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The baby has not yet been born, but having found out his gender, we buy clothes, a stroller, furnish the nursery... For a boy we choose blue tones, for a girl - pink. This is how “gender education” begins. Then the boy receives cars as a gift, and the girl receives dolls. We want to see our son as courageous, brave and strong, and our daughter as affectionate, soft and compliant. Doctor and psychologist Igor Dobryakov talks about how our gender expectations affect children.
The word "gender" was coined to separate the social meanings of "masculinity" and "femininity" from biological sex differences. Gender is determined by anatomical and physiological characteristics that allow us to divide all people into men and women and classify ourselves as one of the groups. Sometimes, due to a chromosomal malfunction or as a result of abnormalities in the development of the embryo, a person is born who combines the sexual characteristics of both men and women (hermaphrodite). But this happens extremely rarely.
One psychologist jokingly said that sex is what is between the legs, and gender is what is between the ears. If a person’s sex is determined at birth, then gender identity is formed in the process of upbringing and socialization. To be a woman or a man in society means not just to have a certain anatomical structure, but also to have an appearance, manners, behavior, and habits that meet expectations. These expectations set certain patterns of behavior (gender roles) for men and women depending on gender stereotypes - what is considered “typically masculine” or “typically feminine” in society.
The emergence of gender identity is closely related to both biological development and the development of self-awareness. At the age of two, they do not fully understand what this means, however, under the influence of the example and expectations of adults, they are already beginning to actively form their gender attitudes, learning to distinguish the gender of those around them by clothing, hairstyle, and facial features. By the age of seven, a child realizes the immutability of his biological sex. In adolescence, the formation of gender identity occurs: rapid puberty, manifested by body changes, romantic experiences, erotic desires, stimulates it. This has a strong impact on the further formation of gender identity. There is an active development of forms of behavior and the formation of character in accordance with the ideas of parents, the immediate environment, and society as a whole about femininity (from the Latin femininus - “female”) and masculinity (from the Latin masculinus - “male”).
Gender equality
Over the past 30 years, the idea of gender equality has become widespread in the world, formed the basis of many international documents, and is reflected in national laws. Gender equality implies equal opportunities, rights and responsibilities for women and men in all spheres of life, including equal access to education and healthcare, equal opportunities to work, participate in government, start a family and raise children. Gender inequality creates fertile ground for gender-based violence. Stereotypes preserved from archaic times attribute different scenarios of sexual behavior to women and men: men are allowed greater sexual activity and aggressiveness, women are expected to be passively obedient and submissive to a man, which easily turns her into an object of sexual exploitation.
Equal in difference
And women have always existed, but they differed in different eras and among different peoples. Moreover, in different families living in the same country and belonging to the same class, ideas about the “real” man and woman can vary significantly.
In modern countries of Western civilization, the ideas of gender equality between men and women have gradually prevailed, and this is gradually equalizing their roles in society and family. Voting rights for women were legislated quite recently (by historical standards): in the USA in 1920, in Greece in 1975, in Portugal and Spain in 1974 and 1976, and one of the cantons of Switzerland equalized voting rights for women and men only in 1991. Some countries, such as Denmark, have created a special ministry dedicated to gender equality.
At the same time, in countries where the influence of religion and traditions is strong, views are more common that recognize the right of men to dominate, manage, and rule over women (for example, in Saudi Arabia, women were promised to be given the right to vote only in 2015).
Masculine and feminine qualities are manifested in behavior, appearance, and preference for certain hobbies and activities. There are also differences in values. It is believed that women value human relationships, love, family more, and men value social success and independence. However, in real life, the people around us demonstrate a combination of both feminine and masculine personality traits, and the values that are significant to them can vary significantly. In addition, masculine or feminine traits that appear clearly in some situations may be invisible in others. Similar observations led the Austrian scientist Otto Weininger to the idea that every normal woman and every normal man has traits of both his own and the opposite sex; a person’s individuality is determined by the predominance of the male over the female or vice versa *. He used the term "androgyny" (Greek ανδρεία - man; Greek γυνής - woman) to refer to the combination of masculine and feminine traits. Russian philosopher Nikolai Berdyaev called Weininger’s ideas “brilliant intuitions”**. Shortly after the publication of Weininger's work "Sex and Character", male and female sex hormones were discovered. In the body, men produce female hormones along with male sex hormones, and in the female body, along with female hormones, male hormones are produced. Their combination and concentration influence a person’s appearance and sexual behavior and shape his hormonal sex.
That is why in life we encounter such a variety of manifestations of masculine and feminine. Some men and women have predominantly masculine and feminine qualities, while others have a balance of both. Psychologists believe that individuals of the androgynous type, who combine high levels of both masculinity and femininity, have greater behavioral flexibility, and therefore are the most adaptive and psychologically prosperous. Therefore, raising children within the strict confines of traditional gender roles can do them a disservice.
Igor Dobryakov– Candidate of Medical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Child Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Medical Psychology, North-Western State Medical University. I. I. Mechnikova. Member of the editorial boards of the journals “Perinatal Psychology”, “Issues of Mental Health of Children and Adolescents”, “Children’s Medicine of the North-West”. Author of dozens of scientific papers, as well as co-author of the books “Development of a Child’s Personality from Birth to One Year” (Rama Publishing, 2010), “Child Psychiatry” (Peter, 2005), “Health Psychology.”
