The leading activity of children of primary school age is. Teaching is the leading activity in primary school age

When a child enters school, his development begins to be determined by educational activities, which become leading. This activity determines the nature of other activities: gaming, work And communication. Each of the four named types of activity has its own characteristics at primary school age.

The new social situation of development requires a special activity from the child—learning.

When a child comes to school, there is no learning activity as such yet, and it must be formed in the form of learning skills. This is precisely the specific task of primary school age.

Educational activities- This is an activity directly aimed at assimilating the achievements of science and culture accumulated by humanity. Educational subjects are abstract and theoretical, the child must learn to act with them.

The paradox of educational activity is that, while acquiring knowledge, the child himself does not change anything in this knowledge. For the first time, the subject of changes in educational activities becomes the child himself, the very subject carrying out this activity. Educational activity is an activity that turns the child on himself, requires reflection, an assessment of “what I was” and “what I have become.” Educational activities are not given in a ready-made form; they must be formed. The first difficulty is that the child’s motive is not related to the content of the learning activity. The learning process must be structured so that its motive is connected with the own, internal content of the subject of learning. The content that the child is taught at school should encourage learning, i.e. it is necessary to form cognitive motivation.

The structure of the educational activity of a junior schoolchild (according to D. B. Elkonin):

1) learning motivation - a system of incentives that forces a child to learn and gives meaning to learning activities;

2) an educational task, i.e. a system of tasks during which the child masters the most general methods of action;

3) educational actions - those with the help of which the educational task is mastered, i.e. all those actions that the student does in the lesson (specific to each academic subject and general);

4) control actions - those actions with the help of which the progress of mastering a learning task is controlled;

5) the action of evaluation - those actions with the help of which we evaluate the success of mastering the educational task.

A child who comes to school does not know how to study. At the initial stages, educational activities are carried out in the form of joint activities between teacher and student. First, the teacher does everything: sets the task, demonstrates examples of performing educational actions, controls the process of performing each action and evaluates whether the educational task has been completed by each student. Only gradually does the teacher include the student in the structure of educational activities to independently complete its individual elements.

The process of development of educational activity is the process of transferring its individual links from teacher to student. A developed form of educational activity is a form in which the subject independently sets himself the tasks of his own change.

Carrying out educational activities is possible only if the child learns to control his mental processes and behavior in general. This enables the child to subordinate his desires to the requirements of the teacher and school discipline, which contributes to the formation of voluntariness as a special, new quality of mental processes. The need for control and self-control, the requirements for verbal reports and assessments form in younger schoolchildren the ability to plan and perform actions silently, on an internal level. An essential factor in the development of a primary school student is the formation of reflection as an important quality that allows one, as if from the outside, to intelligently and objectively analyze one’s judgments and actions from the point of view of their compliance with the plan and conditions of activity.

Thus, voluntariness, internal plan of action and reflection – main neoplasms of primary school age. In addition, as part of mastering educational activities, all mental processes are improved.

A game at this age it takes second place after educational activity as the leading one and significantly influences the development of children.

The formation of educational motives influences the development of gaming activities. Children 3-5 years old enjoy the process of playing, and at 5-6 years old - not only from the process, but also from the result, i.e. winning. In gaming motivation, the emphasis shifts from process to result; in addition, it is developing achievement motivation.

In games according to the rules typical for senior preschool and primary school ages, the winner is the one who has mastered the game better. For example, playing hopscotch requires special training.

Games take on more advanced forms and become educational. Individual subject games acquire constructive nature, they make extensive use of new knowledge. At this age, it is important that the younger student is provided with a sufficient number of educational games and has time to practice them.

The very course of development of children's play leads to the fact that play motivation gradually gives way to educational motivation, in which actions are performed for the sake of specific knowledge and skills, which, in turn, makes it possible to receive approval, recognition from adults and peers, and a special status.

The scope and content are expanding communication child with the people around him, especially adults, who act as teachers for younger schoolchildren, serve as role models and the main source of diverse knowledge.

Communication of younger schoolchildren with their peers has its own developmental line. Initially, friendship among children is based on common external life circumstances and random interests (children sit at the same desk, live in the same house, have common hobbies, etc.). The opinions and assessments of peers do not yet serve as a criterion for evaluating oneself. The main thing for them is the assessment of their deeds and actions by the teacher. Educational activity gradually becomes the form of collaboration on the basis of which children’s relationships are established: interests arise among schoolchildren related to class affairs, extracurricular activities, and the social life of the school. For the first time, imitation of peers occurs. Relationships between children in the class are built primarily through the teacher. The teacher singles out one of the students as a role model, he comments on their judgments about each other, he organizes their joint activities and communication.

Upon entering school, the child adjusts to a new labor system of relations. It is important that the home work activities of a primary school student reflect and apply the knowledge and skills that he acquires at school.

