Introduction………………………………………………………………………………3

2. Attention as a cognitive mental process……………………...4

3. Types of attention……………………………………………………………..6

4. Formation of involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary attention……………………….…………………………………………7

5. Attention and its properties…………………………………………………….10

The importance of attention in human life and activity……………………12

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..16

References……………………………………………………….18

Introduction.

The purpose of this work is to study the nature and patterns of attention. To achieve this goal, the following tasks are set in the work: consideration of attention as a manifestation of personality activity, determination of the meaning of attention in human life and activity, as well as consideration of the formation of involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary attention in the learning process.

Attention is a person’s ability to concentrate his “cognitive processes” on one object for the purpose of studying it (cognition).

Attention is the concentration and direction of mental activity on a specific object. A distinction is made between involuntary (passive) and voluntary (active) attention, when the choice of the object of attention is made consciously and intentionally. Characteristics of attention: stability, volume (the number of objects that can be perceived and imprinted by a person in a relatively short moment of time), distribution (the ability to simultaneously hold objects of various activities in the field of consciousness), the ability to switch.

2. Attention as a cognitive mental process.

Attention is one of those cognitive processes regarding the essence and right to independent consideration of which there is still no agreement among psychologists. Some scientists argue that attention does not exist as a special, independent process, that it acts only as a side or moment of any other mental process or human activity. Others believe that attention is a completely independent mental state of a person, a specific internal process that has its own characteristics.

On the other hand, there is disagreement about which class of mental phenomena attention should be assigned to. Some believe that attention is a cognitive mental process. Others associate attention with the will and activity of a person, based on the fact that any activity, including cognitive, is impossible without attention, and attention itself requires certain volitional efforts.

Attention is the direction and concentration of consciousness on some object, phenomenon or activity. The direction of consciousness is the choice of an object, and concentration involves distraction from everything that is not related to this object.

To define what constitutes attention, it is necessary to imagine a schoolchild doing his math homework. He is completely immersed in the logic of the problem, focused on solving it, thinking about its conditions, moving from one calculation to another. Characterizing each of these episodes, we can say that he is attentive to what he does, that he pays attention to those objects that he distinguishes from others. In all these cases, we can say that his mental activity is directed at or focused on something. This direction and concentration of mental activity on something specific is called attention.

In turn, the direction of mental activity should mean its selective nature, i.e., the selection from the environment of objects, phenomena that are significant for the subject, or the choice of a certain type of mental activity. The concept of focus also includes maintaining an activity for a certain period of time. It is not enough to just choose one activity or another, to be attentive, you need to maintain this choice, save it for a while.

Attention determines the successful orientation of the subject in the surrounding world and ensures a more complete and clear reflection of it in the psyche. The object of attention appears in the center of our consciousness, everything else is perceived weakly and indistinctly, but the direction of our attention can change.

In my opinion, attention does not represent an independent mental process, since it cannot manifest itself outside of other processes. We listen carefully or inattentively, look, think, do. Thus, attention is only a property of various mental processes.

Attention can be defined as a psychophysiological process, a state that characterizes the dynamic features of cognitive activity. This is the process of consciously or unconsciously selecting some information coming through the senses and ignoring others.

3. Types of attention.

In modern psychological science, it is customary to distinguish several main types of attention:

1. Involuntary attention is the simplest type of attention. It is often called passive, or forced, since it arises and is maintained independently of the will. An activity captivates a person in itself, due to its fascination, entertainment or surprise. It should be borne in mind that usually, when involuntary attention occurs, we are dealing with a whole complex of reasons, which include physical, psychophysiological and mental.

2. Voluntary or unintentional, attention arises and develops as a result of a person’s volitional effort and tension and is distinguished by purposefulness, organization, and increased stability. In educational activities, voluntary attention is of greatest importance. Moreover, the level of voluntary attention in most cases depends on how deeply the need for a particular activity is realized.

There is another type of attention - post-voluntary, which arises from voluntary. First, a person, through an effort of will, forces himself to concentrate on something, and then the attention is concretized on the subject of the activity by itself. It must be emphasized that the transfer of voluntary attention to post-voluntary attention in the process of educational activities is one of the promising directions for improving the quality of the educational process.