Captured by stereotypes
Most people believe that a woman has such qualities as sensitivity, tenderness, caring, sensitivity, tolerance, modesty, pliability, gullibility, etc. Girls are taught to be obedient, careful, and responsive.
True masculine qualities are considered courage, perseverance, reliability, responsibility, etc. Boys are taught to rely on their own strengths, achieve their own goals, and be independent. Punishments for misbehavior are generally harsher for boys than for girls.
Many parents encourage their children to behave and play traditionally characteristic of their gender, and are very worried when they notice the opposite. By buying cars and pistols for boys, and dolls and strollers for girls, parents, often without realizing it, strive to raise strong men - breadwinners and protectors, and real women - keepers of the hearth. But there is nothing wrong with the fact that a boy cooks dinner on a toy stove and feeds a teddy bear, and a girl assembles a construction set and plays chess. Such activities contribute to the multilateral development of the child, form important traits in him (caring in a boy, logical thinking in a girl), and prepare him for life in modern society, where women and men have long been equally successful in mastering the same professions and in many respects playing the same roles. social roles.
By telling a boy: “Give back, you’re a boy” or “Don’t cry, you’re not a girl,” parents reproduce gender and unwittingly, or even consciously, lay the foundation for the boy’s future aggressive behavior and a sense of superiority over girls. When adults or friends condemn “calf tenderness,” they thereby forbid the boy, and then the man, to show attention, care, and affection. Phrases like “Don’t get dirty, you’re a girl”, “Don’t fight, only boys fight” give a girl a feeling of her own superiority over dirty guys and brawlers, and the call “Be quieter, be more modest, you’re a girl” encourages her to play second roles, giving in the palm for men.
Myths about boys and girls
Which widely held opinions are based on solid facts and which have no reliable experimental basis?
In 1974, Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin dispelled many myths by showing that people of different sexes have more similarities than differences. To find out how close to the truth your stereotypical beliefs are, consider which of the following statements are true.
1. Girls are more sociable than boys.
2. Boys have a stronger sense of self-esteem than girls.
3. Girls perform simple, routine tasks better than boys.
4. Boys have stronger mathematical abilities and spatial thinking than girls.
5. Boys have a more analytical mind than girls.
6. Girls have better speech development than boys.
7. Boys are more motivated to achieve success.
8. Girls are not as aggressive as boys.
9. Girls are easier to persuade than boys.
10. Girls are more sensitive to sound, and boys - to visual stimuli.
The answers emerging from Maccoby and Jacklin's research are surprising.
1. There is no reason to believe that girls are more sociable than boys. In early childhood, both groups equally often form groups to play together. Neither boys nor girls show an increased desire to play alone. Boys do not give preference to playing with inanimate objects over playing with peers. At a certain age, boys spend even more time playing together than girls.
2. The results of psychological tests indicate that boys and girls in childhood and adolescence do not differ significantly in the level of self-esteem, but indicate different areas of life in which they feel more confident than in others. Girls consider themselves more competent in the field of mutual communication, and boys are proud of their strength.
3 and 4. Boys and girls cope equally effectively with simple, typical tasks. Boys develop mathematical abilities around the age of 12, when they quickly develop spatial thinking. In particular, it is easier for them to depict the invisible side of an object. Since the difference in spatial thinking abilities becomes noticeable only in adolescence, the reason for this should be sought either in the child’s environment (probably boys are more often given the opportunity to improve this skill) or in the characteristics of his hormonal status.
5. Boys and girls have the same analytical skills. Boys and girls discover the ability to separate the important from the unimportant, to recognize the most important in the flow of information.
6. Speech develops faster in girls than in boys. Until adolescence, children of both sexes do not differ in this indicator, but in high school, girls begin to outstrip boys. They perform better on tests of understanding the complexities of language, have more fluent figurative speech, and their writing is more literate and better in terms of style. As with boys' math abilities, girls' increased language abilities may be a consequence of socialization that motivates them to improve their language skills.
7. Girls are less aggressive than boys, and this difference is noticeable already at the age of two, when children begin to take part in group games. Boys' increased aggressiveness manifests itself both in physical actions and in demonstrating a willingness to engage in a fight or in the form of verbal threats. Aggression is usually directed at other boys and less often at girls. There is no evidence that parents encourage boys to be more aggressive than girls; rather, they do not encourage expressions of aggressiveness in either one or the other.
8. Boys and girls are equally susceptible to persuasion and imitate the behavior of adults equally often. Both are influenced by social factors and understand the need to follow generally accepted norms of behavior. The only real difference is that girls adapt their judgments somewhat more easily to the judgments of others, and boys can accept the values of a given peer group without compromising their own views, even if there is not the slightest similarity between them.
9. In infancy, boys and girls react similarly to various objects in the environment that are perceived through hearing and vision. Both distinguish the speech characteristics of those around them, different sounds, the shape of objects and the distances between them. This similarity persists in adults of different sexes.