Characteristics of primary school age and types of activities of primary schoolchildren

Junior school age is the age when a child goes through the first stage of school education. Its boundaries are historically fluid. Currently in our country it covers the period from 6.5 to 11 years.

The main feature of this age period is a change in leading activity, a transition from play to systematic, socially organized learning.

A change in leading activity is not a one-time transition, but a process that takes different times for different children. Therefore, throughout primary school age, gaming activity in all its varieties continues to be important for mental development. Moreover, in modern conditions, many preschoolers by the time they start school do not master the highest levels of play (dramatization play, director's play, play by the rules).

At the initial stage of school education, a system of educational and cognitive motives is formed, the ability to accept, maintain and realize educational goals. In the process of their implementation, the child learns to plan, control and evaluate his own educational actions and their results.

The success of a change in leading activity is ensured by the age-related prerequisites that develop towards the end of preschool childhood, the presence of which determines the child’s readiness for schooling. Unlike a preschooler, a junior schoolchild has sufficient physical endurance that allows him to carry out educational activities that require significant mental effort and long-term concentration.

Emotionally, a junior schoolchild is impressionable and responsive, but more balanced than a preschooler. He can already sufficiently control the manifestations of his feelings, distinguish between situations in which they need to be restrained.

At this age, the child gains experience of collective life, and the importance of interpersonal and business relationships increases significantly for him. The self-esteem of a primary school student is largely related to such experiences - he evaluates himself the way “significant others” evaluate him. For a younger schoolchild, as for a preschooler, such significant people are primarily adults.

The teacher occupies a special place in the life of a primary school student. At this age, for a child he is a model of actions, judgments and assessments. The acceptance of the student’s position, the motivation of learning activities, and the child’s self-esteem decisively depend on it.

The main psychological new formations of primary school age are the arbitrariness of mental processes and the ability to self-organize one’s own activities. The full result of primary education is the foundations of conceptual thinking with its characteristic criticality, consistency and the ability to understand different points of view, as well as the desire and ability to learn. By the end of primary school, these new formations should be manifested in the work of the class or extracurricular educational community, but not in the individual actions of each student.

Types of activities for junior schoolchildren:

Collaboratively distributed learning activities (collective discussion, group work)

Game activity (higher types of game - dramatization game, director's game, game with rules)

Creative activities (artistic creativity, design, socially significant design, etc.)

Labor activity (self-service, participation in socially useful work, in socially significant labor actions)

Sports activity (mastering the basics of physical education, familiarization with various sports, experience in participating in sports competitions).

Specific types of activities of junior schoolchildren that are implemented in an educational institution are determined by the educational institution itself together with interested participants in the educational process.

Problems solved by junior schoolchildren in different types of activities

take the first steps in mastering the basics of conceptual thinking (in mastering meaningful generalization, analysis, planning and reflection);

learn to independently specify the goals set by the teacher and look for means to solve them;

learn to monitor and evaluate your academic work and progress in various activities;

master collective forms of educational work and corresponding social skills;

fully master the highest types of games (dramatization games, director games, games according to the rules.) Learn to hold your plan, coordinate it with your play partners, and translate it into game action. Learn to keep the rule and follow it;

learn to create your own creative ideas and bring them to fruition in a creative product. Master the means and methods of realizing your own ideas;

acquire self-service skills, master simple labor actions and operations in labor lessons and in social practices;

gain experience interacting with adults and children, master basic etiquette norms, learn to correctly express your thoughts and feelings;

Problems solved by teachers implementing the basic educational program of primary general education

1. Implement the basic educational program of primary school in a variety of organizational and educational forms (lessons, activities, projects, practices, competitions, exhibitions, competitions, presentations, etc.)
2. Provide comfortable conditions for changing the leading activity - gaming to educational. Create conditions for mastering higher forms of gaming activity.
3. Provide conditions for the formation of educational activities. For this:

organize the setting of educational goals, create conditions for their “appropriation” and independent specification by students;

encourage and support children's initiatives aimed at finding means and ways to achieve educational goals;

organize the acquisition of knowledge through collective forms of educational work;

carry out control and evaluation functions, organize their gradual transition to students.

4. Create conditions for the child’s creative, productive activity. For this -

Set creative tasks and promote the emergence of your own ideas.

Support children's initiatives and help implement projects.

Provide presentation and social assessment of children's creative products (organization of exhibitions, children's periodicals, competitions, festivals, etc.)

5. Create a space for the social practices of younger schoolchildren and their involvement in socially significant activities.

Characteristics of adolescence and types of adolescent activities
Adolescence in human culture is not yet fully formed. There is an obvious “gap” between younger schoolchildren, diligently learning the basics of knowledge, and young men entering their chosen profession, however, there is still no special cultural form of living in adolescence, and the school life of modern teenagers continues in most cases not only within the walls of the same educational institutions , where primary schoolchildren are taught, but in similar forms.

