southern France or Italy. The cognomen "Tacitus" was used in the formation of Latin names. It comes from a word that means “to be quiet”, “to remain silent”. Most often the cognomen "Tacitus" was used in Narbonen and Cisalpine Gaul. From this, researchers conclude that the family has Celtic roots.
Education
Cornelius Tacitus, works who would later become widely known throughout Ancient Rome, received a very good education. Presumably, the teacher of rhetoric was first Quintilian, and then Julius Secundus and Marcus Apr. Apparently, no one taught him philosophy, since he subsequently had a rather reserved attitude towards it and towards thinkers in general. Cornelius Tacitus achieved great success in public speaking. The words of Pliny the Younger testify to this.
"Caesar's Candidate"
In 76-77, Cornelius Tacitus married the daughter of Gnaeus Julius Agricola. At the same time, his career began to actively develop. In his notes, Tacitus admitted that three emperors contributed to the rapid success: Domitian, Titus and Vespasian. In political language this means that he was included in the lists of praetor, quaestor and senate. Usually the latter included magistrates from the quaestor or tribune. Tacitus was included in the list ahead of schedule. This testified to the special trust of the emperor. So Tacitus ended up on the list of “Caesar’s candidates” - people who were recommended for the position and approved by the Senate, regardless of ability and merit.
Consulate
In 96 Domitian was overthrown. Nerva became emperor instead. It is not entirely clear from the sources which of them formed and approved the lists of the consulate. Presumably the compiler was Domitian. The final approval was made by Nerva. One way or another, in 97 Cornelius Tacitus received the post of consul-suffect. For him, this was the pinnacle of his fairly successful career. During the period of the consulate, Tacitus became a witness and direct participant in attempts to suppress the rebellion of the Praetorians. Around the year 100, he dealt with the case of African provincials who opposed Maria Prisca, a consul known for abuses.
last years of life
From sources found in Milasy at the end of the 19th century, we know about the proconsulate of Cornelius Tacitus in Asia in 112-113. His position and name were recorded in the inscription. The province was of particular importance to Rome. The emperors sent only trusted people to it. Moreover, the appointment of Cornelius Tacitus was especially responsible. The importance was associated with Trajan's planned campaign against Parthia. Throughout his life, Tacitus was friends with Pliny the Younger. The latter was considered the most famous Roman intellectual of the late 1st century. Unfortunately, the exact date of Tacitus' death is unknown. Based on his efforts to document the reigns of Trajan, Nerva and Octavian Augustus, which were not realized, researchers conclude that he died some time after the publication of the Annals. But there is no mention of Tacitus in Suetonius either. This may indicate death around the age of 120 or even later.
Literature Dr. Rome
By the end of the 1st century, quite a lot of works had been written in the empire, which illustrated its development. They contained evidence of the founding of Rome, the past of the provinces, a significant part of which were once independent states. There were also detailed works on wars. At that time, history was equated with a form of oratory. This was due to the fact that in Greece and Rome of the ancient period, any writings, as a rule, were read out and, accordingly, were perceived by people by ear. Studying history was considered honorable. Emperor Claudius wrote several works. Contemporaries of Tacitus left their autobiographical works. Among them were Hadrian and Vespasian. Trajan witnessed the events of the Dacian campaign.
Problems of antiquity
However, speaking in general, historiography was in decline during the time of Tacitus. First of all, the establishment of the Principate was to blame for this. Because of him, historians are divided into two categories. The first supported the empire. They tried not to record events that happened in recent decades. The authors usually limited themselves to describing individual episodes, very recent phenomena, and glorified the current emperor. At the same time, they adhered to the official versions of what was happening. The other category included the opposition. Accordingly, in their writings they conveyed completely opposite ideas. This greatly alarmed the authorities. Authors who described contemporary events had difficulty finding sources. The fact is that many of the eyewitnesses remained strictly silent and were killed or expelled from the empire. All documents confirming conspiracies, coups, and intrigues were at the ruler’s court. A very limited circle of people had access there. Few of them dared to reveal secrets. And if there were such people, they asked a high price for information.
