Types of interaction. A

1. Society.

Social Sciences: economics, philosophy, sociology, political science, ethics (about morality), aesthetics (about beauty).

Society:

In a narrow sense: A group of people connected by common interests and goals.

In a broad sense: A part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, including all ways of interaction between people and forms of their unification.

Society and nature interact and influence each other. Economic interaction – consumption of natural resources , environmental– protection of natural resources.

Noosphere (IN. Vernadsky) – habitat (biosphere) controlled by the human mind.

Society - dynamic system.

Systemic qualities of society: integrity, dynamism, historicity, openness, hierarchy.

There are 4 spheres (subsystems) in the structure of society:

1. Economic- material production and industrial relations.

2. Political- politics, state, law, their relationships and functioning, media, army.

3. Social– relations between classes, groups, nations, etc.

4. Spiritual– forms of social consciousness: religion, morality, science, art.

The spheres interact and are interconnected.

Public relations – relationships and forms that arise in the process of life between social groups, classes, nations, as well as within them.

Public relations

Spiritual Material

The most important component of society is social institution – a historically established form of organization of people, based on a set of norms and statuses, regulating their activities and satisfying fundamental human needs.

Social institutions : property, state, political parties, family, church, labor organizations, educational institutions, science, media, etc.

Types of societies(by Daniel Bell, Alvin Toffler)

Types of societies (according to O. Toffler)

Social change– transition of social systems, communities, organizations from one state to another (natural, demographic, social, spiritual changes, etc.).

Directed development

progress stagnation regression

Progress criterion – the degree of freedom that society gives a person for its optimal development. Progress controversial(both positive and negative processes)

Forms of progress: revolution and reform. Evolution – gradual development.

Scientific and technological progress (NTP) - qualitative change in the productive forces of society under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution.

Scientific and technological revolution (STR) – a leap in the development of the productive forces of society based on fundamental changes in the system of scientific knowledge.

Historical process – chronological sequence of events that influence the development of society. Subjects of the historical process: individuals, social groups, masses. Historical fact - an event in public life.

Civilization – the totality of material, spiritual and moral means that a given society has in a given historical period.

The term put forward N. Danilevsky, called civilizations cultural and historical types. He distinguished civilizations according to 4 characteristics: economic, cultural, political, religious. To characterize civilizations, the concept of mentality is also distinguished.

Mentality- a way of thinking, worldview inherent in a certain group or individual

Two theories: the theory of stage development ( study development as a single process ) and the theory of local civilizations(study large historically established communities).

Approaches to studying the historical process:

Global problems of our time – a complex of social and natural contradictions affecting the entire world as a whole. I are an indicator of the integrity and interconnection of the modern world, pose a threat to humanity, and require joint efforts to be resolved.

Main problems:

1. Environmental: pollution, species extinction, “ozone holes,” etc.

The term "Ecology" was introducedE. Haeckel.

2. Demographic;

3. The problem of security and prevention of world war;

4. Resource problem;

5. The North-South problem: developing and highly developed countries.

Globalization – strengthening integration ties in various spheres between states, organizations, and communities.

International organizations: UN (United Nations); IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency); UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization); WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization); WTO (World Trade Organization); NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization); OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe); European Union; OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Producing and Exporting Countries); CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States); SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organization) and others.

In psychology, such a concept as interaction is revealed as the actions of people directed towards each other. Such actions can be considered as a set of certain actions aimed at achieving one’s goals, solving practical problems and realizing value guidelines.

Basic types of human interaction

Various types of interaction are distinguished depending on the situation that caused it. This is what gave rise to their various classifications.

The most common classification is based on performance orientation.

Types of interaction in the communication process

1. Cooperation- this is an interaction in which its participants reach a mutual agreement on how to act to achieve common goals and try not to violate it as long as their areas of interest coincide.
2. Competition- this is an interaction that is characterized by the achievement of one’s personal or public goals and interests in conditions of confrontation of interests between people.

Types of interpersonal interaction often determine the nature of relationships between people. The division into types can be based on the intentions and actions of people, which indicate how each of the participants in the interaction understands the meaning of what is happening. In this case, 3 more types are distinguished.

Types and types of interaction

1. Additional. This is an interaction in which partners calmly and objectively treat each other’s positions.
2. Intersecting. An interaction during which participants, on the one hand, demonstrate a reluctance to understand the position and opinion of other interaction partners. At the same time, on the other hand, they actively demonstrate their own intentions in this regard.
3. Hidden interaction. This type includes two levels at once: external, expressed verbally, and hidden, manifested in a person’s thoughts. It assumes either very good knowledge of the participant in the interaction, or your sensitivity to non-verbal means of communication. These include tone of voice, intonation, facial expressions and gestures, in general, everything that can give a hidden meaning to a conversation.

Styles and types of interaction and their features

1. Cooperation. It is aimed at the complete satisfaction of interaction partners with their needs and aspirations. Here one of the motives given above is realized: cooperation or competition.
2. Opposition. This style involves focusing on one’s own goals, without taking into account any interests of the other party involved. The principle of individualism appears.
3. Compromise. It is realized in partial achievement of the goals and interests of both parties.
4. Compliance. It involves sacrificing one’s own interests to achieve the goals of a partner or giving up minor needs to achieve some more significant goal.
5. Avoidance. This style represents withdrawal or avoidance of contact. In this case, it is possible to lose your own goals to exclude winnings.

Sometimes activity and communication are considered as two components of the social existence of society. In other cases, communication is designated as a certain aspect of activity: it is included in any activity and is part of it. The activity itself appears to us as a condition and basis for communication. Moreover, in psychology, the concepts of “interaction” “communication” are at the same level as “personality” “activity” and are fundamental.

Types of interaction in psychology play a huge role not only in interpersonal communication, but also in the process of human development and, as a consequence, society as a whole. Without communication, human society would not be able to fully function, and we would never have reached such heights of socio-economic development as we do now.

