From Rus' to Russia: foreign policy (13-16 centuries).

By the middle of the 13th century, Russian lands found themselves between the Golden Horde and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the Baltic states, an early feudal state arose on lands inhabited by Lithuanian tribes. The center of Russian political life moved to northeastern (Vladimir-Suzdal) and northwestern (Novgorod) Rus'. On this territory, on the basis of the Old Russian nationality, the Great Russian nationality took shape. The main thing in the social development of the 14th-15th centuries. was intensive growth feudal land tenure. The main form was fiefdom. From the mid-14th century there was a significant increase in monastic land ownership. The Mongols, interested in maintaining their dominance, left land holdings in the hands of the church. The rise of agriculture created favorable conditions for the restoration and development of Russian cities. The defeat of old large cities such as Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov and the change in the nature of economic and trade relations and routes led to the fact that in the 13-15 centuries. Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, Kolomna received significant development. Cities became centers of not only domestic but also foreign trade, the main directions of which were western (Lithuania, Poland) and eastern (Caucasus, Crimea, Central Asia).

The fight to overthrow Golden Horde yoke became in the 13th-15th centuries. main national task. The restoration of the country's economy and its further development created the prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands. At the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th centuries. The Principality of Moscow is rapidly rising.

Summing up the development of Rus' in the first two centuries after the Mongol devastation, it can be argued that as a result of the heroic creative and military work of the Russian people during the 14th and first half of the 15th century. conditions were created for the creation of a unified state and the overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke. The struggle for the great reign was already underway, as the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century showed, not between individual principalities, but within the Moscow princely house. The Orthodox Church actively supported the struggle for the unity of Russian lands. The process of formation of the Russian state with its capital in Moscow became irreversible.

Late 15th century Historians define it as the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age. The Russian centralized state developed in the northeastern and northwestern lands of Kievan Rus, its southern and southwestern lands were included in Poland, Lithuania, and Hungary. His education was accelerated by the need to combat external danger, especially the Golden Horde. The completion of the process of unifying the Russian lands around Moscow into a centralized state occurred during the reign of Ivan 3 (1462-1505) and Vasily 3 (1505-1533). Under Ivan 3, the independent Golden Horde yoke was finally overthrown. Under him, the term Russia began to be used in relation to our state. Relying on the power of Moscow, it was possible to complete the unification of northeastern Rus'. In 1468, the Yaroslavl principality was finally annexed. In 1472, the annexation of Perm the Great began. In 1485 Tver passed to Moscow. In 1489, the Vyatka land, which was important in commercial terms, became part of the state. In 1503, many princes of the western Russian regions (Vyazemsky, Odoevsky, Vorotynsky, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky passed from Lithuania to the Moscow prince). In 1480, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was finally overthrown. This happened after a clash between Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on the Ugra River. Rus' finally stopped paying tribute to the Golden Horde until 1480. In 1502, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey inflicted a crushing defeat on the Golden Horde, after which its existence ceased. Under Vasily 3: in 1510 Pskov was annexed. In 1514, Smolensk, captured from Lithuania, became part of the Moscow state. In 1512, the Ryazan land, which was already dependent on Moscow, became part of Russia. Thus, the process of uniting northeastern and northwestern Rus' in one state was completed. The largest power in Europe was formed, which from the end of the 15th century began to be called Russia.

Fragmentation was gradually replaced centralization. A centralized control apparatus began to take shape - the Duma. It consisted of 5-12 boyars and no more than 12 okolnichikh. In addition to the Moscow boyars, from the mid-15th century. Local princes from the annexed lands also sat in the Duma, recognizing the seniority of Moscow. The Boyar Duma had advisory functions on the “affairs of the land.” The future order system grew out of two national departments: the Palace and the Treasury. The palace controlled the lands of the Grand Duke, the Treasury was in charge of finances, the state seal and the archive. In 1497, a new law of the codes of a single state was adopted - Sudebnik Ivana 3. It included 68 articles and reflected the efforts of the role of the central government in the state structure and legal proceedings of the country.