Censorship
In addition, the ruling elite began to understand that the authors, recording past events, invariably draw a parallel with modern realities. Accordingly, they expressed their own opinion about what was happening. In this regard, the imperial court introduced censorship. Tacitus was also well aware of this, describing the tragic events associated with Cremucius Cordus. The latter committed suicide, and all his works were consigned to fire. Everything that Cornelius Tacitus wrote testifies to reprisals against opposition thinkers of our time. For example, in his writings he mentions Herennius Senecion and Arulenus Rustik, who were executed. In his “Dialogue on the Orator,” the author voices the widespread opinion of that period that publications that the ruling power could interpret as an attack against it are undesirable. Active pressure began on potential writers for their desire to reveal the secrets of court life and the activities of the Senate. For example, Pliny the Younger testifies that Tacitus, who was reading out his work, was interrupted by the friends of “one man.” They begged not to continue, because they believed that information might be revealed that could negatively affect the reputation of their friend. Writing stories thus became accompanied by various difficulties. That is why relatively neutral works did not appear by the end of the 1st century. It was Tacitus who undertook the task of writing such works.
Review of essays
What Cornelius Tacitus wrote? Presumably, the idea of creating an essay about the recent past came to him some time after the death of Domitian. Nevertheless, Tacitus began with small works. First he created a biography of Agricola (his father-in-law). In it, among other things, Tacitus collected many ethnographic and geographical details about the life of the British peoples. In the introduction to the work, he characterizes the period of Domitian's reign. In particular, Tacitus speaks of it as the time that was taken away from the Romans by the emperor. The same preface indicates the intention of presenting a comprehensive work. Subsequently, in a separate work, “Germania,” Tacitus describes the northern neighbors of the empire. It is worth noting that these first two works echo the general idea of his later works. Having finished Agricola and Germania, Tacitus began a large-scale work on the events of 68-96. In the process of its creation, he published "Dialogue on Speakers." At the end of his life, Tacitus began the creation of the Annals. In them he wanted to describe the events of 14-68.
Conclusion
Cornelius Tacitus had the brightest talent as a writer. He did not use hackneyed clichés in his writings. Honing his skills with each new work, Tacitus became the greatest chronicler of his time. This is largely due to the fact that he conducted a deep analysis of the sources he used. Moreover, in his writings he sought to reveal the psychology of the characters. The works of Tacitus in modern times gained enormous popularity in European countries. Despite the imposed censorship and pressure, he was able to create his greatest works. The works of Tacitus had a huge influence on the development of political thought in European countries.
The famous Roman historian Cornelius Tacitus (c. 55 - earlier than 117 AD) went through the path of a politician, military leader, and writer. Of the numerous works of Tacitus, the “Dialogue on the Orators”, “Biography of Julius Agricola”, “On the Origin of the Germans and the Location of Germany” (“Germany”), “History” and “Annals” have reached us. The last three works contain extensive and up-to-date information about the events that occurred in the 1st - early 2nd centuries. AD in the Northern Black Sea region and Eastern Europe.
Editions: P. Cornelii Taciti libri qui supersunt / Ed. E. Kostermann. Vol. I-IV. Lipsiae, 1963-1968.
Translations: Cornelius Tacitus. Works in two volumes / Ed. prepared by A.S. Bobovich, Ya.M. Borovsky, M.E. Sergeenko. L., 1970.
Literature: Brown 1899; Graves 1946; Knabe 1978; Modestov 1864; Tronsky 1970. pp. 203-247; Benario 1975; Dudley 1968; Martin 1981; Mendell 1957; Syme 1958.