C. Part of nature

D. The material world as a whole

D. All ways of interaction between people and forms of their association

3. Sciences that study the life of society are called

A. Humanitarian

B. Natural

C. Public

D. Technical

4. It is common for humans, unlike animals, to

A. Instincts

C. Needs

D. Consciousness

5. Man, unlike animals, has the ability

A. Act together with others like you

B. See the purpose of your actions

C. Educate offspring

D. Protect yourself from danger

6. The ability of an individual to exercise moral self-control and self-assessment of his behavior is called

B. Self-realization

C. Liability

D. Conscience

7. Play, learning and work act as

A. Criteria of truth

B. Types of activities

C. Social qualities

D. Biological needs

8. One of the signs of human activity that distinguishes it from the behavior of animals is

A. Activity

B. Goal setting

C. Adaptation to the environment

D. Interaction with the outside world

9. Towards a profession not applicable..

B. Mechanic

D. Mathematician

10. Both humans and animals have needs for

A. Self-realization

B. Self-preservation

C. Self-knowledge

D. Self-education

11. Human social needs include the need for

B. Communication

C. Self-preservation

D. Preservation of offspring

12. Deep, stable need of the individual for a particular activity

A. Addiction

B. Interest

C. Desire

A. D. Toynbee

B. A. Maslow

D. V. Lenin

14. The main criterion of truth is

B. Practice

C. Hypothesis

D. Theorem

15. Lying is...

A. Distortion of the actual state of affairs, intended to deceive someone

D. Distortion of the actual state of affairs, mistakenly accepted as true

16. The most important value of modern civilization is

A. Real estate

B. Natural resources

C. Personal freedom

17. The internal limiter of human freedom is

A. Conscience

B. Liability

D. Morality

18. Communication interaction between people or social groups

A. Relationships

B. Activities

C. Communication

D. Cognition

19. Non-verbal form of communication, including gestures, facial expressions, gestures

A. Verbal

B. Formal

C. Informal

D. Nonverbal

20. Singer S. was not allowed to leave the stage for a long time after the performance. He smiled, bowed, and the people in the hall applauded him standing. This is an example of... communication

A. Business

B. Ritual

C. Everyday

D. Speech

21. Highlighting the main elements of society and their interaction, scientists characterize society as

A. System

B. Part of nature

C. Material world

D. Civilization

22. Characterizes society as a system

A. Isolation from the natural environment

B. Existence of social relations

C. Maintaining a connection with nature

D. Set of subsystems and elements

23. One of the subsystems of society is... the sphere of life of society

A. Spiritual

B. Budget

C. Tax

D. Structural

24. Only thanks to nature does society have the opportunity

A. Form ethical attitudes of its members

B. Satisfy the biological needs of its members

C. Create essential social institutions

D. Create a noosphere in addition to the biosphere

25. An example of the impact of society on nature is

A. Discovery of a previously unknown ancient chronicle

B. Picketing of Parliament by an environmental organization

C. Disposal of radioactive waste

D. Calendar reform

26. A global environmental problem is

A. Organization of nature reserves and sanctuaries

B. Spread of drug addiction and alcoholism

C. Depletion of natural resources

D. Threat of World War

27. A rapid abrupt transition from one socio-political system to another is called

A. Progress

B. Revolution

C. Reform

D. Regression

28. Nomads invaded country A, ravaging cities, villages, and destroying complex irrigation systems for agriculture. For many years, shopping centers fell into disrepair, and trade routes shifted. This example illustrates such a form of social change as

A. Reform

B. Revolution

C. Modernization

D. Regression

29. K is a small island, cut off from civilization. Its inhabitants lead subsistence farming and live in large families, the heads of which are older men. This example illustrates... type of society

A. Traditional

B. Industrial

C. Informational

D. Post-industrial

30. The emergence of transnational corporations in the modern world and the development of international trade are manifestations of a trend

A. Upgrades

B. Globalization

C. Democratization

D. Informatization

31. Negative consequences of globalization

A. Destruction of traditional ways

B. Increased colonial oppression

C. Intensification of the Cold War

D. Increased birth rate

32. Positive consequences of globalization

A. Dissemination of samples of popular culture

B. New jobs created

C. Increased confrontation between countries

D. Development gap between North and South countries

33. Culture in the broad sense of the word is

A. The level of development of society at a certain point in history

B. Everything that relates to activities in the field of art

C. The degree of education of a certain person or team

D. All achievements of man since his inception

34. A culture whose works are intended for a narrow circle of experts is called

A. Folk

B. Mass

C. National

D. Elite

35. Works created by anonymous creators, often without professional training, are cultural

A. Screen

B. Folk

C. Mass

D. Spiritual

36. Humanities include

A. History

B. Mathematics

C. Art criticism

37. A logically coherent knowledge system, tested by theories and practice, is called

A. Relative truth

B. Absolute truth

C. Education

D. Science

38. What distinguishes science from other branches of culture is

A. Emotional expression of personal attitude towards the world

B. Identifying the essence of social and natural phenomena

C. Reflection of reality in artistic images

D. Assessing individual behavior

39. The Law of the Russian Federation “On Education” names the following levels of education

A. Preschool, general education

B. Preschool, general, vocational, additional education

C. Preschool, primary, vocational, additional education

D. Basic, vocational education

40. Victor entered a technical school to study the profession of agricultural mechanization. What stage of education is Victor at?

A. Basic general education

B. Secondary vocational education

C. Higher professional education

D. Additional education

41. Vladimir studies in the 6th grade of a comprehensive school. He enjoys aircraft modeling and horse riding. What stage of education is Vladimir at?

A. Primary education

B. Basic general education

C. Secondary vocational education

D. Higher professional education

A. Honor and Dignity

B. Comfort and amenities

C. Nature and culture

D. Health and success

43. The call “Do some good deed every day” refers to the area

B. Arts

C. Education

D. Morals

44. The earliest world religion is

B. Buddhism

C. Orthodoxy

D. Catholicism

45. Art as a type of human activity is characterized

A. Credibility of the results

B. Creating artistic images

C. Clarity and integrity of expression

D. Creation of wealth

46. ​​Types of art include

A. Painting

B. Literary Studies

C. History

D. Art criticism

47. Kind of art is not

A. Literature

B. History

48. Economics

A. Monitors the correctness of the conclusion of contracts between entrepreneurs

B. Monitors product quality and applies sanctions to unscrupulous manufacturers

C. Develops rules for the safe use of machinery and equipment

B. Labor

D. Competition

51. A distinctive feature of a market economy is

A. Centralized resource distribution

B. Free pricing

C. Introduction of income tax

D. Commodity shortage

52. Traditional economics is characterized by

A. Periodic occurrence of crises of overproduction

C. Team

D. Mixed

54. Consumer income includes

A. Payment of utilities

B. Salary

C. Mortgage Payment

D. Purchasing a car

55. One of the limitations of consumer opportunities is

A. Level of education

B. Amount of income

C. Social status

D. Profession

56. The consumer has the right to return the product to the store within ... days from the date of purchase

57. The function of the market in the economy is

A. Regulates money circulation

D. Goods and services

59. The market regulates the economy through a mechanism

A. Taxation

B. Free prices

C. State planning

D. Government order

60. The coincidence of the demand price and the supply price for a certain product indicates the availability of

A. Commodity shortage

B. Commodity surplus

C. Equilibrium price

D. Monopoly price

61. During the year, the production of goods doubled. The result of this will be

A. Demand for it will fall.

B. Its price will fall

C. Its price will increase

D. The supply will not change.

62. In economics, the definition of demand refers to the number of goods and services that...

A. Manufacturers present at this price

B. Consumers would like to have

B. Profit

C. Cost

D. Subsidies

64. The division of costs into fixed and variable is due to changes

A. Price level

B. Production volume

C. Quantities of resources

D. Resource efficiency

65. To explicit (accounting) variable costs not applicable

A. Purchase of raw materials

B. Piece wages

C. Container and packaging costs

A. Tax

C. Subsidy

68. The main function of the tax system in the country is to

A. Stimulating production

D. Labor productivity

73. The minimum means to support human life is called

A. Average per capita consumption

B. Consumer basket

C. Living wage

D. Minimum wage

74. Part of the economically active population that wants to work is looking for work, but cannot find it at a certain time in a certain territory