The foreign policy history of the time under review is extremely saturated with military clashes and wars. The length and openness of the Russian borders, their vulnerability to any natural obstacles, and vulnerability to invasion from outside determined the nature of the military danger, which gave rise to the need to constantly build up the military potential of the Moscow state and brought to the fore military means of resolving foreign policy problems.

One of the goals of the foreign policy of the Moscow state was the development and expansion of international relations, maintaining constant diplomatic and trade relations with various states. The annexation of Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1554-56) opened up greater opportunities for establishing contacts with the countries of Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Iran. A significant role was played by diplomatic and trade relations with the German Empire, England, and the Italian states. Ivan 4 attached particular importance to foreign trade with England. In the 80-90s there was further rapprochement with the Caucasian rulers. In 1586, Russian citizenship was accepted by the Kakhetian Tsar Alexander. The ties between the Moscow state and the largest state entity in Northern Dagestan have strengthened.

The Moscow principality arose at the end of the life of Alexander Nevsky (1263), who divided his lands among his sons. The founder of the Moscow dynasty was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniel. He strengthened and expanded the borders of his initially insignificant principality. His death (1303) before occupying the great Vladimir table deprived him, according to ladder law, descendants of Daniil Alexandrovich legitimate claims to the great reign. However, the sons of Daniil Alexandrovich entered into a struggle for the grand-ducal Vladimir table with the Tver princes. The struggle for the Horde label was carried out with varying degrees of success, but in 1327 Ivan Kalita of Moscow, together with the Tatar army, suppressed the uprising in Tver against the violence of the Khan's Baskak Cholkhan (Shevkal). The Grand Duke of Vladimir and Tver Alexander Mikhailovich was deprived of the throne and fled to Pskov. The label for the great reign of Vladimir passed to Ivan Kalita. From this time on, a long and complex process began of unifying the Russian lands around Moscow and the formation of a single Russian (Moscow) state and an all-Russian system of government on the basis of disparate political entities.

Ivan Kalita, enjoying full confidence in the Horde, received the right to collect tribute from all over Rus' and deliver it to the Horde. This became a powerful lever for growing the financial and economic power of Moscow, expanding the territory of the principality and suppressing rivals. Frequent trips to the Horde, demonstrations of ostentatious “humility,” flattery and bribery of the nomadic elite normalized Russian-Horde relations. For 40 years, the Russian lands got rid of Tatar raids. Ivan Kalita managed to methodically bring the Vladimir-Suzdal lands under his control, suppressing both local princely separatism and popular uprisings and numerous “ tatey.”

Using all means, often immoral - violence, intrigue, bribery, as well as marriage ties, princely treaties, alliances, etc., Ivan Kalita and his successors constantly expanded the borders of the Moscow principality. Relying on the military support of the Golden Horde, they not only captured appanage principalities or took away “disputed” territories from them, but often bought up lands and entered into agreements with weakened appanage princes, who turned into vassals Moscow. Appanage princes and local nobility joined the ruling elite of the Moscow principality, receiving their own or other estates, but already on the basis of service to the Moscow prince.

The spiritual basis for the formation of a unified Russian state was Orthodoxy.

The Russian Orthodox Church, as mentioned above, was not only one of the factors of the religious unity of the Russian people, but also represented the institutionalized framework of this unity. Bishops were appointed in individual lands with the approval of the local prince, participated in meetings of the prince’s councils, took care of strengthening the principalities, and opposed some of the actions of the Moscow princes, which cannot be considered as a manifestation of church separatism, since the political integration role of Moscow was not immediately determined. Therefore, the orientation of Metropolitan Peter towards Moscow, and then the transfer by Theognostus (1328-1353) of the metropolitan see to Moscow, turned it into the spiritual and ecclesiastical center of the Russian lands, which created the preconditions for Moscow’s claims to the inheritance of Kievan Rus and the representation of the interests of all Russians.

The victory on the Kulikovo field (1380) did not allow Dmitry Donskoy to overthrow the yoke, but Moscow finally secured its role as a national center. The transition to a new principle of succession to the throne (from father to son) led to dynastic war 1433-1453 Despite enormous disasters and serious setbacks during the war, Vasily II the Dark defended his power, and the process of unification of Russian lands entered the final phase - the Principality of Moscow from specific turned into the Russian state.