GERMANY
46. Here is the end of Suebia. I really don’t know whether the Pevkins, Wends and Fennians should be classified as Germans or Sarmatians, although the Pevkins, whom some call Bastarnae, repeat the Germans in their speech, way of life, settlement and dwellings. Untidyness among everyone, idleness and inertia among the nobility. Due to mixed marriages, their appearance becomes more and more uglier, and they acquire the features of Sarmatians. The Wends adopted many of their customs, for for the sake of robbery they scour the forests and mountains that exist between the Peucians and the Fennians. However, they can rather be classified as Germans, because they build houses for themselves, carry shields and move on foot, and with great speed; all this separates them from the Sarmatians, who spend their entire lives in a cart and on horseback. The Fennians have amazing savagery, pitiful squalor; they have neither defensive weapons, nor horses, nor permanent shelter over their heads; their food is grass, their clothing is skins, their bed is earth; They place all their hopes on arrows, which, due to a lack of iron, are tipped with bone. The same hunt provides food for both men and women; for they accompany their husbands everywhere and claim their share of the spoils. And small children have no other shelter from wild animals and bad weather, except for a hut somehow woven from branches and providing them with shelter; Fennas of mature age return here, and here is a refuge for the elderly. But they consider this a happier destiny than exhausting themselves with work in the fields and laboring over the construction of houses and tirelessly thinking, moving from hope to despair, about their own and other people’s property: careless in relation to people, careless in relation to deities, they achieved the very The difficult thing is not to feel the need even for desires. Everything else is already fabulous: the Gellusians and Oxions have heads and faces that seem to be human, bodies and limbs like those of animals; and since I do not know anything more reliable, let this remain unresolved by me.
(Translation by A.S. Bobovich from: Cornelius Tacitus. 1970. I. S. 372-373)
STORY
I. 79. Everyone's thoughts were occupied with the civil war, and the borders began to be guarded less carefully. The Sarmatian tribe of the Roxolani, having destroyed two cohorts the previous winter and inspired by success, invaded Moesia. Their cavalry consisted of nine thousand people, intoxicated by the recent victory, thinking more about robbery than about battle. They moved therefore without a definite plan, without taking any precautions, until they unexpectedly met the auxiliaries of the third legion. The Romans advanced in full battle formation, while the Sarmatians by this time some had scattered around the area in search of booty, others were dragging bales with looted goods; their horses walked unsteadily, and they, as if tied hand and foot, fell under the swords of the soldiers. Oddly enough, the strength and valor of the Sarmatians does not lie in themselves: there is no one worse or weaker than them in foot combat, but there is hardly an army capable of withstanding the onslaught of their cavalry hordes. That day, however, it rained, the ice melted, and they could not use either their lances or their long swords, which the Sarmatians hold with both hands; their horses slid through the mud, and their heavy armor did not allow them to fight. These armor, which all their leaders and nobility wear, are made from iron plates fitted to each other or from the hardest leather; they are truly impervious to arrows and stones, but if enemies manage to knock a person wearing such a shell to the ground, then he can no longer get up on his own. On top of that, their horses got stuck in deep and loose snow, and this took away their last strength. The Roman soldiers, moving freely in their light leather armor, bombarded them with darts and spears, and if the course of the battle required it, they went into hand-to-hand combat and pierced with their short swords the unprotected Sarmatians, who did not even use shields. The few who managed to escape fled into the swamp, where they died from cold and wounds. After news of this victory reached Rome, the proconsul of Moesia, Marcus Aponius, was awarded a triumphal statue, and the legions of the legions, Fulvus Aurelius, Julian Tettius and Numisius Lupus, were awarded consular insignia. Otho was very happy, attributed the glory of this victory to himself and tried to create the impression that military happiness was smiling at him, and that his generals and his troops had gained new glory for the state.
(Translation by G.S. Knabe from: Cornelius Tacitus. 1970. II. P. 42)
ANNALS
XII, 15. Meanwhile, Mithridates of the Bosporus, who, having lost his throne, did not have a permanent refuge, learns about the departure of the main forces of the Roman army led by the commander Didius and that in the newly established kingdom only Cotis, inexperienced in his youth, and several cohorts under the command of the Roman horseman Julius Aquila; not caring about either the Romans or Cotys, he begins to outrage the tribes and lure defectors to himself and, eventually gathering an army, drives out the king of the Dandars and seizes his throne. When this became known and the danger arose that Mithridates was about to invade the Bosporan kingdom, Cotis and Aquila, not counting on their own strength, especially since the king of the Siracs Zorsinus resumed hostile actions against them, began to seek outside support and sent envoys to Eunon. ruler of the Aorsi tribe. Displaying the power of the Roman state in comparison with the insignificant forces of the rebel Mithridates, they easily persuaded Eunon to an alliance. So, it was agreed that Eunon would throw his cavalry at the enemy, while the Romans would besiege the cities.