A. Pensioners

B. Disabled people

C. Unemployed

D. Minors

75. A means of implementing exchange relations; the universal equivalent of the value of a commodity, a medium of circulation and a means of saving is

A. Credit card

B. Bond

C. Bill of exchange

D. Money

76. The exclusive right to issue money in the Russian Federation has(s)

A. Investment companies

B. Central Bank

C. Commercial banks

D. Government of the Russian Federation

77. The interest rate at which banks provide loans is called

B. Bank interest

C. Dividend

D. Discount rate

78. Export of goods and services abroad for the purpose of sale on the world market is

D. Export

79. The importation of goods and services into the country for the purpose of selling them on the domestic market is

A. Import

C. Export

80. State policy aimed at protecting the interests of domestic producers from foreign competitors is

A. Freeriding

B. Mercantilism

C. Protectionism

D. Keynesianism

81. The division of society into various social groups is social

A. Stratification

B. Mobility

C. Integration

D. Discrimination

82. Different social groups in any society occupy certain positions. This fact is the result

A. Integrations

B. Differentiation

C. Stabilization

D. Modernization

83. Castes, estates, classes are

C. Mobility

D. Instability

85. A form of vertical mobility is

A. Starting a family

B. Excellent production performance

C. Permanent residence in the city

D. Promotion

86. A form of horizontal mobility is

D. Professor

89. This status is inherited. Its owner is endowed with social privileges. This is the status

A. Official

B. Aristocrat

C. Financier

D. Entrepreneur

90. The measure of negative or positive impact on a person is social

B. Sanction

91. Informal sanctions include

A. Presentation of the certificate

B. Good review

C. Bonuses

D. Presentation of a memorable gift

92. Citizen N committed an immoral act, for which his friends expressed their disapproval of him. This fact is an example

A. Social inequality

B. Social stratification

C. Social mobility

D. Social control

93. Positive deviant behavior is illustrated by the situation

C. Drug addiction

95. Conflict is

A. The desire to surpass each other, to achieve some success in claims to power, privilege, etc.

B. Participation in a common cause, manifested in friendship, partnership, cooperation

B. Medium

97. A high level of social mobility is one of the characteristics of... society

A. Western

B. Eastern

C. Traditional

D. Industrial

98. Subculture is

A. A set of norms based on everyday experience

B. Only a culture based on a scientific worldview

A. 16-25

101. The unity of territory and language play an important role in the formation

A. Social classes

B. Ethnic groups

C. Cultural communities

D. Political organizations

102. The trend towards interethnic integration is manifested in

A. Separatism

B. Strengthening interethnic characteristics

C. Bringing Peoples Together

D. National isolation

103. Varieties of ethnicity include:

B. Nationalities

D. Electorate

104. A sign that distinguishes a family as a small social group is

A. Joint attendance of foreign language courses

B. Carrying out professional activities

C. Having common preferences in clothing

C. Family

106. The economic function of a family is characterized by

A. Regulation of behavior

B. Reproduction of social structure

C. Organization of family leisure

C. State

D. Political culture

109. A characteristic of any state is the presence

A. Three branches of government

B. Republic

C. Monarchy

D. Ochlocracy

111. A form of government in which all power is concentrated in the hands of one person, is not limited by anyone or anything and is inherited is called

A. Absolute monarchy

B. Constitutional monarchy

C. Parliamentary monarchy

D. Republic

112. The state of N. consists of entities that have partial sovereignty. Its parliament consists of two chambers, each subject has its own constitution. The form of government of a given state is

A. Unitary state

B. Monarchy

C. Federation

D. Republic

113. It is typical for a democratic regime

A. Executive Dominance

C. Democratic

D. Dictatorial

116. Leadership based on the force of law is called

A. Traditional

B. Legal

C. Charismatic

D. Formal

117. Leadership based on the belief that a person has special, exceptional qualities is called

A. Traditional

B. Legal

C. Formal

D. Charismatic

E. Formal

118. The chain of political events and states that change as a result of the interaction of specific political subjects is called political

A. Antagonism

B. Pluralism

C. Determinism

D. Process

119. The purpose of existence of civil society is

A. Majoritarian

B. Proportional

C. Mixed

124. The democratic procedure for elections to government bodies is characterized by

D. Opposition

127. Any political party is characterized by

A. Presence of government members in the party ranks

C. Media

129. Information characterized by regular distribution and openness of content to everyone is…. information

A. Social

B. Elite

C. Spiritual

D. Mass

130. Does not apply to the media

C. Book

D. Television

131. Legal norms, as opposed to moral norms

A. Regulate social relations

B. Provided by the power of public opinion

C. Correspond to generally accepted ideas about good and evil

B. Legal custom

C. Legal act

D. Constitution

133. Giving normative force to a decision of a state body in a specific case, which is accepted as a rule when resolving other similar cases is...

A. Legal custom

B. Judicial practice

C. Regulatory agreement

D. Legal precedent

134. The main source of Russian law is

B. Criminal

C. Disciplinary

D. Civil law

136. The type of disciplinary liability is (are)

A. Restriction of freedom

C. Correctional work

D. Severe reprimand

137. The Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted

A. By Decree of the President of the Russian Federation

B. At a joint meeting of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation

D. Age

139. A stable legal connection between a person and the state, expressed in the totality of their mutual rights and obligations, is called

A. Citizenship

B. Nationality

C. Affiliation

D. Legal relations

140. Fundamental human rights and freedoms belong to every citizen of the Russian Federation from birth. This position is fixed

A. Decision of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation

B. Civil Code of the Russian Federation

C. Constitution of the Russian Federation

D. Administrative Code of the Russian Federation

141. The highest judicial body of the Russian Federation in civil, criminal, administrative and other cases is

A. Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation

B. Government of the Russian Federation

C. Security Council of the Russian Federation

D. Supreme Court of the Russian Federation

142. The competence of a notary includes the situation

A. Citizen S. plans to go to court

B. Citizen K. witnessed a crime

C. Citizen N. lost her passport

A. Civil

B. Labor

C. Constitutional

D. Family

144. It is a civil offense

A. Giving a bribe to an official

B. Absence from classes for unexcused reasons

C. Basic general

D. Average

149. The procedure for hiring, dismissal, payroll, and rest periods are regulated by ... the code

A. Administrative

B. Labor

C. Civilian

D. Criminal

150. A document that specifically defines the mutual rights and obligations of the employee and employer

A. Labor Code of the Russian Federation

B. Employment contract

C. Work record

D. Declaration

151. Administrative offenses that infringe on public order include:

A. Violation of state property rights

B. Theft

D. Hooliganism

154. A measure of state coercion imposed by a court verdict on a person found guilty of committing a crime

A. Criminal penalties

B. Criminal liability

C. Criminal law

D. Criminal legal relations

155. The body for the protection of human rights established by the Council is

A.Human Rights Committee

B. Economic and Social Council

B. Methods of interaction and forms of uniting people

C. Part of nature

D. The material world as a whole

2. Society in a broad sense is called

A. Historical stage in the development of society

B. A group of people united for mutual help and support

C. All forms of association of people in the process of production activities

Society in a broad sense should be understood. Any society has an internal structure. In the modern world, the internal structure of society is quite complex. This is due to the variety of options interactions between people and forms of their association.