4. Formation of involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary attention.

Attention, like all other mental processes, has lower and higher forms. The former are represented by involuntary attention, and the latter by voluntary attention.

If the teacher’s lecture is interesting in content, then students listen to it attentively without any effort. This is a manifestation of the so-called involuntary attention. It often appears in a person not only without any volitional effort, but also without the intention to see, hear, etc. anything. Therefore, this type of attention is also called unintentional.

What causes involuntary attention?
There are several reasons:

1. Relative strength of the stimulus;

2. Unexpected stimulus;

3. Moving objects. The French psychologist T. Ribot especially highlighted this factor; he believed that it is thanks to the purposeful activation of movements that concentration and increased attention on the subject occur;

4. Novelty of the stimulus;

5. Contrasting objects or phenomena;

6. The internal state of a person.

The so-called voluntary attention has a different character. It arises because a person has a goal, an intention to perceive or do something. This type of attention is also called intentional. Voluntary attention has a volitional character.

Psychologists still have a third type of attention, which arises after certain volitional efforts, but when a person “enters” the work, he begins to easily focus on it. Soviet psychologist N. F. Dobrynin called such attention post-voluntary (or secondary), since it replaces ordinary voluntary attention.

If the condition for the appearance of involuntary attention is, as has been said, the qualities of external stimuli and the characteristics of a person’s internal state (his needs, interests), then for the appearance and maintenance of voluntary attention a conscious attitude to activity is necessary. However, it often happens that this conscious attitude is present, the goal is clear and its achievement is recognized as absolutely necessary, but nevertheless the person cannot work with concentration. This happens to people with a poorly developed will, who are not used to making a certain effort to be attentive.

The frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex are associated with all voluntary conscious activity, with the functioning of speech. This indicates the essence of attention as a way of functioning of the entire consciousness.

Mental processes can have an involuntary (independent of the will) direction. In these cases, they are organized in the form of involuntary (unintentional) attention. Thus, a sharp, unexpected signal causes attention against our will.

The ability to voluntarily direct mental activity is one of the main features of human consciousness. In the process of activity, voluntary attention can turn into post-voluntary attention, which does not require constant volitional efforts. A person’s attention is formed from birth, and in the process of its formation, the interconnected development of memory, speech, etc. occurs. Stages of development:

1. The first two weeks of life are the manifestation of the orientation reflex as an objective, innate sign of the child’s involuntary attention.

2. The end of the first year of life - the emergence of indicative research activity as a means of future development of voluntary attention.

3. The beginning of the second year of life - the beginnings of voluntary attention under the influence of speech instructions from an adult.

4. Second - third year of life - development of voluntary attention.

5. Four and a half to five years - paying attention to complex instructions from an adult.

6. Five to six years – the emergence of an elementary form of voluntary attention under the influence of self-instructions.

7. School age – development and improvement of voluntary attention.

5. Attention and its properties.

Human attention has five main properties:

One of the properties of the psyche is its selective orientation.

Selective orientation of consciousness increases the efficiency of current activity due to the inhibition of all other competing processes.

Centralization in consciousness of what is of greatest significance for human activity is the organization of consciousness, manifested in its direction and concentration on significant objects.

The direction of consciousness is the selection of influences that are significant at the moment, and concentration is a distraction from side stimuli.

Thus, attention is the organization of all mental activity, consisting in its selective direction and concentration on the objects of activity.

Attention, ensuring the identification of objects that are significant for a given activity, is an operational orienting function of the psyche.

The identification of significant objects is carried out both in the external environment - externally directed attention, and from the fund of the psyche itself - internally directed attention.

The main physiological mechanism of attention is the functioning of the focus of optimal excitation, or dominant. Thanks to optimal stimulation in a certain area of the cerebral cortex, conditions are created for the most accurate and complete reflection of what is especially significant at the moment, and the reflection of everything that is not related to the current activity is blocked.