16. And so, having formed a marching order, they set out: in front and in the rear were the Aorsi, in the middle were cohorts and detachments of Bosporans armed with Roman weapons. The enemy was repulsed, and they reached Soza, abandoned by Mithridates due to the unreliability of the townspeople of the Dandarian city of Soza; it was decided to take possession of it and leave a garrison in it. From here they head to the lands of the Siraks and, having crossed the Pandu River, approach the city of Uspe from all sides, located on a height and fortified with walls and ditches; however, its walls were not made of stone, but of woven rods with earth poured in the middle and therefore could not withstand the onslaught of the attackers, who threw the besieged into confusion by throwing flaming brands and spears from the high towers erected for this purpose. And if night had not interrupted the battle, the city would have been surrounded and taken by storm within one day.
17. The next day the besieged sent envoys asking for mercy for the citizens of the free state and offering ten thousand slaves to the victors. These conditions were rejected, since it would be inhuman cruelty to kill those who surrendered, and it would be difficult to guard such a multitude: it would be better if they fell according to the law of war; and the warriors who entered the city using ladders were given a sign to mercilessly slaughter. The extermination of the inhabitants of Uspe instilled fear in everyone else, who decided that there were no longer safe refuges, since neither weapons, nor fortresses, nor inaccessible and high-mountainous areas, nor rivers, nor cities could stop the enemy. And so Zorsinus, after much deliberation, whether to support Mithridates, who was in trouble, or to take care of the kingdom inherited from his father, finally decided to prefer the good of his people and, handing over the hostages, prostrated himself before the image of Caesar, which brought great glory to the Roman army, which, Having won a victory almost without losses, it stopped, as it became known, three days' journey from the Tanais River. However, upon his return, luck betrayed him: several ships (for the army was returning by sea) washed up on the shore of the Tauri, and they were surrounded by barbarians, who killed the prefect of the cohort and many soldiers from the auxiliary detachment.
18. Meanwhile, Mithridates, no longer finding support in weapons, thinks about whose mercy he could appeal to. He was afraid to trust brother Kotis, a traitor in the past and an enemy in the present. There was no one among the Romans with such power that his promises could be considered strong enough. And he decided to turn to Evnon, who had no personal enmity towards him and, having recently entered into friendship with us, enjoyed great influence. So, having put on the dress appropriate to his position and giving his face the same expression, he entered the king’s chambers and, falling at the knees of Eunon, said: “Mithridates has appeared before you voluntarily, who for so many years has been pursued by the Romans on land and sea; do as you please with the descendant of the great Achaemen - this is the only thing the enemies did not take from me.”
19. The loud name of this man, the contemplation of the vicissitudes of human affairs and his full of dignity plea for support made a strong impression on Evnon, and he, raising Mithridates from his knees, praises him for choosing to devote himself to the Aorsi tribe and to him personally, Evnon, so that with their help, seek reconciliation. And Evnon sent ambassadors and a letter to Caesar, which said: “The beginning of friendship between the Roman emperors and the kings of great nations is laid by the similarity of the high position they occupy; but he and Claudius are also connected by a jointly won victory. The outcome of the war is only truly glorious when it ends with generosity towards the vanquished - and they did not take anything away from Zorsinus, whom they defeated. As for Mithridates, who deserved more severe treatment, he, Evnon, asks not for the preservation of power and the kingdom, but only for him not to be forced. follow the chariot of the triumphant and he did not pay with his head."
20. However, Claudius, usually lenient towards foreign nobility, this time hesitated whether it would be more correct whether to accept the prisoner, pledging to spare his life, or to capture him by force of arms. He was driven to the latter by the bitterness of the insults inflicted on him and the thirst for revenge; but the following objections also arose: it would be necessary to wage war in inaccessible terrain and far from sea routes; besides, the kings in those parts are warlike, the peoples are nomadic, the land is barren; slowness will be painful, and haste will be fraught with danger; victory promises little glory, and possible defeat - great shame. Isn’t it better, therefore, to be satisfied with what was offered and leave the life of the exile, who, the longer he lives in humiliation, the greater torment he will experience? Convinced by these considerations, Claudius answered Eunon that, although Mithridates deserves the strictest exemplary punishment and he, Claudius, has the opportunity to punish him, but this has already been established by the ancestors: just as it is necessary to be adamant in the fight against the enemy, it is equally appropriate to give favor to those who ask for it - after all, triumphs are achieved only in the case of the conquest of powerful peoples and states.