The most objective approach to identifying differences between the sexes is to study the brain. Using electroencephalography, you can evaluate the brain's reactions to various types of stimulation. Such studies avoid dependence of the results obtained on the personal opinions or biases of the experimenter, since the interpretation of the observed behavior in this case is based on objective indicators. It turned out that women have sharper senses of taste, touch and hearing. In particular, their hearing in the long-wave range is so sharper than that of men that a sound of 85 decibels seems twice as loud to them. Women have higher mobility of their hands and fingers and finer coordination of movements, they are more interested in the people around them, and in infancy they listen with great attention to various sounds. As data accumulates on the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the male and female brain, the need for new neuropsychological studies that could dispel existing myths or confirm their reality increases.
* Fragments from the book by W. Masters, V. Johnson, R. Kollodny “Fundamentals of Sexology” (World, 1998).
How social gender develops
The formation of gender identity begins at an early age and is manifested by a subjective sense of belonging to boys or girls. Already at the age of three, boys prefer to play with boys, and girls prefer to play with girls. Cooperative games are also present, and they are very important for acquiring communication skills with each other. Preschoolers try to conform to the ideas about “correct” behavior for boys and girls that are “transmitted” to them by teachers and the children’s team. But the main authority on all issues, including gender, for young children is their parents. For girls, the image of not only a woman, whose main example is the mother, is very important, but also the image of a man, just as models of both male and female behavior are important for boys. And of course, parents give their children the first example of the relationship between a man and a woman, which largely determines their behavior when communicating with people of the opposite sex, and their ideas about relationships in a couple.
Until the age of 9–10, children are especially susceptible to external influences. Close communication with peers of the opposite sex at school and in other activities helps the child to internalize behavioral gender stereotypes accepted in society. Role-playing games, which began in kindergarten, become more and more complex over time. Participation in them is very important for children: they have the opportunity to choose the gender of the character in accordance with their own, and learn to conform to their gender role. When portraying men or women, they primarily reflect stereotypes of gender behavior accepted in the family and at school, and demonstrate those qualities that are considered feminine or masculine in their environment.
It's interesting how differently parents and teachers react to the departure from stereotypes. A tomboyish girl who likes to play “war” with boys is usually not blamed by both adults and peers. But a boy who plays with dolls is teased and called a “girl” or “mama’s boy.” There is an obvious difference in the scope of requirements for “appropriate” behavior for boys and girls. It is difficult to imagine that some activity uncharacteristic for a girl (laser fighting, auto racing, football) will cause as much condemnation as, for example, a boy’s love of toy dishes, sewing and clothes (this is well shown in the 2000 film directed by Stephen Daldry "Billy Elliot") Thus, in modern society there are practically no purely male activities and hobbies left, but typically female ones still exist.
In children's communities, feminine boys are ridiculed; they are called “weaklings” and “sluts.” Often ridicule is accompanied by physical violence. In such situations, timely intervention from teachers is necessary, and moral support for the child from parents is needed.
During the prepubertal period (approximately 7 to 12 years), children with a variety of personality traits tend to form social groups while avoiding members of the other sex. Research by the Belarusian psychologist Yakov Kolominsky*** showed that when it is necessary to give preference to three classmates, boys choose boys, and girls choose girls. However, the experiment we conducted convincingly proved that if children are sure that their choice will remain secret, then many of them choose people of the opposite sex****. This demonstrates the significance of the child’s internalized gender stereotypes: he fears that friendship or even communication with a representative of the other sex may make others doubt his correct understanding of his gender role.
During puberty, adolescents, as a rule, try to emphasize their gender qualities, the list of which begins to include communication with the opposite sex. A teenage boy, trying to show his masculinity, not only plays sports, shows determination and strength, but also actively demonstrates interest in girls and sex issues. If he avoids this and is noticed to have “girlish” qualities, then he inevitably becomes a target for ridicule. Girls during this period worry about how attractive they are to the opposite sex. At the same time, under the influence of traditional ones, they notice that their “weakness” and “helplessness” attracts boys who want to show their skills and strength, to act as a protector and patron.
During this period, the authority of adults is no longer as high as in childhood. Teenagers begin to focus on behavioral stereotypes accepted in their environment and actively promoted by popular culture. The ideal girl can be a strong, successful and independent woman. Men's dominance in love, in the family and in the team is less and less perceived as the norm. Heterosexual normativity is questioned, that is, the “correctness” and admissibility of attraction only to a member of the opposite sex. “Non-standard” gender self-identification is becoming increasingly understood. Today's teenagers and young adults are more liberal in their views on sexuality and sexual relationships.
The assimilation of gender roles and the formation of gender identification occurs as a result of the complex interaction of natural inclinations, individual characteristics of the child and his environment, micro- and macro-society. If parents, knowing the laws of this process, do not impose their stereotypes on the child, but help him discover his individuality, then in adolescence and beyond he will have fewer problems associated with puberty, awareness and acceptance of his sex and gender.