Rus' in the 13th century experienced a period of princely civil strife. While there was a struggle for power and land between the princes within the country, a significant threat was looming from Asia - the Tatar-Mongol tribes led by Genghis Khan.

Fight against the Mongol conquerors

The main events of the 13th century in Rus' centered around the fight against the Mongol-Tatar invasion. At first it did not affect Rus', but the princes agreed to come to the aid of the Polovtsian princes. Further events are presented in chronological order in the table:

Rice. 1. Khan Batu.

In fact, this is where the list of important events ends - the end of the 13th century did not bring any changes, Rus' continued to be under the rule of the Horde, who encouraged princely civil strife.

Fight against the Swedes and Germans

Almost simultaneously with the invasion from Asia, the expansion of the West into Russian lands began. So, in 1240, the crusading knights, who settled in the Baltic states, began to threaten the Pskov and Novgorod lands. The common idea - the spread of the ideas of Catholicism - was supposed to be supported by the united Swedish-German forces, but the Swedes attacked Rus' first.

On July 15, 1240, the Battle of the Neva took place. The Swedish fleet entered the mouth of the Neva, but at their request, the son of the Vladimir prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich Alexander came to the aid of the Novgorodians. He set out with an army and chose a strategy of surprise and speed of attack, since his army was inferior in number to the Swedish one. Thanks to the swiftness of the blow, a victory was won, for which young Alexander was given the nickname Nevsky.

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Rice. 2. Alexander Nevsky.

But this was not the end of Rus'’s struggle with the conquerors. this time the German knights, who had gained strength, came out against Pskov and Novgorod. Alexander Nevsky again came to their aid.

In 1242, on April 5, Russian warriors and crusaders converged on the ice of Lake Peipus. Alexander's army acted coherently and again won. Many knights simply fell through the ice under the weight of their uniforms. Subsequently, this battle will be called the Battle of the Ice.

From 1251 to 1263, the reign of Alexander Nevsky lasted.

Culture of Rus' 13th century

The culture of Ancient Rus' of the 13th century was based on the culture of East Slavic tribes. Many of its monuments were lost due to the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Some examples of architecture have been preserved - churches and cathedrals, as well as church paintings - icons - and literary monuments. At this time, parables began to be written, such a genre as hagiography appeared, and the most famous work of this period is “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik.

Rice. 3. Church of the 13th century.

The culture of Rus' of this period was influenced by nomadic peoples and countries of Western Europe. as well as Byzantium, which is associated with the adoption of Christianity. It had special features, such as a slow pace of development, the predominance of a religious worldview and reverence for the past.

The main political centers, such as Vladimir, Suzdal, Galich, Novgorod, were at the same time cultural centers. Due to the invasion of the Mongols and their constant destructive raids, many secrets of crafts, in particular, jewelry making, were lost. The population also decreased greatly.

What have we learned?

How did Rus' live in the 13th century and who were its main military opponents - the Tatar-Mongols and the crusading knights who wanted to introduce Catholicism. We also found out who ruled Rus' in the 13th century and which ruler saved the Pskov and Novgorod principalities from the Teutonic knights. We looked at how military events influenced the course of history, as well as the culture of Rus'. They established which cities were cultural centers and what trends prevailed in architecture, literature and painting. We examined in general terms the state of culture during this period and its main features.

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The very first human settlements in the territory
Russia were discovered in Kostenki (Voronezh
region), they are about 45 thousand years old. People's homes
were made from mammoth bones, covered
skins.

"Venus" from
Bones. Done
from mammoth ivory.
20-30 thousand years.

At the beginning of the 13th century, the Mongol hordes invaded the Black Sea steppes through the Caucasus, defeated the Polovtsians, and advanced to Rus'. A united army of Russian princes and Polovtsy came out against them. The battle took place on May 31, 1223 Kalka River
and ended in complete defeat - only a tenth of the army survived.