This age is characterized by a subjective experience, a feeling of adulthood: the need for equality, respect and independence, the requirement for a serious, trusting attitude on the part of adults. Neglect of these requirements, failure to satisfy this need exacerbates the negative features of the crisis period. It is very important that the circle of significant people for a teenager includes mainly his peers, who self-determine and take risks with him.

Already at the beginning of adolescence, communication with peers is defined as an independent sphere of life, and the norms of this communication are critically comprehended. The teenager identifies the standard of adulthood (adult relationships) and looks at himself through this standard.

Interest in one's own personality appears; installation on vast spatial and temporal scales that become more important than the current ones; there is a desire for the unknown, risky, for adventure, heroism, testing oneself; resistance appears, a desire for volitional efforts, sometimes developing into its own negative variants. All these features characterize the teenager’s activity aimed at building an image of himself in the world. The teenager tries to actively interact and experiment with the world of social relationships (social experimentation). The need to define oneself in the world of relationships drives the teenager to participate in new activities.

The younger teenager's plans are initially fuzzy, vague, large-scale and uncritical. A new attitude towards learning emerges - the desire for self-education, the tendency towards independence in learning: the desire to set goals and plan the progress of educational work, the need to evaluate one's achievements. When constructing the educational activity of adolescents, it is not addressed to activities that lead to development. A teenage school is an activity ensemble in which educational activities have their own solo part: the development of a complex of abilities and competencies, in everyday life called “the ability and desire to learn.”

Having mastered the forms of educational activity at primary school age, a teenager strives to gain recognition from other people, internal confidence in his skills, craves personal manifestation and recognition of this manifestation by peers and adults. A teenager makes new demands on educational activities: it must provide conditions for his self-esteem and self-discovery, it must be significant for people respected by the teenager, for society. Unlike younger schoolchildren, for adolescents, their personal inclination to study a particular subject, knowledge of the purpose of studying the subject, and the ability to apply learning results in solving practical problems become fundamental. Teenagers are not satisfied with the role of passive listeners; they are not interested in writing down ready-made solutions. They are waiting for new forms of education in which their activity, active nature of thinking, and desire for independence would be realized. The older a teenager is, the more he gravitates towards awareness of his educational activities, planning them and, ultimately, managing them.

This is facilitated by developing conceptual thinking, the foundations of which are laid at primary school age. In adolescence, thanks to the development of cultural forms of social consciousness (natural and social sciences, spiritual practices of self-expression), thinking in concepts radically transforms the structure of the child’s consciousness; it begins to determine the work of memory, perception, imagination, and attention.

The productive completion of adolescence occurs with the emergence of the ability to consciously, proactively and responsibly build one’s action in the world, based not only on the vision of one’s own action, regardless of the possibility of its implementation, but taking into account the “attitude of the world” to one’s action. A person’s behavior becomes behavior for himself, a person realizes himself as a kind of unity.

Types of activities of a teenager related to educational institutions:

Jointly distributed learning activities in student-oriented forms (including the possibility of independent planning and goal-setting, the opportunity to show one’s individuality, perform “adult” functions - control, evaluation, didactic organization of material, etc.).

Jointly distributed project activities focused on obtaining a socially significant product.

Research activity in its various forms, including meaningful experimentation with natural objects, social experimentation aimed at building relationships with other people, tactics of one’s own behavior.

Activities of managing system objects (technical objects, groups of people).

Creative activity (artistic, technical and other creativity) aimed at self-realization and self-awareness.

Sports activity aimed at building a self-image and self-change.

Specific types of activities of adolescents that are implemented in an educational institution are determined by the educational institution itself together with interested other participants in the educational process.

Problems solved by teenagers in different types of activities

Learn to independently plan academic work, participate in various types of joint activities, and set goals in familiar types of activities.

Learn to monitor and meaningfully evaluate your own participation in various activities.

Master different ways of presenting the results of your activities.

Learn to act according to your own plans, in accordance with your own set goals, finding ways to realize your plans.

Build an adequate idea of ​​your own place in the world, understand your own preferences and capabilities in different types of activities; build your own picture of the world and your position.

Learn to adequately express and perceive yourself: your thoughts, sensations, experiences, feelings.

Learn to interact effectively with peers, adults and younger children, carrying out a variety of joint activities with them

Problems solved by teachers implementing the basic educational program of basic general education

Implement the educational program of the basic school in a variety of organizational and educational forms (same-age and multi-age lessons, classes, trainings, projects, practices, conferences, away sessions, etc.), with a gradual expansion of students’ opportunities to choose the level and nature of independent work. The sphere of learning should become for a teenager a meeting place between ideas and their implementation, a place of social experimentation that allows them to feel the boundaries of their own capabilities. (This problem is solved primarily by the teacher).