No double standards
Double standards manifest themselves in various areas of life. When it comes to men and women, it primarily concerns sexual behavior. Traditionally, a man is recognized as having the right to sexual experience before marriage, while a woman is required to do so before marriage. With the formal requirement of mutual fidelity of both spouses, a man’s extramarital affairs are not condemned as strictly as a woman’s infidelity. The double standard prescribes a man to be the experienced and leading partner in sexual relations, and a woman to be a passive, submissive party.
If we want to raise a child in the spirit of gender equality, we need to show him an example of treating people equally, regardless of their gender. When talking with your child, do not associate this or that activity or housework or profession with gender - dad can wash the dishes, and mom can drive the car to buy groceries; there are female engineers and male chefs. Do not allow double standards between men and women and be intolerant of all violence, no matter who it comes from: a girl who bullies a boy deserves the same censure as a boy who takes away her toy. Gender equality does not abolish sex and gender differences and does not equate women and men, girls and boys, but allows each person to find their own way of self-realization and determine their life choices regardless of the usual gender stereotypes.
* O. Weinenger “Gender and Character” (Latard, 1997).
** N. Berdyaev “The Meaning of Creativity” (AST, 2007).
*** Y. Kolominsky “Psychology of a children's group. System of personal relationships" (Narodnaya Asveta, 1984).
**** I. Dobryakov “Experience in studying heterosexual relationships in prepubertal children” (in the book “Psyche and gender in children and adolescents in normal and pathological conditions”, LPMI, 1986).
Possible options
Do not make a “real man” out of a boy, sociologist and sexologist Igor Kon* advises parents.
All real men are different, the only fake men are those who pretend to be “real”. Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov resembles Arnold Schwarzenegger just as little as Carmen resembles the mother heroine. Help the boy choose the version of masculinity that is closer to him and in which he will be more successful, so that he can accept himself and not regret missed, most often just imaginary, opportunities.
Don't instill belligerence in him.
The historical destinies of the modern world are decided not on the battlefield, but in the sphere of scientific, technical and cultural achievements. If your boy grows up to be a worthy person and citizen who knows how to defend his rights and fulfill the responsibilities associated with them, he will also cope with the defense of the Fatherland. If he gets used to seeing enemies all around and resolving all disputes from a position of strength, he will face nothing but trouble in life.
Don't teach a boy to treat a woman from a position of strength.
It is beautiful to be a knight, but if your boy ends up in a relationship with a woman who is not the leader, but the follower, this will be a trauma for him. It makes more sense to see “a woman in general” as an equal partner and potential friend, and to build relationships with specific girls and women individually, depending on their and your roles and characteristics.
Don't try to mold your children in your own image.
For a parent who does not suffer from delusions of grandeur, a much more important task is to help the child become himself.
Do not try to force your child into a certain occupation or profession.
By the time he makes his responsible choice, your preferences may be morally and socially outdated. The only way is to enrich the child’s interests from early childhood so that he has the widest possible choice of options and opportunities.
Don't force your children to realize your unfulfilled dreams and illusions.
You don’t know what devils are guarding the path you once turned off, or whether it exists at all. The only thing in your power is to help your child choose the optimal development option for him, but the right to choose belongs to him.
Don't try to pretend to be a strict father or an affectionate mother if these traits are not characteristic of you.
Firstly, it is impossible to deceive a child. Secondly, it is influenced not by an abstract “sex role model”, but by the individual properties of the parent, his moral example and how he treats the child.
Do not believe that defective children grow up in single-parent families.
This statement is factually incorrect, but acts as a self-fulfilling prediction. “Incomplete families” are not those in which there is no father or mother, but those in which parental love is lacking. The maternal family has its own additional problems and difficulties, but it is better than a family with an alcoholic father or where the parents live like cats and dogs.
Do not try to replace your child’s peer society,
avoid confrontation with their environment, even if you don't like it. The only thing you can and should do is mitigate the inevitable trauma and difficulties associated with it. A trusting atmosphere in the family helps best against “bad comrades.”
Do not abuse prohibitions and, if possible, avoid confrontation with your child.
If strength is on your side, then time is on his side. A short-term gain can easily turn into a long-term loss. And if you break his will, both sides will lose.
Never use corporal punishment.
Anyone who hits a child demonstrates weakness, not strength. The apparent pedagogical effect is completely overwhelmed by long-term alienation and hostility.
Don't rely too much on the experience of your ancestors.
We know little about the real history of everyday life; normative regulations and pedagogical practices have never coincided anywhere. In addition, living conditions have changed greatly, and some methods of education that were considered useful before (for example, spanking) are unacceptable and ineffective today.
The information and materials contained in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of UNESCO. The authors are responsible for the information provided.
Gender issues in the modern world are attracting more and more attention, but the term “gender” itself has a rather vague definition, and in order to understand the origins and prospects of gender research, it is worth remembering its etymology and history.
The term “gender” appeared in Russian as a transliteration of the Middle English gendre, and it was borrowed from the French during the era of the Norman conquests (the words “gender” and “genre” are actually the same root). And the French, in turn, used the Greek root “gen-”, which means “to create” and is familiar to us from such words as “genesis” and “gene”.