Batu's invasion of Rus' took place in the winter of 1237. The Ryazan principality was the first to be devastated. Then Batu moved to the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.
In January 1238, Kolomna and Moscow fell, in February Vladimir, Suzdal, Pereslavl, etc. Battle of the Sit River(March 4, 1238) ended in the defeat of the Russian army.
The “evil city” (Kozelsk) held the defense for 7 weeks. The Mongols did not reach Novgorod (according to the dominant version, due to the spring thaw).

Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus'. Briefly

History of the Old Russian State 9-12 centuries. Briefly

In 1238, Batu sent troops to conquer southern Rus'. In 1240,
Having captured Kiev, his army moved to Europe.
During the invasion, the Mongols captured all Russian lands except Novgorod.
Every year the Russian principalities paid tribute. Right to reign ( label)
Russian princes received in the Golden Horde.

Diorama of the assault on Vladimir by the Tatars (Exhibition at the Golden Gate). In the foreground is the Golden Gate. The Mongols were unable to enter through them and made a breach in the wall. Author of the photo: Dmitry Bakulin (Photos-Yandex)

Slavic tribes. Baptism of Rus'. Formation of the Old Russian state.

Princes of the ancient Russian state. Feudal fragmentation in Rus'.

Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus' 1237-1240.

Old Russian state. Mongolian
Tata invasion.

1300-1613

1613-1762

1762-1825

9th-13th centuries

1825-1917

1917-1941

1941-1964

1964-2014

Brief summary of the history of Russia. Part 1
(9th-13th centuries)

History of the Old Russian state 9-12 centuries.
Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus'.

Brief history of Russia. Brief summary of the history of Russia. History of Russia in pictures. History of the Old Russian State 9-12 centuries. The Mongol-Tatar invasion is brief. History of Russia for children.

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After the death of the prince Mstislava(ruled: 1125 -1132) Kievan Rus disintegrates
into principalities that are comparable in size to Western European ones
kingdoms. In 1136, an uprising in Novgorod leads
to the emergence of an independent state - Novgorod
republics, which occupied the territory from the Baltic
sea to the Ural Mountains (in the north).

IN 6th century The Great Migration of the Slavs takes place, the first political associations of the Eastern Slavs appear in the region of the Dnieper and Lake Ilmen. The existence of 13 tribes is known: Polyans, Krivichi, Drevlyans, Ulichs, Vyatichi, etc. At that time, the territory of modern Central Russia was inhabited by Finno-Ugric tribes, they gradually assimilated with the Slavs.

The development of crafts in the 8th-9th centuries led to the emergence
cities. Most often they were built at the confluence of rivers,
which served as trade routes. Most famous
trade route of that time - "from the Varangians to the Greeks" on
Novgorod was located in the north of the route, and Kyiv in the south.

IN 862 residents of Novgorod called on the Varangian princes to rule the city
(according to the Norman theory). Prince Rurik became the founder of the princely,
and subsequently the royal dynasty. The Norman theory has been repeatedly refuted by famous historians and scientists (M. Lomonosov, V. Tatishchev, etc.)

After the death of Rurik, he becomes the Prince of Novgorod
Oleg(Prophetic). He captures Kyiv and moves there
capital of Rus'. Subjugates a number of Slavic tribes.
In 907 he made a successful campaign against Byzantium,
receives tribute and concludes a profitable trade agreement.

Prince Igor subjugated the eastern tribes of the Slavs.
In 945 he was killed by the Drevlyans when he tried again
receive tribute from them. Princess Olga(wife) took revenge
to the Drevlyans, but makes the tribute fixed.
In Constantinople she converts to Christianity. In the 16th century her
canonized as saints.

Olga ruled during her childhood Svyatoslav And
continued to rule after her son became prince
in 964 Svyatoslav was in the military almost all the time
hiking. They defeated the Bulgarian and Khazar
kingdoms. Upon returning to Rus', after an unsuccessful
During the campaign against Byzantium (971), he was killed by the Pechenegs.

The death of Svyatoslav led to internecine struggle between
by his sons. After the murder of his brother Yaropolk came to power
the prince comes Vladimir.
In 988, Vladimir was baptized in Chersonesos
(now it is a museum-reserve in Sevastopol). Begins
stage of the formation of Christianity in Rus'.