21. After this, Mithridates was handed over to the Romans and brought to Rome by the procurator of Pontus, Junius Cylo. It was reported that he spoke to Caesar more proudly than he should have in his position, and his words became famous: “I was not sent to you, but came of my own free will; and if you think that this is not true, let me go and then look." He maintained an impassive expression on his face even when, surrounded by guards, he was exposed to the people at the rostral stands. Cylon was given consular distinctions, Aquila - praetorian.
(Translation by A.S. Bobovich from: Cornelius Tacitus. 1970. I. S. 202-204)
Cornelius Tacitus
1. The beginning of my story will be the year when Servius Galba and Titus Vinius were consuls for the second time. The events of the previous eight hundred and twenty years that had passed since the founding of our city were described by many, and while they talked about the deeds of the Roman people, their stories were eloquent and sincere. But after the battle of Actium, when in the interests of peace and security all power had to be concentrated in the hands of one man, these great talents were lost. They began to distort the truth in every possible way - first out of ignorance of state affairs, which people began to consider as outsiders, then out of a desire to flatter the rulers or, on the contrary, out of hatred for them. Neither detractors nor flatterers cared about the opinion of posterity. But if the flattery that the historian uses to succeed is disgusting to everyone, then everyone willingly listens to slander and slander; this is understandable: flattery bears the disgusting imprint of slavery, while deceit appears under the guise of love for truth. If we talk about me, then I saw neither good nor bad from Galba, Otho and Vitellius. I will not deny that Vespasian laid the foundation for my career successes, Titus multiplied them, and Domitian elevated me even more; but those who have decided to hold unshakably to the truth should conduct their narrative without giving in to love and without knowing hatred. I think of devoting my old age, if I have enough life, to work that is more rewarding and not so dangerous: to talk about the Principate of Nerva and the rule of Trajan, about the years of rare happiness, when everyone can think what they want and say what they think.
2. I begin to tell of times full of misfortune, replete with cruel battles, unrest and strife, about times wild and violent even in times of peace. Four princeps who died violent deaths, three civil wars, a number of external and many that were both civil and external, good fortune in the East and misfortune in the West - Illyria is in turmoil, Gaul is wavering, Britain is conquered and immediately lost, the Sarmatian tribes and the Suebi unite against us, the glory of the Dacians grows, responding to Rome with a blow for every blow, and even the Parthians, following the jester who put on the guise of Nero, are ready to take up arms. Italy is beset by troubles such as it has never known or has not seen since time immemorial: the flourishing coasts of Campania, where they are flooded by the sea, where they are buried under lava and ash; Rome is devastated by fires in which ancient temples are destroyed, the Capitol is burned out, set on fire by the hands of citizens. Ancient rituals have been violated, marriage bonds have been desecrated; the sea is covered with ships carrying the condemned into exile, the cliffs are stained with the blood of the slain. Even worse cruelty is raging in Rome itself - everything is charged as a crime: nobility, wealth, honorary positions that a person held or which he refused, and inevitable death rewards virtue. Cash bonuses paid to informers cause no less indignation than their crimes. Some of them, as a reward for their exploits, receive priestly and consular positions, others govern the provinces of the emperor and conduct affairs in his palace. Inspiring horror and hatred, they rule everything according to their own will. Slaves are bribed against their masters, freedmen are turned against their patrons. If someone has no enemies, his friends destroy him.