Prepare students for the selection and implementation of individual educational trajectories in the area of ​​independence specified by the educational program. (This problem is solved primarily by the tutor).

Organize a system of social life activities and group design of social events, provide adolescents with a field for self-presentation and self-expression in peer groups and mixed-age groups. (This problem is solved primarily by a social teacher).

Create a space for the implementation of various creative ideas of adolescents and the manifestation of proactive actions. (This problem is solved jointly by the teacher, tutor, and social educator).

Characteristics of adolescence and types of activities of older schoolchildren
Adolescence in modern culture does not have a complete, deep, essential description for a number of reasons. Firstly, adolescence is more dependent on the economic and political situation (unlike previous ages). Secondly, culturally and historically, adolescence, like adolescence, has not yet received a clear design and is a kind of “corridor” between childhood and adulthood. And thirdly, the social tasks that a person realizes at this age change almost every decade.

Thus, the leading activity of this period of a person’s life is self-determination as a practice of formation associated with the construction of possible images of the future, design and planning of one’s individual trajectory (one’s own path) in it.

The processes of self-determination are realized through a set of tests and the acquisition of experience in preparation for making decisions about the extent, content and method of one’s participation in educational and social practices, which can be expressed in different forms. Such forms for youth are:

inner peace and self-knowledge;

love and family;

values ​​and camaraderie;

interests and profession;

morality and social position.

The scripted nature of activity distinguishes a young man from a teenager. For modern young people, scenarios of educational events and projects have the character of a planned trial action. However, one cannot directly connect the scripted nature of youthful action with an alleged predisposition to project—for a given age, what is important, first of all, is the “project of oneself”—of one’s present and future possibilities. It is customary to distinguish three periods in the development of adolescence. The first period is associated with setting life goals, the second with determining the conditions for further human development, and the third with identifying resources to achieve the goals. Senior school age is mainly associated with the tasks of the first period of adolescence.

The most important specificity of adolescence is its active involvement in the existing problems of our time. Youth development practices are always truly risky - they are on the cutting edge of problems.

The formation of a young man is an attempt to acquire practical thinking. Therefore, the unit of organization of educational content in high school should be the “problem” and problematic organization of educational material, which involves overcoming the task-target organization of educational activities and entering the next control circuit - into the space of “meanings”, “horizons”, “opportunities”.

Practices are implemented through the technological organization of life. Therefore, high school should be built not on the principle of subject profiles, but on the basis of technological profiles, where the material of the subject is a means of introduction to one or another social and production practice (for example: engineering and technological profile, bio-technological profile, educational technology profile, political technological profile, mass communications profile, information technology profile...).

Such a structured youth education requires other pedagogical positions. An adult in this type of education must himself be the bearer of a certain topic and project, otherwise it loses significance for young people.

Types of activities for senior schoolchildren:

Educational activities in the starting forms of university education (lectures, seminars, trainings, workshops, internships, etc.).

Individual educational activities within the framework of the individual educational program of a high school student, training in the external education system, training in correspondence schools.

Design and research activities on a specific profile topic.

Organizational and project social activities within the framework of an individual educational program for a high school student.

Activities to form your professional, personal and civic self-determination (internships, auditions, reflective sessions).

Problems solved by senior schoolchildren using different types of activities

Master the starting forms of university education and the associated methods of personal organization.

Develop techniques and methods for organizing individual educational activities. Master the techniques of systematization, typology and classification of knowledge.

Highlight your area of ​​interest in connection with modern economic, political, social and scientific problems. Master experimental and exploratory forms of organizing activities.

Master the starting methods of organizing a team.

Form initial ideas about the scope of your professional interests, formalize social ambitions, and master methods of personal organization.

Problems solved by teachers implementing the basic educational program of complete general education

Implement the educational program of the high school in the organizational and educational basic elements and forms of higher education (lectures, seminars, modular forms, credit system, trainings) (This task is solved primarily by the teacher).

Prepare students to carry out the processes of independent knowledge construction (a holistic vision of the subject, systemic organization of the subject, conceptual relationships and thematic conditionality, hierarchy of knowledge) (This task is solved primarily by the tutor).

To develop in students methods and techniques for studying modern problems and constructing their effective solutions (This task is solved primarily by the supervisor).

Organize a system of social life activity and group design of social events (This task is solved primarily by a social teacher).

Organize a system of design and analytical events, during which the social, civic and professional position of students is formalized (mentor). (This problem is solved primarily by the mentor).

Appendix 4

BLOCK OF ADDITIONAL EDUCATION AND EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES TO THE CURRICULUM

NORMATIVE BASIS OF THE CURRICULUM OF THE ADDITIONAL EDUCATION BLOCK (EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES ) OU No.... on... account. year:

The curriculum of the block of additional education (BDE) of OU No.... was developed on the basis of the following regulatory documents:

At primary school age, it acquires leading importance doctrine.