The physiological mechanism of attention is also the innate orientation reflex. The brain selects each new unusual stimulus from the environment. The functioning of the orientation reflex is accompanied by appropriate adjustment of the analyzers, an increase in their sensitivity, as well as a general activation of brain activity. Research by neuropsychologists has established that the preservation of directed, programmed action and inhibition of all reactions to side effects are carried out by the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex.

All types of attention are associated with a person’s attitudes, with his readiness and predisposition to certain actions. The installation increases the sensitivity of analyzers and the level of all mental processes.

Thus, we are more likely to notice the appearance of a certain object if we expect it to appear in a certain place and at a certain time.

The importance of attention in human life and activity.

The properties of attention - direction, volume, distribution, concentration, intensity, stability and switchability - are associated with the structure of human activity. At the initial stage of activity, during the implementation of general orientation, when the objects of this environment are still equally significant, the main feature of attention is breadth, an evenly distributed focus of consciousness on several objects. At this stage of activity there is still no stability of attention.

But this quality becomes significant when the most significant ones for a given activity are identified from the available objects. Mental processes are concentrated on these objects.

Depending on the significance of the activity, mental processes become more intense. The duration of action necessitates the stability of mental processes.

The span of attention is the number of objects that a person can simultaneously be aware of with the same degree of clarity.

If an observer is shown a number of objects simultaneously for a short period of time, it turns out that people cover four or five objects with their attention. The amount of attention depends on a person’s professional activity, his experience, and mental development. The amount of attention increases significantly if objects are grouped and systematized.

The volume of attention is somewhat less than the volume of awareness, because along with

With a clear reflection of objects in our consciousness at every moment, there is also an indistinct awareness of many other objects (up to several dozen).

Distribution of attention is the focus of consciousness on performing several simultaneous actions. The distribution of attention depends on experience, skills and abilities. A novice driver tensely regulates the movement of the car, he can hardly take his eyes off the road to look at the instruments, and is in no way inclined to carry on a conversation with his interlocutor. It is very difficult for a novice cyclist to simultaneously move the pedals, maintain balance and monitor the features of the road. Having acquired the appropriate stable skills during the exercise, a person begins to perform certain actions semi-automatically: they are regulated by those parts of the brain that are not in a state of optimal arousal. This makes it possible to perform several actions simultaneously, while any new action requires complete concentration of consciousness.

Concentration of attention is the degree of concentration of consciousness on one object, the intensity of the focus of consciousness on this object.

Switchability of attention is the speed of voluntary change of objects of mental processes. This quality of attention largely depends on the individual characteristics of a person’s higher nervous activity - the balance and mobility of nervous processes. Depending on the type of higher nervous activity, the attention of some people is more mobile, others - less mobile. This individual feature of attention should be taken into account during professional selection. Frequent shifts of attention present significant mental difficulties and cause overwork of the central nervous system.

Sustainability of attention is the duration of concentration of mental processes on one object. It depends on the significance of the object, on the nature of the actions with it and on the individual characteristics of the person.

Not a single mental process can proceed purposefully and productively if a person does not focus his attention on what he perceives or does. We can look at an object and not notice it or see it very poorly. Busy with his thoughts, a person does not hear conversations taking place next to him, although the sounds of voices reach his hearing aid. We may not feel pain if our attention is directed elsewhere. On the contrary, when deeply concentrating on an object or activity, a person notices all the details of this object and acts very productively. And by fixing our attention on sensations, we increase our sensitivity.

Two processes can occur in the cerebral cortex: excitation and inhibition. When a person is attentive to something, it means that a focus of excitation has arisen in his cerebral cortex. The rest of the brain is in a state of inhibition at this time. Therefore, a person focused on one thing may not notice anything else at that moment.

The activity of non-excited areas of the brain at this time is associated with what is usually called unconscious, automatic human activity.

The so-called orienting reflex is of great importance for the appearance of attention. It represents the body's innate reaction to any change in the environment.

The ability to become alert, sometimes reacting to a very slight change in the environment, is explained by the presence in the cerebral hemispheres of the brain of a network of nerve pathways connecting the reticular formation (a set of brain structures that regulate the level of excitability) with different parts of the cerebral cortex. Nerve impulses traveling along this network arise along with signals from the sensory organs and excite the cortex, bringing it into a state of readiness to respond to expected further stimulation. Thus, the reticular formation, together with the sense organs, determines the appearance of the orienting reflex, which is the primary physiological basis of attention.