During civil war (1015-1019), after the death of Vladimir, they die
from the hands of Svyatopolk, princes Boris and Gleb (became the first Russian saints).
In the fight against Svyatopolk the prince gains the upper hand
Yaroslav the Wise. He strengthens the state, relieves
Rus' from the Pecheneg raids. It began under Yaroslav
creation of the first set of laws in Rus' - “Russian Truth”.

After the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054), a division took place
Rus' between his sons - " Yaroslavich Triumvirate".
In 1072, “The Truth of the Yaroslavichs”, the second part, was compiled
"Russian Truth".

After the death of the Kyiv prince Svyatopolk (reign: 1093 - 1113), according to
comes to power at the insistence of the people of Kiev Vladimir Monomakha. During the years of his reign, Kievan Rus strengthened and princely civil strife stopped.
As a result of the agreement at the Dolob Congress of Russian Princes (1103), it was possible to stop the discord and, in subsequent years, defeat the Polovtsian khans with a joint army.

In 1169 Andrey Bogolyubsky ruins Kyiv. He carries
the capital of Rus' in Vladimir. Policy to centralize power
leads to a conspiracy among the boyars. In 1174 the prince was killed in his
palace in Bogolyubovo (suburb of Vladimir).
becomes his successor Vsevolod's Big Nest.

862

945

988

1019

1113

1136

1169

1223

1237

1242

The Novgorod Republic escaped the Mongol invasion, but experienced
aggression from Western neighbors. July 15, 1240 took place Battle of Neva.
The squad led by Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich (who became Nevsky) defeated the Swedish army.
On April 5, 1242, a battle between the Russian army, led by Alexander Nevsky, and the knights of the Livonian Order took place on Lake Peipus. During Battle on the Ice the German knights were defeated. In the 16th century. A. Nevsky was canonized.

1) Feudal fragmentation.

2) Tatar Mongol invasion

3) Development of Moscow

4) Formation of the Russian centralized state.

1. Reasons for fragmentation:

Strengthening the economic and military power of the separation of Russian lands

The growth of cities and the increase in their population

The main economic structure became the patrimony; the strengthened feudal clans sought to have power close to their local interests

The isolation of the lands was also facilitated by the fact that they differed from each other in natural and economic conditions

Kiev's loss of influence was due to the movement of the main trade routes to the Mediterranean, northwestern and central Europe

Kyiv was forced to wage a constant struggle with nomads

Permanent princely divisions of lands between the Rurikovichs, and the assignment of territory to certain branches of this family, which acquired actual independence

The Lyubechsky Congress of 1097 consolidated the fragmentation of the feud by confirming that each of the branches of the Rurikovichs had its own fiefdom and the Kiev prince could not enter into other people's possessions

2. The Tatar-Mongol invasion began from the northeast. In Rus' in 1237 they invaded the Ryazan principality, in 1238 - the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, then continued their movement to the northwest and south of Rus' to open the way to Europe.

In 1242, the Tatar-Mongols descended to the lower reaches of the Volga and formed the Golden Horde here

Consequences of the conquest:

1) Economic:

Ruin of lands

Decline of agriculture

Destruction of cities, most of which were never rebuilt

The most able-bodied population, artisans, were taken to the Horde, which led to the interruption of traditions in the field of crafts

There is a pumping out of large amounts of money in the form of tribute (exit)

2) Political:

Political isolation of Rus'

The consolidation of Russian lands was slowed down

The despotic principles of power are established

The southern and western lands of Rus' are included in the Principality of Lithuania. North-east and north-west Rus' is dependent on the Golden Horde.

3) Ethnic:

The ancient Russian people are disappearing

To the north-east. and in the north-west the Great Russian nation begins to form as a result of mass immigration from Kyiv Rus to the Oka and Volga interfluves where mixing occurs with the Finno-Ugric tribes (Chud, Merya, Morda)

Already in the 14th century. “Great Rus'” was designated as the territory of Great Russia; in relation to Ukraine, the term “Little Rus'” was used.

As a result of the conquest, Danish relations were established between the Horde and Russia.

The entire population was enumerated - “counted in number” and fixed amounts of the “exit” tribute were established. Control over the collection of tribute was initially carried out by representatives of the Baskaki khan, and from the 14th century a label on the great reign was introduced.