Subsystems

They are distinguished depending on forms of unification of people and their interaction. The main social subsystems are considered: political, economic and spiritual.

Depending on the subjects participating in the interaction, they distinguish professional, family, class, settlement, demographic form of unification of people.

There is also a classification of subsystems according to the type of public relations. On this basis, they distinguish such as groups, communities, institutions, organizations. These subsystems are considered the most important links in the social system. The purpose of these forms of unification of people is the satisfaction of needs in the implementation of coordinated joint actions.

Community

It should be understood as relatively stable form of unification of people. It is characterized by the presence of more or less identical features of the image and living conditions of the individuals included in it, mass consciousness, unity of norms, interests, and values.

Communities are not formed by people consciously. They take shape in the process of objective social development. At the same time, the basis of these forms of unification of people. Examples The following can be cited: production team, socio-professional group, social class. These subsystems are formed by people with a common industrial interest. There are those that arose on an ethnic basis. These include, for example, nations and nationalities. Another criterion for unification is the demographic factor (gender, age).

Types of communities

There is the following classification of these forms of unification of people:

1. Statistical. They are generated for statistical analysis.
2. Real. These communities are distinguished according to the characteristics that actually exist.
3. Massive. These forms of association of people are distinguished on the basis of differences in behavior. However, the differences are not fixed and depend on the situation.

The first two categories include the city. In statistical terms, this generality form of unification of people will be from the point of view of registration at the place of residence. If residents use the city infrastructure, then the community will already be real. The third category includes the crowd and public.

Mass communities

It is believed that society is the totality of all forms of association of people. Meanwhile, if one of the forms is absent or periodically disappears, the society does not cease to be such. The fact is that a set of forms of association of people is mobile system. It can change its structure under the influence of various factors. An example would be tribes and their unions. Under the influence of various factors, other communities began to emerge, and the old ones began to disappear. However, in the modern world there are territories where tribes live.

Today, the public and the crowd are considered changeable forms of association. The latter is a short-term accumulation of individuals. They gather in one place and have common interests.

In the crowd there is no group structure that provides for the distribution of statuses and roles of individuals. There are no uniform habits or norms of behavior in it. There is no experience of previous interaction in the crowd. If the interest that united people into a crowd disappears, it dissipates.

The characteristic features of this form of association are: suggestibility, anonymity, imitation, physical contact. In a crowd, individuals interact with each other not as acquaintances or close people, but as strangers.

The public is a spiritual community. In it, people are physically dispersed, but there is a spiritual connection between them. It is formed on the basis of unity of opinions.

As G. Tarde believed, the public as a form of association arose in the secular salons of the 18th century. Its true heyday occurred during the period of active development of print media. Thanks to newspapers, and subsequently television and radio, a huge number of people can actively participate in cultural and political life and express personal opinions about certain events.

Social group

This concept is defined in different ways. In a broad sense, it means the entire society on the planet, i.e. all of humanity. In a narrow sense, the term “social group” is used to identify a relatively large group of people in the structure of society. They interact with each other and conduct joint activities to achieve social, collective and individual goals.

In simple terms, a social group should be considered an association of people who have common views and connections with each other in relatively stable patterns of interaction.

Key characteristics of groups

According to R. Merton, the distinctive features of these forms of association are:

• Identity.
• Membership.
• Interaction.

A social group is characterized as an association of people who enter into certain social connections, are aware of their belonging to this group and are its members from the point of view of others.

Such collections of individuals are distinguished by greater stability, stability, and a relatively high level of homogeneity and cohesion. At the same time, they, as a rule, are included in other, broader social associations as their structural units.

Social institutions

They represent relatively stable forms of association of individuals. They are formed to organize social life, ensure connections and relationships in the structure of society.

A clear delineation of the powers and functions of the subjects entering into interaction is considered distinctive. At the same time, the actions of individuals are coordinated. In addition, there is quite strict control over the interaction of subjects.

Characteristics of institutions

Each such association has:

• More or less clearly formulated tasks and goals of activity.
• A set of specific roles and statuses that are assigned to subjects.
• A set of sanctions through which control of individual behavior is ensured.
• Private and specific functions. They are aimed at meeting existing needs.

According to the domestic sociologist Frolov, social institutions are characterized by:

1. Models and attitudes of behavior.
2. Set of cultural symbols. With their help, an idea of ​​the institute is formed.
3. Cultural utilitarian traits.
4. Codes of conduct (written, oral).
5. Ideology. It is a system of ideas according to which a certain attitude towards certain actions is prescribed and justified for individuals.

Any social institution has formal and substantive sides. In terms of content, the association is considered as a system of standards of behavior for individuals holding statuses. In a formal sense, a social institution is a set of subjects endowed with material means to implement a certain social function.

Types of institutions

Classification is carried out depending on the tasks that a particular association performs. The main institutions are considered:

1. Family and marriage. Within the framework of this association, new individuals are reproduced,
2. Education. Within the framework of this institute, accumulated knowledge and cultural values ​​are assimilated, which are subsequently passed on to subsequent generations.
3. Economics. Its tasks include ensuring the reproduction and distribution of services and benefits for individuals and the entire society.
4. Political institutions. Their functions are related to establishing agreement between subjects, groups, collectives, controlling the behavior of individuals in order to maintain order, prevent and resolve conflicts.
5. Cultural institutions. They ensure the preservation of accumulated spiritual values.

Social organization

It is understood as a set of subjects and their groups united to implement certain tasks based on the division of labor and responsibilities, as well as a hierarchical structure.

An organization should be viewed as an instrument for solving social problems, a means of achieving personal or collective goals. In the latter case, there is a need to create a hierarchical structure and management system.

Any organization can be characterized by a set of elements. Among them:

1. Target.
2. Hierarchy type.
3. Nature of management.
4. Level of formalization.

A goal is an image of a result that the organization is interested in achieving. This model can be presented in the form of a task, orientation, related to the interests of the subjects. There are also system goals, the achievement of which ensures the existence and reproduction of the organization.