This word has been used for several centuries, but in its usual meaning it began to be used only in the second half of the twentieth century - before that it mostly meant grammatical gender. True, the King James Bible, released in 1611, mentioned the verb “gender”, which meant “to multiply.”
But people have been trying to identify the conceptual difference between masculinity and femininity for a long time. Moreover, in many cultures, “masculine” has historically been identified with spirit, strength and rationality, and “feminine” with matter, softness, chaos and emotionality. Carl Jung later became interested in the manifestations of the collective unconscious in mythology and culture - and identified the archetypal images of the masculine and feminine principles - Animus and Anima. Jung associated the image of the Animus with categoricalness, criticism and outward-directed activity, and the Anima with mood swings, sensuality and introversion. But what’s interesting is that the psychologist believed that both principles are present in different proportions in every person, regardless of his biological sex and sexual orientation.
A number of gender nuances are indeed determined only by culture - for example, “female” and “male” colors of clothing
Gender-related features of the psyche, behavior and self-identification received a separate name in 1955, when sexologist John Money used the concept of “gender role” because he needed to distinguish the general properties of sex from those directly sexual and reproductive. Mani not only created a new term, but also immediately took it beyond the simple opposition of masculinity/femininity. In Mani’s interpretation, the concept of “gender” defined many characteristics - from physical and behavioral characteristics to self-identification and social role.
In the late 1950s, the idea was developed by psychoanalyst Robert Stoller, who worked at the University of California, Los Angeles. In 1963, he spoke at a scientific congress in Stockholm with a report on gender identity, the study of which, in his opinion, should be separated from the natural sciences and transferred to the jurisdiction of psychologists and sociologists.
At that time, the idea did not cause much resonance, but in the 1970s, when liberal ideas came to the fore and the second wave of feminism began, it was picked up by women's rights activists. True, in their works the term “gender” referred only to women’s experience of experiencing stereotypes and social roles, which was compared with men’s in social, cultural and psychological aspects. Such studies raised questions ranging from the fairness of the division of household labor to differences in the scientific styles of male and female scientists. Entire historical eras have been subject to revision - studies have shown that women perceive the passage of time differently and assess the historical significance of events.
Ten years later, men decided to answer the challenge: the so-called “men’s studies” appeared, aiming to unravel the riddle of masculinity and push the rigid boundaries of the male gender role. We owe them, for example, the concept of “new parenthood”, according to which both parents take an equal part in raising the child.
Now the word “gender” primarily means socio-psychological sex, which determines a person’s behavior in society and how this behavior is perceived. Gender studies pose an important question to us: what determines the feeling of being a man, a woman, or some kind of hybrid option - on the characteristics of the biological structure or the cultural context and requirements of society? Should a person meet the criteria of "male" and "female" behavior just because he was born with a certain set of genitalia? And what is “male” and “female” behavior?
There are still no clear answers to these questions, but it is already clear that a number of gender nuances are really determined only by culture - for example, the colors of children's clothing. Even at the beginning of the twentieth century, it was believed that pink, as a more energetic color, was suitable for boys, and the more sophisticated blue for girls. The concept changed only in the late thirties. On the other hand, research continues to exist of physical differences between male and female brains, although opponents of “neurosexism” are trying to prove that these differences are not innate, but acquired.
One way or another, the perception of gender has changed greatly over the past two centuries: from the dichotomy of the sexes and the patriarchal attitudes associated with it, European civilization first came to the revolutionary idea of equality, and then to a more subtle rethinking of gender characteristics and the understanding that gender is not necessarily related with the floor. Recently, a significant shift in the perception of gender roles has been noticeable: non-traditional sexual orientation is being legitimized, men and women are boldly experimenting with their inner Animuses and Animas. Facebook recently offered American users 50 options for gender self-determination - you can, for example, declare yourself intersex or androgynous.
The most radical manifestation of this process is the postgenderism movement, whose adherents advocate the voluntary blurring of boundaries between the sexes with the help of biotechnology. Postgenderists believe that the very existence of psychological and physical differences and gender roles aggravates conflicts in society, and if modern technologies can solve the problem of artificial reproduction, then the need for gender and sexual differentiation will disappear by itself.
How to speak
Incorrect “I picked up a kitten, but I can’t determine its gender.” That's right - “determine his gender.”
That's right: “This year many girls entered Baumanka - another blow to gender stereotypes.”
That's right, “Andrej Pejic never decided on his own gender - but that’s what made him a sought-after model.”
Before exploring various theories of inequality, let’s define the concept of “gender” itself.
There are several concepts of gender in feminist literature. This is due to both the relative “youth” of the gender approach (the first works appeared about twenty years ago) and the complexity of the phenomenon itself. For all of them, the basic position is the distinction between the concepts of sex and gender. Sex is a term that refers to those anatomical and biological characteristics of people (mainly in the reproductive system), on the basis of which people are defined as men or women. It should only be used to refer to characteristics and behavior that arise directly from biological differences between men and women. Gender is a complex sociocultural construct: differences in roles, behavior, mental and emotional characteristics between men and women, created (constructed) by society.