Educational activities- this is an activity directly aimed at assimilation of knowledge and skills developed by humanity.

Science subjects- these are special objects that you need to learn to operate with.

Educational activity is not given to a person from birth; it must be formulated. Therefore, the task of primary school is to teach the child to learn.

In order for educational activities to be successful, positive motivation is necessary, that is, for the child to really want to learn. But the motive and content of educational activity do not correspond to each other, and over time the motive loses its power. Therefore, one of the main tasks of successful learning activities is the formation of cognitive motivation, which is closely related to the content and methods of learning.

A child entering school does not know how to study and does not master educational activities. In the first days of school, the teacher is the main leader. He sets goals for children, shows how to complete a task, monitors and evaluates the child’s work.

Educational activities - leading the activities of a primary school student. Leading activity in Soviet child psychology is understood as such activity, during which the formation of basic mental processes and personality properties occurs, and the main new formations of age appear (voluntariness, reflection, self-control, internal plan of action). Educational activities are carried out throughout the child’s education at school. But “this or that activity,” according to D. B. Elkonin, “performs its leading function most fully during the period when it takes shape and is being formed. Primary school age is the period of the most intensive formation of educational activity.”

Educational activities - This is a special type of activity, different” from, for example, labor. By changing the material, working with it, a person creates a new product in the process of work. The essence of labor activity lies precisely in the creation of the Product. The essence of educational activity is the appropriation of scientific knowledge. The child, under the guidance of the teacher, begins to operate with scientific concepts.

The purpose of teaching in Soviet psychology is considered not only in terms of acquiring knowledge, but mainly in terms of enriching, “rebuilding” the child’s personality. According to D. B. Elkonin, “the result of educational activities, during which the assimilation of scientific concepts occurs, is, first of all, a change in the student himself, his development. In general terms, we can say that this change is the child’s acquisition of new abilities, that is, new ways of acting with scientific concepts. Thus, educational activity is, first of all, an activity that results in changes in the student himself. This is an activity of self-change; its product is the changes that occurred during its implementation in the subject himself.” These changes are:

Changes in the level of knowledge, skills, abilities, training;

Changes in the level of development of certain aspects of educational activity;

Changes in mental operations, personality characteristics, i.e. in the level of general and mental development.

Educational activities - it is a specific form of individuality and activity. It is complex in its structure and requires special formation. Like work, educational activities are characterized by goals and motives. Like an adult doing work, a student must know what to do, why to do it, how to do it, see his mistakes, control and evaluate himself. A child entering school does not do any of this on his own, that is, he does not have educational activity. In the process of learning activities, the junior schoolchild not only acquires knowledge, skills and abilities. but also learns to set educational tasks (goals), find ways to assimilate and apply knowledge, control and evaluate their actions.

Product, the result of learning activity is changes in the student himself. Educational activity is an activity of self-development, self-change (in the level of knowledge, abilities, skills, in the level of general and mental development).

Leading role educational activity is expressed in the fact that it mediates the entire system of relations between the child and society (it is social in meaning, content and form of organization), in it not only individual mental qualities are formed, but also the personality of the primary school student as a whole.

The structure of educational activities according to D.B. Elkonin:

- learning motivation - a system of incentives that forces a child to learn and gives meaning to learning activities.

- learning task , i.e. a system of tasks during which the child masters the most common methods of action;

- learning activities , those with the help of which the learning task is mastered, i.e. all the actions that the student does in class ( specific for each academic subject and are common);

- control actions - those actions with the help of which the progress of mastering the educational task is monitored;

- evaluation action - those actions with the help of which we evaluate the success of mastering a learning task.

Question No. 20.

Basic psychological neoplasms

Junior school age.

Neoplasms of primary school age include memory, perception, will, thinking.

During primary school age, great changes occur in cognitive sphere of the child . Memory acquires a pronounced cognitive character. Changes in the area memory are associated with the fact that the child, firstly, begins to realize a special mnemonic task. He separates this task from every other. Secondly, there is an intensive formation of memorization techniques. At an older age, from the most primitive techniques (repetition, careful long-term examination of the material), the child moves on to grouping and understanding the connections between different parts of the material.

In area perception There is a transition from the involuntary perception of a preschool child to purposeful voluntary observation of an object, subordinate to a specific task. In order for the student to more subtly analyze the qualities of objects, the teacher must carry out special work, teaching him to observe. To do this, it is necessary to create a preliminary search image in the child so that the child can see what is needed. If preschoolers were characterized by analyzing perception, then by the end of primary school age, with appropriate training, synthesizing perception appears.