3. This time, however, was not completely devoid of virtuous people and also left us with good examples. There were mothers who accompanied children forced to flee Rome; wives who followed their husbands into exile; friends and relatives who did not give up on the disgraced; sons-in-law who remained faithful to their father-in-law in trouble; slaves whose devotion could not be broken even by torture; men who endured misfortunes with dignity, steadfastly faced death and passed away as renowned heroes of antiquity. Not only did countless disasters befall people: the sky and earth were full of miraculous phenomena: lightning flashed predicting fate, and signs - joyful and sad, vague and clear - predicted the future. In a word, never before have the gods given the Roman people more obvious and more terrible evidence that their business is not to take care of people, but to punish them.
4. However, before embarking on the intended story, it is necessary, I believe, to look back and imagine what the situation was in Rome, the mood of the troops, the state of the provinces, and what was healthy in the world and what was rotten. This is necessary if we want to know not only the external course of events, which for the most part depends on chance, but also their meaning and causes. At first, Nero’s death was greeted with wild joy and jubilation, but soon very different feelings gripped, on the one hand, the senators, the people and the troops stationed in the city, and on the other, the legions and generals, for the secret that shrouded the princeps’s rise to power was revealed, and it turned out that you can become one not only in Rome. The senators, despite this, having unexpectedly gained freedom, rejoiced and took more and more freedom, as if taking advantage of the fact that the princeps had only recently acquired power and was away from Rome. The most eminent among the horsemen rejoiced a little less than the senators; Honest people from the common people, associated with noble families, clients and freedmen of those convicted and exiled, perked up. The vile mob, accustomed to circuses and theaters, the worst of the slaves, those who had long squandered their fortune and fed by participating in the shameful entertainments of Nero, walked gloomily and greedily caught rumors.
5. The Praetorians had long been accustomed, out of duty of oath, to be loyal to the Caesars, and they overthrew Nero not so much of their own accord as by succumbing to persuasion and insistence. Now, having not received the monetary gift he had previously promised on behalf of Galba, knowing that in peacetime it is more difficult to stand out and achieve awards than in war, realizing that the legions that nominated the new sovereign have more hopes for his favor, and to Moreover, incited by the prefect Nymphidius Sabinus, who himself expected to become a princeps, they longed for change. Although Nymphidius's attempt to seize power was crushed and the rebellion was beheaded, many Praetorians remembered their involvement in the conspiracy; There were also many people who reviled Galba because he was old and accused him of stinginess. His very severity, once celebrated among the troops and which had won him so much praise, now frightened the soldiers, who had an aversion to the discipline of old times and had become accustomed during the fourteen years of Nero's reign to love the vices of sovereigns as much as they had once respected their virtues. Galba’s words also became known that he “recruits soldiers, not buys” - a rule useful for a state based on fair foundations, but dangerous for the sovereign himself; however, Galba’s actions did not correspond to these words.
6. The position of the feeble old man was undermined by Titus Vinius, the most disgusting of mortals, and Cornelius Lacon, the most insignificant of them; Vinius was hated by everyone for his meanness, Lacon was despised for his inactivity. Galba's path to Rome was long and bloody. Perished - and, as it was believed, innocently - the candidate for consul Zingonius Varro and Petronius Turpilian, a former consul; they were not listened to, they were not given defenders, and both were killed, the first as involved in the Nymphidius conspiracy, the second as the commander Nero. Galba's entry into Rome was overshadowed by an evil omen: the murder of several thousand unarmed soldiers, which caused disgust and horror even among the murderers themselves. After a legion from Spain also entered Rome, where a legion formed by Nero from the marines was already stationed, the city was filled with troops never seen here before. To these must be added the many military units that Nero recruited in Germany, Britain and Illyria and, preparing for the war with the Albanians, sent to the Caspian gorges, but returned from the road to suppress the outbreak of the Vindex uprising. This entire mass, prone to rebellion, although it did not show obvious sympathy for anyone, was ready to support anyone who dared to rely on it.