Within this approach, gender is understood as an organized pattern of social relations between women and men, not only characterizing their interpersonal communication and interaction in the family, but also determining their social relations in the main institutions of society (as well as being determined - or constructed by them). Gender is thus interpreted as one of the basic dimensions of the social structure of society, which, together with other socio-demographic and cultural characteristics (race, class, age) organizes the social system.
The social reproduction of gender consciousness at the level of individuals supports a social structure based on gender. By embodying in their actions the expectations associated with their gender status, individuals constitute gender differences and, at the same time, the systems of domination and power they entail. In many societies, women and men are not only perceived, but also valued differently, justifying differences in the distribution of power between them based on gender characteristics and differences in their abilities. Awareness of gender is a constitutive element of social relations, based on perceived differences between the sexes, and gender is a priority way of expressing power relations.
Gender is constructed through a certain system of socialization, division of labor and cultural norms, roles and stereotypes accepted in society. Gender norms and stereotypes accepted in society to a certain extent determine the psychological qualities (promoting some and negatively evaluating others), abilities, types of activities, professions of people depending on their biological sex. At the same time, gender roles and norms do not have universal content and vary significantly in different societies. In this sense, being a man or a woman does not mean possessing certain natural qualities, but fulfilling a particular role.
In modern social and humanities research, gender is not used as an immutable and universal construct. The concept of gender does not mean a thing or object, not many things or objects, but a complex interweaving of relationships and processes. It is necessary to think in relationships in order to derive cultural reality from the analytical category of gender - both in the past and in the present.
The concepts of feminine and masculine began to be actively used together with the development of the concept of gender and are used in gender studies to denote the cultural and symbolic meaning of “feminine” and “masculine”.
Gender:
1. (General meaning) - the difference between men and women by anatomical sex.
2. (Sociological meaning) a social division often based on, but not necessarily the same as, anatomical sex. Thus, the sociological use of the term may differ from everyday use.
3. In psychology, the concept of “gender” is used in a broader sense, meaning any mental or behavioral properties associated with masculinity and femininity and supposedly distinguishing men from women (formerly they were called sexual properties or differences).
Sociologists and social psychologists argue that sex refers to the biological characteristics that classify people as "male", "female" or in rare cases "hermaphrodite" (where the characteristics of both sexes are actually or apparently combined), and gender refers to social and socio-psychological attributes that categorize people as “male,” “female,” or “hermaphroditic” (when characteristics of both genders are intentionally or unintentionally combined). According to many psychologists, in psychological discourse, gender should be used when it concerns the socially created division of society into those who are men and those who are women. While "man" and "woman" are terms reserved for the biological differences between them and boys and girls, "masculine" and "feminine" refer to culturally shaped behavioral traits and types of temperament considered socially appropriate to the sexes. These traits are learned through a complex and lengthy process of socialization.
Anthropologists, such as Margaret Mead, as well as psychologists and sociologists, emphasized that gender is not determined biologically, but socially and through culture, being culturally and historically relative. Its meaning, interpretation and expression vary both within and between cultures, serving as the object of historical change. Social factors—class, age, race, and ethnicity—also shape the particular meaning, expression, and experience of gender, highlighting the fact that it cannot be equated in any simplistic way with sex or sexuality.
Gender - social sex. The English language distinguishes between the concepts of social sex (“gender”) and biological (“sex”). Terminologically, the concept of gender took shape in the process of theoretical development of feminism, and then of gender research itself.
Modern social science is consistently and very productively developing this concept as one of the most important for the analysis of the foundations of sociality and its forms. The meaning of the concept “gender” lies, first of all, in the idea of social modeling or construction of sex. Social gender is constructed by social practice. A system of behavioral norms arises in society, prescribing the fulfillment of certain gender roles; Accordingly, a rigid series of ideas arises about what is “male” and “female” in a given society; gender is a set of social representations, and not a given given by nature. Gender is the cultural mask of sex, what we think about sex within the boundaries of our sociocultural ideas. Moreover, gender is only gender, that is, what became gender in the process of its socialization. It is not the gender that belongs to the person, but the person to the gender, and it is determined by power and language. In modern society, it is increasingly difficult to draw the line between the biological predetermination of gender and its social modeling. “Today there is nothing less reliable than the floor. The principle of uncertainty applies to sexual relations as well as to political and economic relations.”
With all the diversity of approaches and positions regarding the definition of gender, it makes sense to highlight two concepts: the theory of the social construction of gender and the theory of the gender system.
In the logic of the first approach, three groups of characteristics are called: biological sex, gender-role stereotypes common in a particular society, etc. “gender display” is a variety of manifestations associated with the norms of male and female action and interaction prescribed by society. The concept of “gender display” was introduced by I. Goffman and expresses many manifestations of the cultural components of gender. In accordance with this approach, gender appears as a dimension of social relations rooted in a given culture. The concept of “gender system” includes various components and is defined differently by different authors.