At school, all activities are voluntary in nature, therefore they actively develop will and self-organization. The child begins to develop the ability to self-organize, he masters planning techniques, self-control and self-esteem increase.

The most significant changes can be observed in the area thinking, which acquires an abstract and generalized character. The transition from visual-figurative to verbal-logical thinking, which began in preschool age, is completed. There is a development of a new form of generalization based on the essential features of objects and phenomena - theoretical thinking. Thanks to the development of a new level of thinking, a restructuring of all other mental processes occurs, i.e., according to D. B. Elkonin, “memory becomes thinking, and perception becomes thinking.” Therefore, it is the restructuring of the entire cognitive sphere in connection with the development of theoretical thinking that constitutes the main content of mental development in primary school age.

By the end of primary school age, elements of labor, artistic, and socially useful activities are formed. Prerequisites for development are being created feelings of adulthood: the child thinks that he can do everything like an adult.

Junior school age usually means the period from six or seven to 10 or 11 years. During this time, significant changes occur in the functioning of the child's brain. Maturing cortical structures increasingly subjugate the activating subcortical formations, which creates conditions for the child to voluntarily regulate his activities and behavior. Functional dominance is established in the system of interhemispheric relations, i.e. in right-handers, the left hemisphere, more associated with logical verbal thinking, begins to clearly dominate. In physical development, the beginning of primary school age coincides with a certain growth spurt and the replacement of baby teeth with permanent ones.

A child’s entry into school, no matter what age it occurs, requires adaptation to new living conditions. The adaptation process occurs individually, and its success does not always directly depend on the child’s general psychological readiness for school. Thus, children who have not attended kindergarten may find it difficult to adapt to both the new daily routine and the constant presence of a large number of peers. It is also sometimes difficult for “kindergarten” children to realize that at school they meet with peers not to play. Difficulties in the adaptation period are expressed in different ways, but almost all children exhibit one or another stress reaction. For some, the new daily routine leads to problems with sleep, for others, appetite decreases and growth slows down, for others, neurotic symptoms are observed, including stuttering and enuresis. The duration of the adaptation period varies from one month to three to four. If during this time adaptation has not occurred, then we should talk about school maladjustment. This concept combines many symptoms: from reluctance to go to school to the formation of neurosis.

Adaptation of a first-grader to school mainly comes down to adaptation to the teacher - his style of communication, methods of influence and requirements. The latter are for the most part objective requirements of school teaching itself, but there are also those that embody the preferences or habits of the teacher. For a child, they are all equally important and immutable.

In preschool age, the child's relationships with adults and his relationships with peers were relatively independent of each other. When a child enters school, the system of his relationships with adults breaks into two: “child - teacher” and “child - parents”, and the first system of relationships becomes dominant, determining both the child’s relationship with his parents and his relationships with peers (L. F. Obukhova ).

Coming to school is the first direct and necessary inclusion of a child in the system of social relations. For the first time, the child has rights and responsibilities that do not depend on the parents, which he must realize himself. In most cases, the parent ceases to be the only indisputable authority for the child. For a first-grader, a teacher is objectively the embodiment of all new norms and requirements and the person who controls and evaluates their implementation. All this increases the child’s imitation towards the teacher, as well as positive identification with him. The child begins to relate to another child from the position of how this child relates to the standard that the teacher introduces. "Sneaks" appear. As already mentioned, the child is not able to differentiate the teacher’s demands into more or less significant ones, so the teacher often becomes the standard in everything. He has the right to make demands on parents.

The child's relationship with the teacher must be mediated educational activities, i.e. the implementation of educational activities should determine the child’s relationship with the teacher and peers. But educational activity is not just an activity for acquiring knowledge, because there are didactic games and other types of activities, the indirect product of which will be the acquisition of knowledge.

Educational activities- this is the leading activity of primary school age, within the framework of which the child’s controlled appropriation of the fundamentals of social experience and generalized theoretical knowledge accumulated by humanity takes place.

Subjects of science and culture, acquired in the process of educational activity, are special subjects: they are abstract, theoretical, and one must learn to act with them. According to D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov and their followers, the formation of full-fledged educational activity in a child is the main task of primary school age.

From a psychological point of view subject of educational activity speaks himself subject, i.e. a child, because in the process of educational activity it is he who changes, becomes smarter, more competent, etc. At the same time, a certain contradiction is noted: subjectively, the child’s activity is aimed at assimilating the generalized experience of humanity, differentiated into separate sciences, but objectively, changes must occur in the subject himself. To track such changes you need reflexivity– the ability to observe one’s own internal changes, i.e. changes occurring in the internal plane of the subject himself. A child entering school (even after seven years), as a rule, is not capable of such reflection, therefore, at present (with different methods of teaching younger schoolchildren) there are different ways of dividing the components of educational activity between its participants.