The hierarchical structure involves the division of roles into 2 groups: those conferring power and those placing the subject in a subordinate position. In hierarchical terms, non-centralized and centralized organizations are distinguished. In the latter, coordination and integration of efforts take place.

A management system is a set of measures aimed at influencing an individual to encourage him to perform behavioral acts in which a social organization is interested. Moreover, the subject himself may not have an interest in committing such actions. The main means of management are incentives and tasks (orders).

The formalization of relationships is associated with the formation of standard models of behavior of subjects. It is expressed in the documentation of norms and rules. Formalization allows one to overcome organizational problems.

Ways of interaction

Forms of association of people and their groups, as can be seen from the above information, are diverse. At the same time, in each set of individuals, connections characteristic of them are established. The following main ways of interaction between subjects can be identified:

• Cooperation. It involves people collaborating to solve a common problem.
• Competition. It represents a struggle (group or individual) for the possession of goods (scarce, as a rule).
• Conflict. It represents a clash of opposing (competing) parties. The conflict can be closed or open.

Any interaction must have at least 2 participants. It follows from this that interaction can be considered a type of action, the characteristic feature of which is its focus on another subject or another association.

1.1. Society as a form of human life

In a broad sense, society is a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which consists of individuals with will and consciousness, and includes ways of interaction between people and forms of their association.

In a narrow sense, society is

1. A circle of people united by a common goal, interests, origin (for example, a society of numismatists, a noble assembly.

2. A separate specific society, country, state, region (for example, modern Russian society, French society).

3.Historical stage in the development of humanity (for example, feudal society, capitalist society).

4. Humanity as a whole

Social relations are diverse forms of interaction between people, as well as connections that arise between different social groups (or within them).

Spheres (areas) of social life are interacting parts of society, its main components.

Social norms are rules of behavior that were developed in accordance with the needs of society.

The emergence of man and the emergence of society is a single process. No person - no society. If there is no society, there is no person. One might argue: Robinson Crusoe, having found himself on a desert island, found himself outside of society, but he was a man. However, those who think so forget: Robinson was able to survive only because he had knowledge, experience in various activities, and in addition, he found some items from the sunken ship. Knowledge, labor skills, and objects are all products of society. Let us remember that not a single child who grew up among animals had knowledge, work skills, or knew how to use objects created in human society.

In everyday life, society sometimes refers to a group of people who are part of someone's social circle; societies are also called some voluntary associations of people for any activity (society of book lovers, Red Cross society, etc.). In science, society is a part of the world that differs from nature. In the broadest sense of the word, this is all of humanity. It includes not only all living people. Society is understood as continuously developing. This means that it has not only a present, but also a past and a future. Generations of people who lived in the distant and very recent past did not leave without a trace. They created cities and villages, technology, and various institutions. From them people living today received language, science, art, and practical skills. If it were not so, then each generation would be forced to begin with the invention of the stone axe.

Functions of the society:

production of vital goods;

systematization of production;

human reproduction and socialization;

distribution of labor results;

ensuring the legality of the state's management activities;

structuring the political system;

formation of ideology;

historical transmission of culture and spiritual values

The structure of society is complex. It includes large and small groups of people. As society develops, interactions and relationships not only between individuals, but also between various large and small groups of people become more and more complex and diverse. The relationships and interdependencies that people enter into in the course of their activities are called social relations.

The main spheres of social life.

All four spheres interact with each other. The basis for delimiting spheres of public life are basic human needs. Need is a state of a person created by the need he feels for objects and actions necessary for his existence and development and serving as a source of his activity, organizing cognitive processes, imagination and behavior.

Need groups:

biological: needs for food, sleep, air, warmth, etc.

social, which are generated by society and are necessary for a person to interact with other people.

spiritual: needs for knowledge of the surrounding world and the person himself.

Need groups according to A. Maslow:

Physiological: need for food, eating, breathing, movement, etc.

Existential: the need for security, comfort, confidence in the future, etc.

Social: the need for communication, caring for others, understanding, etc.

Prestigious: the need for self-esteem, recognition, success, etc.

Spiritual: the need for self-expression, self-actualization.

Society is a dynamic system.

It means that:

This system, while changing, retains its essence and qualitative certainty.

Society as a dynamic system changes its forms and develops

The connection between all spheres of society’s life follows from the integrity of society as a system

Super complex system

Multi-level (each individual is included in various subsystems)

A highly organized, self-governing system (the control subsystem is especially important)

Types of societies (traditional, industrial, post-industrial)

Traditional society is a concept denoting a set of societies, social structures, standing at different stages of development and not having a mature industrial complex. The defining production sphere of such societies is agriculture. The main public institutions are the church and the army.

An industrial society is a society characterized by a developed and complex system of division of labor with a high degree of specialization, mass production of goods, automation of production and management, widespread introduction of innovations into production and people's lives. The defining production sphere of an industrial society is industry.

A post-industrial society is a society in which the economy, as a result of the scientific and technological revolution and a significant increase in household incomes, has undergone a transition from the primary production of goods to the production of services. Information and knowledge become productive resources. Scientific developments are the main driving force of the economy.

1.2. Interaction between society and nature

Nature in the broad sense of the word is the whole world in all the infinity of its forms and manifestations. In the narrow sense of the word, this is the entire material world, with the exception of society, i.e. the totality of natural conditions of existence of human society. The concept of “nature” is used to designate not only natural, but also the material conditions of its existence created by man – “second nature”, to one degree or another transformed and shaped by man.

Society, as a part of nature isolated in the process of human life, is inextricably linked with it. This relationship looks like this: in society people act who are gifted with consciousness and have goals, while in nature blind, unconscious forces act.

The separation of man from the natural world marked the birth of a qualitatively new material unity, since man has not only natural properties, but also social ones.

Society has come into conflict with nature in two respects: 1) as a social reality, it is nothing other than nature itself; 2) it purposefully influences nature with the help of tools, changing it.

At first, the contradiction between society and nature acted as their difference, since man still had primitive tools with the help of which he obtained his means of living. However, in those distant times, man was no longer completely dependent on nature. As tools improved, society had an increasing impact on nature. Man cannot do without nature also because technical means that make his life easier are created by analogy with natural processes.

As soon as it was born, society began to have a very significant impact on nature, sometimes improving it, and sometimes worsening it. But nature, in turn, began to “worse” the characteristics of society, for example, by reducing the quality of health of large masses of people, etc. Society, as an isolated part of nature, and nature itself have a significant influence on each other. At the same time, they retain specific features that allow them to coexist as a dual phenomenon of earthly reality. This close relationship between nature and society lies the basis of the unity of the world.