The gender system is a set of relations between the sexes (and within the sexes). Since the gender system presupposes the gender dimension of the public and private spheres and correlates the system of gender hierarchy with other social hierarchies and systems of domination, then in an analysis of this kind a large role is given to the study of the role of social institutions that implement gender technologies. “Our innate cognitive habit of dividing everything into categories and acting on those divisions also contributes to perpetuating the idea that gender differences are large and relevant. We become even more inclined to draw lines between genders and begin to define our identity in part based on our gender identity. Social psychology of gender shifts our attention from biology to the situational and social forces that underlie the division between men and women, and thereby provides us with guidance on how gender equality can be achieved. At the same time, social psychology explains why changes in gender roles and stereotypes will be slow and uncertain in the absence of concerted efforts. These efforts usually come from women, but change can happen at a faster pace if we recognize that traditional roles are unfair, unsuitable for modern society, and limiting not only women but also men.
Thus, the construction of gender is both a product and a process of representation, both about others and about oneself.
Along with the obvious female characteristics of the body, the chromosome set is taken into account, since sometimes they coexist with the female genital organs. This gives female athletes an advantage in competition.
Nowadays, with the help of modern medicine, gender can be changed.
Gender, in contrast to sex, is social, public, acquired as a result of upbringing. People are greatly influenced by the cultural unconscious of their environment. Since gender is a social phenomenon, it undergoes changes simultaneously with the development of society and culture. For example, back in the 19th century it was believed that a man must wear short hair and trousers, and a woman must wear long hair and a dress. Nowadays, these things are not considered a sign of gender.
The meaning of the concept “gender stereotype”
The gender characteristic attributed to women and men is tenacious in the mass consciousness. In an undeveloped society, it puts pressure on individuals, imposing certain forms of social behavior. For example, it is believed that a man is a “breadwinner”; he must earn more than his wife. It is also believed that a man should be aggressive, assertive, engage in “male” professions, have a career at work, be interested in fishing and sports. A woman should be emotional and soft, compliant and flexible. She is “prescribed” to get married, have a husband, engage in “female” professions, and she must devote most of her time to her family.
Gender stereotypes may differ in different societies. For example, in Spain the ability to cook is a sign of a real macho, while among the Slavs it is a purely feminine activity.
Such stereotypes create gender issues for some. That is, a husband who is on maternity leave to care for a woman, a wife who feeds her family, a man who is interested in embroidery, a woman who is pursuing a career instead of marriage - they are all subject to social condemnation for behavior that is inappropriate for their gender. Thus, gender is a social stereotype, which also leads to gender discrimination, since leadership roles in society are often assigned to men. Many developed countries are pursuing a special gender policy: the state is trying to hear the problems of its citizens and eliminate inequality based on gender. For these purposes, a code of laws is being created leading to the formation of a society that is equal for all people.
The word "gender" literally means "sex". However, the semantic content of these two terms is different. This is especially evident in such a concept as “gender politics”.
Both concepts - sex and gender - characterize the division of people into men and women. But the term "sex" refers to a biological division, and "gender" to a social one.
Difference between sex and gender
Sources:
- Basic mechanisms of gender policy
Unconscious and conscious - these two concepts are part of a concept in psychology that characterizes two closely related aspects of a person’s ideas about his own personality. Therefore, if we talk about the unconscious, we cannot help but touch on the conscious. Despite the fact that these aspects of personality are usually opposed, they still form a single whole, although they operate on different levels.
Instructions
Consciousness, otherwise called conscious, is the form in which objective reality appears, reflected by the human psyche. It cannot be said that consciousness and reality are the same, but it can be argued that there is something in common between them. It is the conscious that is the connection between reality and the unconscious; on its basis, a person forms his picture of the world.
The unconscious is otherwise called the subconscious. These are various processes in the human psyche that are not controlled by him; most often, they are not realized at all and are not reflected in rational activity. Even if you place the subconscious in certain aspects into the focus of your attention, it is extremely difficult to grasp it.
The unconscious can manifest itself in several aspects. First of all, this is a person’s unconscious motivation for action. It may be that the true reasons for behavior are unacceptable from the point of view of ethics or sociality of the individual, so they are not realized. It happens that several true reasons for behavior come into obvious contradiction, and although they encourage one action, some of them are located in the area of the unconscious, so a contradiction does not arise in a person’s head.
Secondly, the unconscious includes various behavior algorithms that are so perfected by a person that there is no need to even perceive them, so as not to occupy brain resources. The third manifestation of the unconscious is perception. Typically, in order to process information about an existing situation, the brain has to analyze a huge amount of information, and if every action occurred consciously, a person would not be able to react to the stimulus. Also considered unconscious are the processes of intuition, inspiration, insight and similar phenomena. They are also based on a layer of information accumulated in the unconscious, which is used in a way incomprehensible to consciousness.
The first to develop the theory of the unconscious was Sigmund Freud, an Austrian psychologist. He was interested in the fact that people’s unconscious motivations manifest themselves in dreams, neurotic pathologies and creativity, that is, in states when a person does not particularly restrain himself. Freud noted that the contradiction between consciousness and desires dictated by the subconscious often leads to internal conflicts in a person. The method of psychoanalysis is designed to resolve this contradiction and help a person find an acceptable way out for the realization of subconscious tension.
Freudian theory was subconsciously developed by the Austrian scientist Carl Gustav Jung, who identified the unconscious processes of not only one individual, but also collective ones, as well as Jacques Marie-Emile Lacan, who drew a parallel between psychoanalysis and linguistics and proposed treating patients with linguistic methods. Not all psychotherapists agreed with him, although in a number of cases Lacan’s method did lead to success.