Process development of educational activities- this is the process of transferring an increasing number of its links to the student himself.

The components of educational activity include motivation, educational task, educational operations, control and evaluation of results. Let's consider the development of each of the components.

It is known that motivation cannot belong only to the teacher. It must also take place in the student, otherwise the activity simply will not begin. Another thing is that at the beginning of training, the motivation of a junior schoolchild is usually external in relation to educational activities, i.e. not the best for forming activities. The most appropriate would be educational and cognitive motives: the desire to learn, to learn something new. Such a motive should be distinguished from a purely cognitive one, close to curiosity, when a child may strive to learn as many fascinating and interesting facts as possible, without being interested in the relationships between them.

Among the most common motives for teaching first-graders, we should highlight motive for compliance with the student’s position, which may include the desire to fulfill the teacher’s requirements, obey the rules of the school routine, get good grades, etc. The desire to fulfill the role of a schoolchild undoubtedly motivates the student to perform the necessary actions, but remains external in relation to the content of the activity.

Quite often found, and sometimes even becomes dominant in the lower grades motivation to achieve success and accordingly, in case of an unfavorable development option - avoiding failure. Achievement motivation must be involved in educational activities. It allows you to receive positive emotions from increasing your own competence and can last much longer than cognitive motivation.

Achievement motivation should be distinguished from prestigious motivation which in adults is usually called motivation for self-affirmation. It usually includes the desire to achieve, at any cost, a positive external assessment of one’s own actions and oneself.

"The peculiarity of self-affirmation motivation is the significant stability and strength of the motive, a high degree of personal significance of the results for the subject. The subjects of this group are distinguished by high emotionality, which in case of chronic failure turns into affect of inadequacy" (O. N. Arestova).

Younger schoolchildren, when prestige motivation dominates, either begin to “chase grades” or in other ways strive to achieve the teacher’s favor. In underachieving junior schoolchildren, the desire for self-affirmation, which cannot be satisfied at school, can be directed into other areas of activity: sports, music, etc., thereby depriving educational activities of the necessary energy.

The next component of educational activities is educational task, those. what the student must master, those generalized methods of action that are the subject of assimilation.

Learning task- this is a problematic situation, the resolution of which is associated with the discovery and development of a new cognitive method that relates to a wider class of problems than the original ones.

In traditional teaching, the learning task exists in the mind of the teacher. Children are offered a number of specific assignments, tasks By performing which, they gradually come to identify a general method of their implementation. Developmental learning involves the joint “discovery” and formulation by children and the teacher of a common method for solving a certain class of problems. As a result, the general method is learned as a model and is more easily transferred to other tasks in the same class, educational work becomes more productive, and errors do not occur as often and disappear faster.

example

An example of a learning task is morphosemantic analysis in Russian language lessons. The child must establish connections between the form and meaning of the word. To do this, he learns general ways of working with a word: he needs to change the word, compare it with a newly formed word in form and meaning, and identify the connection between changes in form and meaning. However, in order to master general methods of action, the child’s activity must be aimed precisely at what how, in what way should be acted upon, not What should be done or obtained as a result. Only in this case will the student’s activity be actually educational.

• Third component - educational activities (operations)– changes in educational material necessary for the student to master it. This is what the student needs to do to discover the properties of the subject he is studying; specific actions that the child performs when solving particular problems (find a root, prefix, etc.).
• The fourth component of educational activities is control. Initially, the children's educational work is supervised by the teacher. This is control, usually based on the final result. Gradually and usually spontaneously, children learn to perform control themselves. Step-by-step control during the execution of an action (and not after its execution) is the development of the attention function. There may be situations of unrelenting control on the part of adults (at school - a teacher, at home - parents), which hinders the development of self-control in children. Due to the lack of targeted development of control, many children find it difficult to develop attention, and for a long time they continue to make mistakes “due to inattention”: missing letters in well-known words, making mistakes even when simply copying from the board or from a textbook.
• The last component of the learning activity is evaluation of results. This is the most important component in every independent activity, which determines both the emotions of the subject and his subsequent goals. At the same time, in the practice of teaching in primary school, the assessment of the results of the child’s educational activities belongs entirely to the teacher. Its criterion is usually the compliance of the student’s actions with the teacher’s standard, so most often these criteria are not presented to the student explicitly.

example

At one time, there was a heated discussion in the psychological literature about assessment in the lower grades. Opponents of assessment (grades) emphasized the negative impact of bad grades on the emerging self-esteem of a primary school student; supporters emphasized the role of grades as an incentive for the child to study. Things even went as far as a legislative ban on issuing grades during the first half of the year. However, implementation of this instruction as a whole did not lead to tangible positive results. As a rule, children in a new social development situation, who have realized to some extent the necessity and social importance of their educational activities, want to receive social assessment of its success. They themselves demand that the teacher evaluate their work. When marks were banned, teachers had to replace them with pictures, flags, etc., which did not change the essence of the matter. In fact, it is necessary to evaluate a child’s educational activity, especially in the lower grades, when he himself is not yet able to do this. However, it is his educational activity that should be assessed, and not just the result of performing a certain action. But most often, when marking, the child’s progress along the path of knowledge was not assessed, but his results were only compared with the results of other children. Such “assessment,” of course, can have a negative impact on the still undifferentiated, emerging self-esteem of younger schoolchildren (see Section IV).