3. Reasons for the rise of Moscow:

Favorable natural-geographical location

Distance from the Golden Horde

Location on trade routes

Politics of the Moscow princes

Starting from Ivan Kolyta, the label for the great reign was held by the Moscow princes with short interruptions, which gave the right to collect tribute

Under Ivan Kolit, Moscow became the spiritual capital of Rus' (the Metropolitan moved here)

The Moscow princes pursued a policy of expanding the lands of the principality. New territories were bought up or annexed by force of arms

The Moscow princes under Dmitry Donskoy led the fight against the Golden Horde. After the victory on the Kulikovo field. Moscow began to be perceived in people's minds as a stronghold in the fight against the yoke.

4. During the reign of Ivan 3, the Russian center was formed. State which was expressed: 1) In the unification of all Russian lands under the rule of Ivan 3. Of particular importance in this process was the annexation of the main political opponents of the Novgorod and Tver principalities.

2) Creation of a single centralized management apparatus. Power belonged to the tsar, who did not have full power, but ruled the state with the help of the boyar duma. Central government departments began to form, with the treasury in charge of finances.

An important stage in the creation of the state. The adoption of the all-Russian code of laws “Code Code” of 1497 began.

3) Liberation from the Tatar-Mongol yoke as a result of standing on the Ugra River in 1480.

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Unification of Rus'

In XIII, Rus' became the northern province of the Golden Horde. Batu personally appointed the Grand Duke, presenting him with a special letter - a label for reign. To prevent any of the Russian princes from strengthening, the khans of the Golden Horde constantly pitted them against each other, supported the weakest, and killed those they disliked. A tribute was imposed on Rus', which was initially collected by Horde troops led by the Baskaks, then by the Russian princes themselves. To control its payment, a population census was conducted. Warriors and artisans were taken to serve in the Horde. The Horde yoke was established. Dissatisfaction with the exactions of the Mongols caused uprisings, which were brutally suppressed.

The Mongol conquest led to a long-term political, economic and cultural decline of the Russian lands. Rus' was devastated and plundered. Previously populous areas became depopulated - for example, the huge city of Ryazan virtually disappeared (the current Ryazan is located in a different place). The unification process was suspended for a long time.

The rise of Moscow. Battle of Kulikovo

By the end of the 14th century. The struggle for the grand-ducal throne was fought by the Tver, Moscow, Ryazan and Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod principalities. The khan's label gave and protected power over all of Russia. Gradually, the Principality of Moscow began to play an increasingly prominent place in the political struggle. It became independent under the son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniil. The beginning of the rise of the principality is considered to be 1301, when Daniil recaptured Kolomna from Ryazan. Then Ivan Danilovich Kalita, who suppressed the anti-Horde uprising in Tver (1327), received the label for the great reign and the right to collect tribute. Although Kalita’s selfish goals were more important than all-Russian interests, he still contributed to the strengthening of Rus', and under him the atrocities of the Tatar detachments ceased. Kalita's sons - Semyon Proud and Ivan the Red - continued their father's policies and managed to survive the fight against Tver, Novgorod, Ryazan, Lithuania, Livonia...

Third quarter of the 14th century. secured Moscow's role as the center for the unification of Russian lands. In 1375, the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich forced the Tver prince to abandon the label of great reign and recognize the seniority of the Moscow prince. By this time, the Golden Horde was weakened by internal strife. The military leader Mamai seized power there. He was not a descendant of Genghis Khan, and in 1374 Dmitry Ivanovich refused to pay tribute to the Horde. In 1378, the punitive detachment sent by Mamai was defeated on the Vozha River. Then Mamai prepared a big invasion, as at Batu. Moscow acted as a gathering center for Russian troops from different lands. Two large armies met on the Kulikovo field on September 8, 1380. The outcome of the bloody battle was decided by the strike of the Russian ambush regiment - Mamai’s army wavered and fled. Mamai himself fled to Crimea and died there. Dmitry Ivanovich received the nickname Donskoy for this victory, and was later canonized by the church. But the yoke did not fall: in 1382, the legitimate Khan Tokhtamysh, who overthrew Mamai, undertook a punitive campaign against Moscow and restored the Horde’s rights to collect tribute. Nevertheless, the Moscow principality remained the political center of Rus' - Dmitry Ivanovich inherited the grand-ducal throne to his son, Vasily I, as his own possession, without asking the khan’s permission.