So, man, society and nature are interconnected. Man simultaneously lives in nature and in society, is a biological and social being. In social studies, nature is understood as the natural habitat of humans. It can be called the biosphere or the active shell of the Earth, creating and protecting life on our planet. Industrialization and the scientific and technological revolution led in the 20th century to the disruption of the natural human environment and to the maturation of a conflict between human society and nature - an ecological crisis. In the modern world, in 15 years, as many natural resources are consumed as were used by humanity during its entire previous existence. As a result, the area of ​​forests and land suitable for agriculture is decreasing. Climate changes are occurring, which can lead to a deterioration in living conditions on the planet. Environmental changes negatively affect people's health. New diseases are appearing, the carriers of which (germs, viruses and fungi) become more dangerous due to increasing population density and weakening of the human immune system. The diversity of flora and fauna is decreasing, and this threatens the stability of the earth's shell - the biosphere. Every year, about 1 billion tons of standard fuel are burned, hundreds of millions of tons of harmful substances, soot, ash, and dust are released into the atmosphere. Soils and waters become clogged with industrial and domestic wastewater, oil products, mineral fertilizers, and radioactive waste. Nature has also always influenced human life. Climate and geographical conditions are all significant factors that determine the development path of a particular region. People living in different natural conditions will differ in their character and way of life.

1.3. The main spheres of public life, their relationship

Main spheres of social life

Society can be divided into four areas, or spheres.

The economic sphere is largely decisive in relation to other spheres. It includes industrial and agricultural production, relations between people in the production process, exchange of products of industrial activity, and their distribution.

The social sphere includes layers and classes, class relations, nations and national relations, family, family and household relations, educational institutions, medical care, and leisure.

The political sphere of social life includes state power, political parties, and people’s relationships associated with the use of power to realize the interests of certain social groups.

The spiritual sphere covers science, morality, religion, art, scientific institutions, religious organizations, cultural institutions, and related human activities.

So, we have identified four main areas of modern society. They are closely related and influence each other. For example, if the country’s economy does not fulfill its tasks, does not provide the population with a sufficient number of goods and services, and does not expand the number of jobs, then the standard of living declines sharply, there is not enough money to pay salaries and pensions, unemployment appears, and crime increases. In other words, success in one, economic, sphere affects well-being in another, social one. Economics also influences politics. When, in the early 90s, economic reforms in Russia led to a sharp stratification of the population, i.e. With the emergence of very rich people at one pole and very poor people at the other, political parties oriented toward communist ideology became more active.

1.4. Biological and social in man

Man is the highest stage of development of living organisms on Earth. Man is essentially a biosocial being. It is part of nature and at the same time inextricably linked with society. The biological and social in man are fused together, and only in such unity does he exist. The biological nature of a person is his natural prerequisite, a condition of existence, and sociality is the essence of a person. The biological nature of a person is manifested in his anatomy and physiology; it has circulatory, muscular, nervous and other systems. Its biological properties are not strictly programmed, which makes it possible to adapt to various living conditions. Man as a social being is inextricably linked with society. A person becomes a person only by entering into social relations, into communication with others. The social essence of a person is manifested through such properties as the ability and readiness for socially useful work, consciousness and reason, freedom and responsibility, etc.

The main differences between humans and animals

A person has thinking and articulate speech

A person is capable of conscious, purposeful creative activity.

A person, in the process of his activity, transforms the surrounding reality, creates the material and spiritual benefits and values ​​he needs.

Man is capable of making tools and using them as a means of producing material goods.

A person reproduces not only his biological, but also his social essence and therefore must satisfy not only his material, but also his spiritual needs.

1.5. Personality. Features of adolescence

Personality is understood as a stable system of socially significant traits that characterize an individual as a member of a particular society. Personality is a product of social development and the inclusion of individuals in the system of social relations through active substantive activity and communication. The behavior of an individual as an individual depends significantly on his relationships with the people around him.

Adolescence is a stage of personality development that usually begins at 11-12 and continues until 16-17 years old - the period when a person enters “adulthood”.

This age is a period of growing up, characterized by intense psychological and physical changes, rapid physiological restructuring of the body. The teenager begins to grow rapidly - the growth rate can only be compared with the prenatal period and the age from birth to 2 years. Moreover, the growth of the skeleton is faster than the development of muscle tissue, hence the awkwardness, disproportion, and angularity of the figure. The volume of the heart and lungs and the depth of breathing sharply increase to provide the growing body with oxygen. Significant fluctuations in blood pressure, often upward, and frequent headaches are also characteristic.

Serious hormonal changes and puberty are underway. In girls, the amount of estrogen increases, in boys - testosterone. In both sexes, there is an increase in the level of adrenal androgens, causing the development of secondary sexual characteristics. Hormonal changes cause sudden mood swings, increased, unstable emotionality, uncontrollability of mood, increased excitability, and impulsivity.

In some cases, symptoms such as depression, restlessness and poor concentration, and irritability appear. Your teen may experience anxiety, aggression, and problem behavior. This can be expressed in conflicting relationships with adults. Risk-taking and aggression are methods of self-affirmation. Unfortunately, this may result in an increase in the number of juvenile offenders.

Studying ceases to be the main and most important task. According to psychologists, the leading activity at this age is personal communication with peers. The productivity of mental activity decreases due to the fact that abstract, theoretical thinking is being formed, that is, concrete thinking is replaced by logical thinking. It is the mechanism of logical thinking that is new to a teenager that explains the increase in criticality. He no longer accepts the postulates of adults on faith; he demands evidence and justification.

At this time, the teenager’s life self-determination occurs, plans for the future are formed. There is an active search for one’s “I” and experimentation in different social roles. The teenager changes himself, tries to understand himself and his capabilities. The demands and expectations placed on him by other people change. He is forced to constantly adjust, adapt to new conditions and situations, but this does not always happen successfully.

A strong desire to understand oneself (self-knowledge) often harms the development of relationships with the outside world. The internal crisis of a teenager’s self-esteem arises in connection with the expansion and growth of opportunities, on the one hand, and the preservation of child-school status, on the other.

Many psychological problems arise: self-doubt, instability, inadequate self-esteem, most often low.

During this same period, the formation of the young man’s worldview occurs. It sometimes goes through the rejection of values, active rejection and violation of established rules, negativism, the search for oneself and one’s place among others. The teenager experiences an internal conflict: emerging adult worldview questions create a feeling of global unsolvability. Minors often believe that their own problems and experiences are unique, which creates feelings of loneliness and depression.

Characteristic is the desire for leadership in a peer group. The sense of belonging to a special “teenage” community that arises in a teenager, the values ​​of which are the basis for their own moral assessments, is very important. The teenager strives to follow fashion and the ideals accepted in the youth group. The media have a huge influence on their formation. This age is characterized by the desire to recognize one’s own merits in one’s significant teenage environment. An urgent need for recognition and self-affirmation comes to the fore. The world around is falling apart into “us” and “strangers,” and the relationships between these groups in the minds of teenagers are sometimes sharply antagonistic.