To change this situation, it is proposed to evaluate not the absolute success of the student, but relative, those. compare his achievements not with the results of his classmates, but with his own, recorded some time ago (V.S. Mukhina). The implementation of this idea can improve grades and, accordingly, the emotional well-being of poorly prepared but diligent students at school. Well-prepared students will be at the greatest disadvantage: for example, a child who reads at the speed of an adult in first grade will not be able to improve his results, as will someone who knew only some letters.

As educational activity is formed, which in the first stages acts as a joint activity between teacher and student, more and more of its components are transferred to the student himself. The result is the gradual transfer of all components of educational activity to the student. That's what it is formation of the actual educational activity. In this case, the child is not assigned the role of a learning object, whose main task is to fulfill the teacher’s requirements as accurately as possible; the child becomes authentic subject of his own educational activities. The formation of subjectivity is manifested not only in educational activities, but also in the sphere of communication with classmates (G. A. Tsukerman), and in the specifics of personal development during the teenage crisis and in later periods of life (A. K. Dusavitsky).

Unfortunately, the traditional school education system mainly remains in the old positions of developing knowledge, skills and abilities in students and does not at all form the subject of educational activity. This situation also negatively affects the cognitive development of students.

In line with modern trends in domestic education, the primary school is becoming a completely optional link: many (mostly prestigious) secondary schools, having received the status of lyceums and gymnasiums, cease to enroll junior classes, recruiting children aged 11–13 years by competition. According to D. B. Elkonin and V. V. Davydov, the task of elementary school was “to teach how to learn,” i.e. to form a subject of educational activity; prepare the child for further more independent development of universal human experience, which can last a lifetime. Now this task becomes the responsibility of the family. Everything will depend on how the adult working with the child copes with this task. The level of readiness of a child to enter a gymnasium or lyceum will depend on the level of education and financial situation of the parents, since not everyone will be able to choose a good primary school or a competent individual teacher to prepare a child.

By the age of 7, a child reaches a level of development that determines his readiness for school. Physical development, a stock of ideas and concepts, the level of development of thinking and speech, the desire to go to school - all this creates the prerequisites for systematic learning.

When entering school, the entire structure of a child’s life changes, his routine and relationships with people around him change. Teaching becomes the main activity. Primary school students, with very few exceptions, love to study at school. They like the student’s new position and are attracted to the learning process itself. This determines the conscientious, responsible attitude of younger schoolchildren to learning and school. It is no coincidence that at first they perceive a mark as an assessment of their efforts, diligence, and not the quality of the work done. Children believe that if they “try hard”, it means they are doing well. The teacher's approval encourages him to try even harder.

Younger schoolchildren acquire new knowledge, skills and abilities with readiness and interest. They want to learn to read, write correctly and beautifully, and count. True, they are more fascinated by the process of learning itself, and the younger student shows great activity and diligence in this regard. The interest in school and the learning process is also evidenced by the games of younger schoolchildren, in which a large place is given to school and learning.

Younger schoolchildren continue to demonstrate the inherent need for preschool children for active play activities and movements. They are ready to play outdoor games for hours, cannot sit in a frozen position for a long time, and love to run around during recess. The need for external impressions is also typical for younger schoolchildren; A first-grader, like a preschooler, is primarily attracted by the external side of objects or phenomena or activities performed (for example, the attributes of a class orderly - a sanitary bag, a bandage with a red cross, etc.).

From the first days of school, the child has new needs: to acquire new knowledge, to accurately fulfill the teacher’s requirements, to come to school on time and with completed assignments, the need for approval from adults (especially the teacher), the need to fulfill a certain social role (to be a prefect, orderly, commander of the “star”, etc.).

Typically, the needs of younger schoolchildren, especially those who were not raised in kindergarten, are initially of a personal nature. A first-grader, for example, often complains to the teacher about his neighbors who allegedly interfere with his listening or writing, which indicates his concern for his personal success in learning. Gradually, as a result of the systematic work of the teacher to instill in students a sense of camaraderie and collectivism, their needs acquire a social orientation. Children want the class to be the best, so that everyone is a good student. They begin to help each other on their own initiative. The development and strengthening of collectivism among younger schoolchildren is evidenced by the growing need to win the respect of their comrades and the growing role of public opinion.