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Social gender, differences between men and women, depending not on biological, but on social conditions (social division of labor, specific social functions, cultural stereotypes, etc.).
The concept of gender appeared in sociology not so long ago: in American sociology in the 70s, and in Russia it began to especially attract the attention of researchers from the early 90s. It can be noted that it was the social transformations of the late 80s and early 90s that were the main factor that influenced the formation of a new direction in the social sciences in our country, which has not yet fully taken shape.
It is generally accepted that sex is a biological characteristic of a person, including the distinctive characteristics of men and women at the chromosomal, anatomical, reproductive and hormonal levels, and gender is the social dimension of sex, i.e. a sociocultural phenomenon that means what it is to be a man or a woman in a particular society. For example, a man may perform a social role that is traditionally considered unmasculine in a given society (staying at home with children and not working), but such behavior does not make him “less of a man” in the physical aspect. Acceptable and unacceptable social roles for men and women are set by society itself, its culture, norms and values.
The concept of gender developed gradually in American sociology, and at different times the following aspects were the focus of attention of sociologists:
- gender as the social roles of men and women,
- gender as a way of expressing power relations,
- gender as a system of control over the behavior of men and women,
- gender as a special social institution.
Moreover, most American sociologists consider the social status of men and women, their social roles in two planes - vertical: in the context of power, prestige, income, wealth, and horizontal: in the context of functions in the division of labor and institutional analysis (family, economics, politics, education).
Today, gender issues are an area of interdisciplinary research that attracts the attention of not only sociologists, but also psychologists, anthropologists, and historians.
However, if psychologists are more interested in the problem of gender socialization of the individual, the assimilation of the roles of men and women at the individual level, as well as the psychological differences between men and women (for example, in such aspects as aggression, creativity, mental abilities), then sociologists are more degree interested in the problems of social differences between men and women at the institutional level and the factors influencing these differences.
The sociology of gender appears at the intersection of two key issues:
1.
Are there differences (other than physical) between men and women, and if so, what are they?
2.
How can social differences and social roles of men and women be explained - by nature or nurture - i.e. physical characteristics or social factors?
And if the first question does not cause much controversy (the fact of social differences is recognized by the majority), then researchers give different answers to the second question. For example, the famous American sociologist Talcott Parsons derived the differences in the social roles of men and women from their physical differences. And the no less famous anthropologist Margaret Mead, having studied three societies of New Guinea, came to the conclusion that it is sociocultural factors, and not physical ones, that influence the social roles of men and women.
(Source: Sexological Dictionary)
Synonyms:See what “Gender” is in other dictionaries:
- (English gender gender, most often grammatical) a concept used in social sciences to reflect the sociocultural aspect of a person’s gender. Unlike the Russian language, which has one word associated with this question... The latest philosophical dictionary
Noun, number of synonyms: 3 instrument (541) gender (9) difference (23) ASIS synonym dictionary ... Dictionary of synonyms
Gender- a culturally specific set of characteristics that determine the social behavior of women and men and the relationships between them... Source: Letter of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation dated October 6, 2005 N AS 1270/06, Rospotrebnadzor dated October 4, 2005 N 0100/8129 05 32 About the Concept... ... Official terminology
Gender- Modern social science distinguishes between the concepts of sex and gender. Traditionally, the first of them was used to designate those anatomical and physiological characteristics of people on the basis of which human beings are defined as men or... ... Gender Studies Terms
This term has other meanings, see Gender (meanings). Gender (English gender, from Latin genus “genus”) is a social sex that determines a person’s behavior in society and how this behavior is perceived. This is the gender role... ... Wikipedia
GENDER- (GENDER) If a person’s gender (sex) is determined biologically, then gender (gender) is a cultural and social construct. Thus, there are two biological sexes (male and female) and two genders (masculine and feminine).… … Sociological Dictionary
GENDER- (gender) social sex In English. language The concepts of social sex (gender) and biological (sex) are distinguished. Terminologically, the concept of gender took shape in the process of theoretical development of feminism, and then of gender research itself... ... Modern philosophical dictionary
GENDER- social, cultural gender, the behavior of men and women, which is not genetically inherited, but acquired in the process of socialization. If the concept of “sex” captures the biological and physiological differences between a man and a woman, then “gender”... ... Thematic philosophical dictionary
Gender- (English gender gender) 1. the difference between men and women by anatomical sex; 2. a term used when discussing the similarities and differences between men and women, for example in the distribution of their social roles, to a large extent... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy
GENDER- (English gender - male, female): 1. (General meaning) - the difference between men and women by anatomical sex. 2. (Sociological meaning) a social division, often based on anatomical sex, but not necessarily the same as... ... Eurasian wisdom from A to Z. Explanatory dictionary
Books
- Gender in sports activities. Study guide, Vorozhbitova Alexandra Leonidovna. The textbook for the elective course reveals the problem of tender in sports activities, adapted for students in the 10th and 11th grades of specialized training in secondary educational institutions.…