7. It so happened that at the same time the murder of Clodius Macra and Fonteus Capito was announced. Macrus, who was undoubtedly preparing a rebellion, was killed in Africa by order of Galba by the procurator Trebonius Garucianus; Capito, who was planning the same thing in Germany, was killed without waiting for orders by legates Cornelius Aquinus and Fabius Valens. Some, however, believed that Capito, although stained with all vices, a money-grubber and a libertine, still did not think about rebellion, and his murder was planned and carried out by the legates when they realized that they would not be able to convince him to start a war; Galba, either due to instability of character, or trying to avoid a more thorough investigation, only confirmed what could no longer be changed. One way or another, both of these murders made a depressing impression, and from now on, no matter what the princeps did, good or bad, everything brought equal hatred upon him. General corruption, the omnipotence of freedmen, the greed of slaves who had suddenly risen to the occasion and were in a hurry to get their affairs done while the old man was still alive - all these vices of the old court were rampant under the new one, but they evoked much less leniency. Even Galba’s age caused laughter and disgust among the crowd, who were accustomed to the young Nero and, as was their custom, compared which emperor was more handsome and stately.
Tacitus (Tacitus) (c. 58 - c. 117), Roman historian. The main works are devoted to the history of Rome and the Roman Empire in 14-68 (“Annals”) and 69-96 (“History” in 14 books, from which the first four and the beginning of the fifth came), as well as religion, social structure and life of the ancients Germans (essay “Germany”).
Tacitus Publius Cornelius [Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus] (c. 54 - c. 123), an outstanding Roman historian, author of short works “Discourse on Orators”, “Agricola”, “Germany” and two monumental historical works: “History” in 12 books (of which only the first 5 books) and the “Annals” in 18 books (books 1-4, 6, 11-16 have been preserved).
Biography
Tacitus' life took place during one of the most intense periods in the history of imperial Rome. He was born under Nero and in his youth witnessed the struggle for power of Otto, Vitellius and Galba. Tacitus achieved prominent government positions under the Flavians, was a contemporary of the new change of dynasty under Nerva, the era of Trajan, full of wars and victories of Roman weapons, and the beginning of the reign of Hadrian, the patron of the arts and Hellenic education. The unpredictable turns of history formed Tacitus’s attitude towards it as a great dramatic action and gave a tragic sound to his prose.
The facts of the biography of Tacitus can be reconstructed from the few testimonies of ancient authors and rare mentions of the historian about his life. The year of birth of Tacitus is established based on indirect data: it is known that he was elevated to the rank of quaestor in the last years of the reign of Vespasian (78 or 79): he should have been 25 years old. The ancestors of Tacitus, obviously, were once freedmen of the ancient Roman family of Cornelius; by the middle of the 1st century. his family achieved prosperity and already belonged to the equestrian class. Tacitus spent his youth in Rome, where he received an excellent grammatical and rhetorical education. Among his friends was Pliny the Younger, who in his letters to Tacitus pays tribute to the writer’s oratorical gift.
Despite the constant change of supreme power in Rome, Tacitus' social activities were very successful. He strengthened his position with a successful marriage to the daughter of the commander Gnaeus Julius Agricola, noted by Vespasian for his victories in Britain. Under Domitian, Tacitus was awarded the senatorial title, becoming praetor in 88. In the year of his praetorship, he was supposed to take part in the organization of the “secular games”, festivals with which the emperor wished to celebrate his reign.
At the end of his praetorship, Tacitus held a government post in one of the provinces, most likely located in the north of the empire, as evidenced by the historian’s awareness of the state of affairs in the Rhine regions of Germany. Under Emperor Nerva in 97, Tacitus became consul; under Trajan, he received the traditional one-year governorship for a former consul in the province of Asia (112-113 or 113-114). At this time, Tacitus was a little over fifty years old. Tacitus devoted the subsequent years of his life entirely to literary work. The exact date of the historian's death is unknown.
Small works. "Agricola"
One of Tacitus's early works, the biography of Julius Agricola, belongs to the traditional Roman genre of a word of praise pronounced in honor of the deceased. Agricola's biography opens with the historian's reflections on his era, from which we can judge what lay behind the external facts of Tacitus's brilliant career. During the long years of Domitian's reign, people were doomed to silence and fear; Without resisting evil, they became accomplices in the bloody crimes of the tyrant. Tacitus tells the story of the life and deeds of his father-in-law and at the same time talks about himself, perhaps responding to those who might condemn his own service under a cruel and oppressive emperor. He creates an apology for a worthy statesman who fulfills his civic duty, despite the arbitrariness of imperial power.