When absent-minded, a person’s consciousness does not have a specific direction, but moves from one object to another, i.e. dissipates.

There are two main types of absent-mindedness. The first is the result of a general instability of attention. They are usually distinguished by younger children. However, it can also occur in adults as a result of weakness of the nervous system or extreme fatigue, lack of sleep, etc. This type of absent-mindedness also appears in the absence of the habit of working with concentration.

The second type of absent-mindedness has a completely different character. It occurs because a person is focused on one thing and therefore does not notice anything else. People who are passionate about their work are characterized by such absent-mindedness.

If a person gets used to doing everything carefully, then attention, becoming a constant feature, develops into attentiveness, which, as a personality trait, is of great importance in the general psychological appearance of a person. Anyone who has this quality is distinguished by observation and the ability to better perceive their surroundings. An attentive person reacts to events faster and often experiences them more deeply, and has a great ability to learn.

Mindfulness is associated with greater development of the properties of attention: its volume, concentration, stability, distribution. Possessing this quality, a person easily concentrates and has well-developed involuntary attention. Even in the absence of interest in work, an attentive person can quickly mobilize voluntary attention and force himself to concentrate on a difficult and uninteresting activity.

Typically, outstanding scientists, writers, inventors, and creative people in general are distinguished by their attentiveness. Here you can name Darwin, Pavlov, Tolstoy, Chekhov, Gorky.

Conclusion

Thus, the following conclusions can be drawn from the work:

1. Attention determines the successful orientation of the subject in the surrounding world and ensures a more complete and clear reflection of it in the psyche.

2. Human attention has five main properties:

Stability is the ability to maintain a state of attention on any object for a long time.

Concentration is the ability to concentrate one's attention on one object while distracting from others.

Switchability is a transfer from one object to another, from one type of activity to another.

Distribution – the ability to focus attention over a large space while simultaneously performing several types of activities.

Volume is the amount of information that a person is able to retain in the area of increased attention.

3. Attention, ensuring the identification of objects that are significant for a given activity, is an operational-orienting function of the psyche.

4. Attention, like all other mental processes, has lower and higher forms. The former are represented by involuntary attention, and the latter by voluntary attention.

5. Mental processes can have an involuntary (independent of the will) direction. In these cases, they are organized in the form of involuntary (unintentional) attention. Thus, a sharp, unexpected signal causes attention against our will.

But the main form of organization of mental processes is voluntary (intentional) attention, characterized by systematic

direction of consciousness. Voluntary attention is due to the isolation of significant information.

Glossary of basic terms and concepts

Attention is the direction and concentration of consciousness on some object, phenomenon or activity.

Sustainability of attention is the ability to maintain a state of attention on any object for a long time.

Concentration of attention is the ability to concentrate one’s attention on one object while being distracted from others.

Switchability of attention - transfer from one object to another, from one type of activity to another.

Distribution of attention - the ability to distribute attention over a significant space while simultaneously performing several types of activities.

Attention span is the amount of information that a person is able to retain in the area of increased attention.

Externally directed attention - highlighting significant objects in the external environment.

Intradirectional attention is the selection of significant objects from the fund of the psyche itself.

Involuntary (unintentional) attention - independent of will

Voluntary (intentional) attention is characterized by a systematic orientation of consciousness. Voluntary attention is due to the isolation of significant information.

Post-voluntary attention is the result of the transition in the process of activity from voluntary attention to attention that does not require constant volitional efforts.