The fall of the Horde yoke. Russian Educationstates

Period 1389-1462 characterized by serious infighting among the descendants of Dmitry Donskoy. In the end, they resulted in a brutal internecine war in the second quarter of the 15th century. At that time, the centers of unification of Rus' could have been trading Novgorod or the northern Galician land with its developed industries and free peasants. However, the victory remained with the Moscow Prince Vasily II, who used the Horde as allies. In the struggle for central power, Basil was supported by the Orthodox Church, which, after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, gained independence from Byzantium.

The political unification of Rus' was completed under Ivan III (1462-1505) and his son Vasily II7 (1505-1533). The large and strong Moscow principality achieved the final overthrow of the yoke: in 1476, Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Horde, and in 1480, when Khan Akhmat opposed Rus', he moved his army towards him. For a week, two armies stood on opposite banks of the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka), not daring to start a battle. In the end, Akhmat retreated. The date November 11, 1480 - the end of the “standing on the Ugra” - is considered the date of the fall of the Horde yoke.

Ivan III was an intelligent and cautious ruler, power-hungry, cruel and treacherous. He achieved the submission of his main opponents. In 1478, the Novgorod land was annexed, the veche was abolished, and the veche bell was taken to Moscow. The Tver principality was surrounded on all sides by Moscow possessions, and in 1485 the Tver residents recognized the supremacy of Ivan III. In the same year, Ivan declared himself “Sovereign of All Rus',” and the name “Russia” began to appear in official documents. The marriage of Ivan III to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor - Sophia Palaeologus - seemed to confirm the transition to Moscow from Constantinople as the center of Orthodoxy. Russia also adopted the state emblem of Byzantium - the double-headed eagle.

In 1497, an all-Russian code of laws appeared - the Code of Laws. It reflected the swing of the legal formalization of serfdom: the time frame for a peasant to leave his owner was limited to two weeks a year (before and after St. George’s Day in the fall - November 26).

Vasily III abolished the independence of Pskov (1510) and Ryazan (1521), and conquered part of the lands in the west from Lithuania, including Smolensk. The unification of Russian lands was basically completed. The united Russian state included many nationalities: Mari, Mordovians, Komi, Pechora, Karelians, etc. The emergence of a single multinational state put an end to strife, made the country resistant to external threats, and contributed to the development of internal lands. However, strong autocratic power carried within itself the germ of despotism that developed under Ivan IV.

Russia in the 16th century

conquest of the yoke of Kulikovo industry

In the 16th century The territory of the Russian state has increased significantly. But the unsuitability of many lands for agriculture and the small population did not contribute to the rapid development of the economy. However, the country's deliverance from the huge Horde tribute led in the first half of the 15th century. to economic recovery. Farmers gradually moved into the black earth zone south of the Oka. The government supported the development of the wild field - the zone of invasion of nomads - and built cities in the South that became strongholds for the advance into the steppe.

In the XV-XVI centuries. the number of monasteries increased significantly; Peasants willingly settled on their lands.

Low state taxes, as well as the fact that landowners preferred to receive income from dependent peasants in the form of quitrents in money or food, ensured a normal existence for the peasants. Contemporaries noted the abundance and cheapness of food in Russia. The village economy strengthened so much that it subsequently withstood multiple increases in government taxes.

Cities grew rapidly. Construction, the iron industry, salt making, and carpentry developed. The role of such centers as Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vologda has increased. In 1584, Arkhangelsk was built and trade with Western Europe opened. Russia sold timber, hemp, yarn, leather, and bought copper, silver, and metal products. Russian merchants traded with England; Businessmen from Germany and Holland began to actively operate on the Russian market. Large Russian merchants opened their trading and manufacturing enterprises in many cities. Annexed in 1556, Astrakhan became the most important center of trade between Russia and the East.

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