Psychologists note that the contradiction of adolescence often lies in the fact that the child strives to gain adult status and adult opportunities, but is in no hurry to assume the responsibility of adults and avoids it. A teenager often refuses to accept his parents’ assessments and life experiences, even if he understands that they are right. He wants to get his own unique and unrepeatable experience, make his own mistakes and learn from them.

1.6. Human activity and its main forms (work, play, learning)

Activity is the active interaction of a person with the environment, the result of which should be its usefulness, requiring from a person high mobility of nervous processes, fast and accurate movements, increased activity of perception, attention, memory, thinking, emotional stability. The structure of an activity is usually presented in a linear form, where each component follows the other in time: Need -> Motive -> Goal -> Means -> Action -> Result

A need is a need, dissatisfaction, a feeling of lack of something necessary for normal existence. In order for a person to begin to act, it is necessary to understand this need and its nature. Motive is a conscious impulse based on need that justifies and justifies activity. A need will become a motive if it is perceived not just as a need, but as a guide to action.

In the process of motive formation, not only needs, but also other motives are involved. As a rule, needs are mediated by interests, traditions, beliefs, social attitudes, etc.

A goal is a conscious idea of ​​the result of an activity, an anticipation of the future. Any activity involves goal setting, i.e. ability to independently set goals. Animals, unlike humans, cannot set goals themselves: their program of activity is predetermined and expressed in instincts. A person is able to form his own programs, creating something that has never existed in nature. Since there is no goal-setting in the activity of animals, it is not an activity. Moreover, if an animal never imagines the results of its activity in advance, then a person, starting an activity, keeps in his mind the image of the expected object: before creating something in reality, he creates it in his mind.

However, the goal can be complex and sometimes requires a series of intermediate steps to achieve it. For example, to plant a tree, you need to purchase a seedling, find a suitable place, take a shovel, dig a hole, place the seedling in it, water it, etc. Ideas about intermediate results are called objectives. Thus, the goal is divided into specific tasks: if all these tasks are solved, then the overall goal will be achieved.

Means are the techniques, methods of action, objects, etc. used in the course of activity. For example, to learn social studies, you need lectures, textbooks, and assignments. To be a good specialist, you need to receive professional education, have work experience, constantly practice in your activities, etc.

The means must correspond to the ends in two senses. First, the means must be proportionate to the ends. In other words, they cannot be insufficient (otherwise the activity will be ineffective) or excessive (otherwise energy and resources will be wasted). For example, you cannot build a house if there are not enough materials for it; It also makes no sense to buy materials several times more than are needed for its construction.

Action is an element of activity that has a relatively independent and conscious task. An activity consists of individual actions. For example, teaching activities consist of preparing and delivering lectures, conducting seminars, preparing assignments, etc.

The result is the final result, the state in which the need is satisfied (in whole or in part). For example, the result of study can be knowledge, skills and abilities, the result of labor can be goods, the result of scientific activity can be ideas and inventions. The result of an activity can be the person himself, since in the course of the activity he develops and changes.

Types of activities in which each person inevitably becomes involved in the process of his individual development: play, communication, learning, work.

A game is a special type of activity, the purpose of which is not the production of any material product, but the process itself - entertainment, relaxation.

Characteristic features of the game: it takes place in a conditional situation, which, as a rule, changes quickly; in its process, so-called substitute objects are used; is aimed at satisfying the interests of its participants; promotes personality development, enriches it, equips it with the necessary skills.

Communication is an activity in which ideas and emotions are exchanged. It is often expanded to include the exchange of material items. This broader exchange is communication [material or spiritual (information)].

Teaching is a type of activity whose purpose is to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities by a person.

Learning can be organized (carried out in educational institutions) and unorganized (carried out in other types of activities as a by-product, additional result).

Learning can acquire the character of self-education.

Labor is a type of activity that is aimed at achieving a practically useful result.

Characteristic features of work: expediency; focus on achieving programmed, expected results; presence of skill, skills, knowledge; practical usefulness; obtaining a result; personal development; transformation of the external human environment.

In each type of activity, specific goals and objectives are set, and a special arsenal of means, operations and methods is used to achieve the goals. At the same time, none of the types of activity exists outside of interaction with each other, which determines the systemic nature of all spheres of social life.

1.7. A person and his immediate environment. Interpersonal relationships. Communication

The behavior of an individual as an individual depends significantly on his relationships with the people around him. Such relationships with one person or group (large or small) are called interpersonal relationships. They can be classified on various grounds.

1. Official and unofficial. Official are the relationships that develop between people due to their official position (for example, a teacher - a student, a school director - a teacher, the President of the Russian Federation - the head of the Government of the Russian Federation, etc.). Such relations are built on the basis of officially approved rules and norms (for example, on the basis of the Charter of an educational institution, the Constitution of the Russian Federation, etc.), with the observance of any formalities. The relationships that arise between people in connection with their work together can also be called business relationships.

2. Informal relationships (often called personal relationships) are not regulated by law; there is no corresponding legal basis for them. They develop between people, regardless of the work performed and are not limited by established formal rules.

Interpersonal relationships are based on certain feelings of people, their attitude towards another person. Feelings fluctuate between two poles - sympathy (internal disposition, attractiveness of a person) and antipathy (internal dissatisfaction with a person, dissatisfaction with his behavior). A person perceives another person primarily on the basis of external appearance, and then, adding up his impressions of his words, actions and character traits, he forms a general impression of him. Consequently, the basis for the perception of any personality is the relationship between a person’s character, behavior and appearance.

Psychologists identify several factors that interfere with correctly perceiving and evaluating people. These include:

inability to distinguish between the intentions and motives of people’s actions;

inability to understand the state of affairs and the well-being of people at the time of observing them;

the presence of predetermined attitudes, assessments, beliefs that a person has long before the first acquaintance (for example: “What can he tell me that I don’t know?..”);

the presence of stereotypes, according to which all people are pre-assigned to a certain category (for example: “All boys are rude,” “All girls don’t know how to keep their mouths shut”);

the desire to make premature conclusions about a person’s personality long before sufficient and comprehensive information has been received about him;

lack of desire and habit of listening to the opinions of other people, the desire to rely only on one’s own opinion.

Normal relationships between people develop when there is a desire and need to sympathize, empathize with other people, and put oneself in the position of another person.

Interpersonal relationships are relationships between individuals. They are often accompanied by emotional experiences and express the inner world of a person.

Interpersonal relationships are divided into the following types:

Official and unofficial;

Business and personal;

Rational and emotional;

Subordination and parity.

The broadest form of interpersonal relationships is acquaintance. Under certain conditions, acquaintance develops into closer interpersonal relationships - friendship and love. Friendship can be called positive interpersonal relationships based on mutual openness, complete trust, common interests, devotion of people to each other, constant readiness to come to each other’s aid at any time.

Love is the highest spiritual feeling of a person, rich in a variety of emotional experiences, based on noble feelings and high morality, accompanied by a willingness to do everything possible for the well-being of a loved one.