Agricola's biography was published by Tacitus in the first years of the reign of Trajan, whose rise to power was associated with the restoration of legality in the state. However, it was obvious to Tacitus that a return to democratic rule and true freedom of speech was no longer possible in Rome.
"Conversation about speakers"
Tacitus leaves politics and justifies his transition to historiography in the dialogue “Discourse on Orators”, following the traditions of prose, where he considers the fate of eloquence and the reasons for its decline in Ancient Rome. During the dialogue, its participants - the rhetoricians Marcus Apr and Julius Secundus, the tragic poet Maternus and the archaist Messala - come to a conclusion expressing Tacitus's views on creativity: if the eloquence of the past was inextricably linked with republican freedoms, then in the era of the empire it lost its citizenship; became a tool of the flatterer and turned into rhetoric filled with only superficial shine.
"Germany"
The small historical work “On the Origin of the Germans and the Location of Germany,” known in literature as “Germania,” dates back to the first years of Trajan’s reign. The interest of Roman society in the life of the peoples inhabiting the lands bordering the empire was associated with the constant wars waged by the emperor. “Germania” by Tacitus is not only a geographical sketch containing a number of valuable information about the social system, social life and customs of the Germans, but also a description of the life and customs of barbarian tribes, starting from his ideas about the life of Rome. He notes that simultaneously with progress in the development of culture, society is losing its original spirit of freedom, and an excess of material wealth leads it to greed and vices.
This pessimistic view of the development of history, outlined by the Stoic (see Stoicism) Posidonius and reflected in the works of Sallust, determined the historical concept of Tacitus.
"History" and "Annals"
The History was written in the first decade of the 2nd century. From the work of Tacitus, the first 4 books and a large fragment of the fifth book, which narrate the events in Rome after the death of Nero, have been preserved in their entirety (69). The surviving books of the Histories must have covered the period of the Flavian dynasty until 109.
The Annals (Chronicle) were created later than the History, perhaps in the second decade of the 2nd century. The annals were devoted to the events of the previous historical period - from 14 to 69, starting with the death of Emperor Augustus, which is reflected in the title of the book: “From the death of the divine Augustus.” The fully preserved books (I-IV, XII-XV) and fragments of books V, VI, XI, XVI describe the reign of Tiberius, Claudius and Nero.
Tacitus writes “about times full of misfortunes, replete with fierce battles, unrest and strife, about times that are wild and frantic even in times of peace.” (“History” I, 2.1). Tacitus's narrative lacks the high heroic pathos that inspired historians who wrote about Republican Rome. Tacitus clearly understands the collapse of the foundations of Roman society, the decline of morals, the violation of freedoms, and general indifference to the fate of the state. In the imperial era, the content of history becomes the struggle for power, so Tacitus conveys the movement of events through a clash of characters; the drama of the era finds expression in the unique, intense style of his prose. The historian believes that the “golden age” of Rome is a thing of the past, and feels his loneliness in a world where the very understanding of the old Roman ethical ideals, alien to the era in which he lived and worked, has been lost.
Tacitus's idea of an ideal state did not coincide with the concept of the empire of the era of Hadrian. Despite the fact that Pliny the Younger predicted immortality for the History, contemporaries did not appreciate the works of Tacitus: the time for creating monumental historical works has become a thing of the past. In the subsequent period, Tacitus was considered a non-classical author of difficult style and was known only to scholars. Manuscripts of his works were gradually lost: the only manuscript that preserved the first six books of the Annals (Medicine I), as well as the only manuscript of the Minor Works, dates back to the 19th century.
The first printed edition of Tacitus was published in Venice in 1470.
In the era of classicism, the tragic collisions of Tacitus's works attracted French playwrights. The anti-despotic orientation of his works during the Enlightenment was considered revolutionary. In Russia, the Decembrists and A. S. Pushkin (Notes on the “Annals” of Tacitus), who studied the historical works of Tacitus during the creation of “Boris Godunov,” paid tribute to her. The translation of all the works of Tacitus into Russian was carried out by V. I. Modestov in 1886-87.