The psychology and behavior of an individual as an individual significantly depend on the social environment in which people are united in numerous, diverse, more or less stable connections, called groups. They are divided into large (state, nation, party, class, etc.) and small groups. A person always depends primarily on the influence of a small group, which is a small association of people - from 2-3 (for example, a family) to 20-30 (for example, a school class), engaged in some common cause and in direct relationships with each other. friend. Such small groups represent the elementary unit of society; it is in them that a person spends most of his life.

Participants in a small group are characterized by common goals, activity objectives, psychological and behavioral characteristics. The measure of psychological community determines the cohesion of the group.

Based on joint activities, the following types of small groups are distinguished: industrial, family, educational, sports, etc.

Based on the nature of the relationships between group members, they are divided into formal (official) and informal (unofficial). Formal groups are created and exist only within officially recognized organizations (for example, a school class, the Spartak sports team, etc.). Informal groups usually arise and exist on the basis of the personal interests of their members, and may coincide or diverge from the goals of formal organizations. These include, for example, a poetry club, a club for lovers of bard songs, an organization of fans of a football club, etc.

One and the same person is simultaneously a member of indefinitely many small groups, and in each of them his position (status) changes. For example, the same person is a younger brother, a student in class, the captain of the national football team, a bass player in a rock band, etc.

A group always has a significant influence on a person’s psychology and behavior through his relationships with the rest of the group members. And this influence can be both positive and negative. The positive impact on a person of a small group is that:

relationships between people that develop in groups teach a person to comply with existing social norms; they carry value guidelines that are internalized by the individual;

the group is the place where a person practices his communication skills;

from group members a person receives information that allows him to correctly perceive and evaluate himself, preserve and strengthen everything positive in his personality, get rid of the negative and shortcomings;

the group gives a person self-confidence, supplies him with a system of positive emotions necessary for his development.

For normal psychological development, a person must have the most objective knowledge about himself. He cannot obtain this knowledge otherwise than from other people, in the process of direct communication with them. The group and its constituent people are a kind of mirror for the individual, in which the human “I” is reflected. The accuracy and depth of reflection of an individual in a group directly depends on the openness, intensity and versatility of communication between this individual and other members of the group. For the development of the individual as a personality, the group seems indispensable, especially if the group is a close-knit, highly developed team.

In addition to the positive impact, a group can also have a negative impact on a person. This happens, for example, when the goals of a group are achieved by infringing on the interests of individual members to the detriment of the interests of the whole society. In psychology this is called group egoism.

Another possible negative consequence of group influence may be the impact that usually occurs on gifted creative individuals. The famous scientist V.M. Bekhterev, having conducted a series of individual and group experiments in which the indicators of creative work of a group and an individual were compared, found out that in creativity a group can be inferior to especially gifted individuals. Their original ideas were rejected by the majority because they were incomprehensible, and such individuals, being under strong psychological pressure from the majority, are restrained and suppressed in their development. History of Russia in the 20th century. I knew many examples when outstanding composers, artists, scientists, and writers were excluded from trade unions and even persecuted.

Sometimes a person, in order to remain in a group, goes into internal conflict and behaves conformally, becomes a conformist. Conformal is the behavior of a person in which he, consciously disagreeing with the people around him, nevertheless agrees with them, based on some considerations.

There are three ways a person can respond to group pressure. The first is suggestibility, when a person unconsciously accepts a line of behavior, the opinion of a group. The second is conformism, i.e. conscious external agreement with internal disagreement with the opinion of the group. The third way to respond to a group’s demand is conscious agreement with the group’s opinion, acceptance and active defense of its values, norms and ideals.

Communication is a dialogue interaction between people, a basic human need necessary for a person’s inclusion in society (communication with friends, relatives). Communication is a natural human need from birth. Unlike a monologue, communication is built in the form of improvisation and dialogue. Communication is the exchange of different points of view of the interlocutors, their focus on understanding and active discussion of the partner’s opinion, expectation of an answer, mutual complementarity of the participants’ positions. Communication can be verbal - using oral speech and non-verbal - using signs and symbols for communication (computer language, deaf-mute language). Unlike activity, communication is valuable in itself as a process. Communication involves the exchange of information, the emergence and maintenance of interpersonal contacts.

Forms of communication: interpersonal, intergroup, intersocietal, between the individual and society, between the group and society.

1.8. Interpersonal conflicts, their constructive resolution

Interpersonal conflicts (Latin conffictus - clash) are a clash of opposing interests, views, aspirations, a serious disagreement, an acute dispute between individuals in the process of their social and psychological interaction. The causes of such conflicts are both social and psychological differences. They occur due to misunderstanding between people, loss and distortion of information in the process of interaction between people, differences in the ways of assessing each other’s activities and personality, psychological incompatibility, etc. Psychological incompatibility is understood as an unsuccessful combination of temperaments and characters of interacting persons, a contradiction in life values, ideals, motives, goals of activity, a discrepancy in worldview, ideological attitudes, etc.

The subject of the conflict is a really existing or imagined problem that becomes the cause of the conflict. The object of the conflict is what the conflict is directed at. There are material and intangible objects of conflict.

Phases of conflict:

The situation that led to the conflict and the awareness of the conflict by the participants in the situation (one friend offended another);

Choosing an interaction strategy (the conflicting parties decide to make peace or are at enmity with each other);

Choosing an action strategy (showing up relationships, arguing about who is to blame). Conflict resolution is a decision by the parties to the conflict to reconcile and end the confrontation. The conflict is considered resolved if the parties managed to reach an agreement (friends made peace). When reconciliation is impossible, it is an unresolved conflict. Conflicts are inevitable in human society. Therefore, an important skill of every person living in society is the ability to seek and find a way out of conflicts.

In conflicts, as a rule, one of the participants evaluates the behavior of the other as unacceptable. The causes of conflicts can also be insufficient psychological stability, an overestimated or underestimated level of aspirations, a choleric type of temperament, etc.

In adolescents, the causes of conflicts can be a heightened sense of self-esteem, maximalism, categorical and unambiguous moral criteria, assessment of facts, events, and one’s behavior.

To successfully resolve a conflict you must:

Adopt a mindset to resolve the conflict to a mutually beneficial agreement.

Adjust your behavior towards your opponent: try to control your emotions, listen to a different point of view, identify the true goals, needs, demands of your opponent.

Try to find common ground in your own and your opponent’s positions. Preparation and conduct of negotiations to resolve the conflict situation. If necessary, invite a mediator.

There are 2 negotiation models:

The “mutual benefits” model, when they try to find solutions to the problem that fully satisfy the interests of both parties;

Model of “concessions - rapprochement”.

It is favorable to organize joint activities at all stages of conflict resolution, to involve a partner in a joint process of searching for possible options for resolving the conflict. Only a conflict that is resolved on the basis of reaching a consensus that takes into account the interests of all parties to the conflict can be considered finally resolved.