8. List of references.

1. Gonobolin F.N. Attention and its education. – M.: Psychology and Pedagogy, 1999. – p. 125-132.

2. Nemov R.S. Psychology. - M.: Education, Vlados, 1999. - 492 p.

3. Obukhova L.F. Child psychology: theories, facts, problems. - M.: Psychology and Pedagogy, 2002. - 351 p.

4. Robert L. Solso Cognitive psychology. – M.: Medicine, 2001. – 228 p.

5. Psychology. Dictionary. - M.: Politizdat, 1990. - 494 p.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

BELOVSKY INSTITUTE (BRANCH)

GOU VPO" KEMEROVSK STATE UNIVERSITY"

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

TEST

discipline: "Psychology"

on the topic of: " THE ROLE OF MEMORY AND ATTENTION IN LIFE PERSON"

Belovo - 2011

1. General characteristics of memory

2. Main types of memory

3. Individual characteristics of memory and its development

4. Concept of attention

5. Main types of attention

6. Main characteristics of attention properties

7. Development of attention

Bibliography

1. Generaland Icharacteristicmemory

Our mental world is diverse and diverse. Thanks to the high level of development of our psyche, we can do a lot and know a lot. In turn, mental development is possible because we retain the acquired experience and knowledge. Everything that we learn, every experience, impression or movement leaves a certain trace in memory, which can persist for quite a long time and, under appropriate conditions, appear again and become an object of consciousness. Therefore, by memory we mean the imprinting, preservation, subsequent recognition and reproduction of traces of past experience. It is thanks to memory that a person is able to accumulate information without losing previous knowledge and skills.

Memory is a complex mental process consisting of several private processes associated with each other. Memory is necessary for a person - it allows him to accumulate, save and subsequently use personal life experience; it stores knowledge and skills.

2. Main types of memory

There are several main approaches to memory classification. In this case, individual types of memory are distinguished in accordance with three main criteria:

1) according to the nature of the mental activity that predominates in the activity, memory is divided into motor, emotional, figurative and verbal-logical;

2) according to the nature of the goals of the activity - involuntary and voluntary;

3) according to the duration of consolidation and preservation of the material (in connection with its role and place in the activity) - short-term, long-term and operational.

Characteristics of these types of memory:

Motor (or motor) memory - this is memorizing, preserving and reproducing various movements. Motor memory is the basis for the formation of various practical and work skills, as well as the skills of walking, writing, etc. Without memory for movements, we would have to learn to carry out the appropriate actions every time.

Emotional memory - this is a memory for feelings. This type of memory is our ability to remember and reproduce feelings. Emotions always signal how our needs and interests are satisfied, how our relationships with the outside world are carried out. Therefore, emotional memory is very important in the life and activities of every person. Feelings experienced and stored in memory act as signals that either encourage action or deter actions that caused negative experiences in the past.

It should be noted that reproduced, or secondary, feelings may differ significantly from the original ones. This can be expressed both in a change in the strength of feelings, and in a change in their content and character.

Figurative memory - this is a memory for ideas, pictures of nature and life, as well as for sounds, smells, tastes, etc. The essence of figurative memory is that what was previously perceived is then reproduced in the form of ideas. When characterizing figurative memory, one should keep in mind all those features that are characteristic of ideas, and above all their pallor, fragmentation and instability. These characteristics are also inherent in this type of memory, so the reproduction of what was previously perceived often diverges from its original. Moreover, over time, these differences can deepen significantly.

The accuracy of reproduction is largely determined by the degree to which speech is involved in perception. What was named during perception, described in a word, is reproduced more accurately.

It should be noted that many researchers divide figurative memory into visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory. This division is associated with the predominance of one or another type of reproduced ideas.

Verbal-logical memory is expressed in memorizing and reproducing our thoughts. We remember and reproduce the thoughts that arose in us during the process of thinking, thinking, we remember the content of a book we read, a conversation with friends.

The peculiarity of this type of memory is that thoughts do not exist without language, which is why memory for them is called not just logical, but verbal-logical. In this case, verbal-logical memory manifests itself in two cases: a) only the meaning of the given material is remembered and reproduced, and precise preservation of the original expressions is not required; b) not only the meaning is remembered, but also the literal verbal expression of thoughts (memorization of thoughts). If in the latter case the material is not subject to semantic processing at all, then its literal memorization turns out to be no longer logical, but mechanical memorization.

Both of these types of memory may not coincide with each other. For example, there are people who remember well the meaning of what they read, but cannot always accurately and firmly memorize the material, and people who easily memorize, but cannot reproduce the text “in their own words.”

In verbal-logical memory, the main role is given to the second signaling system, since verbal-logical memory is a specifically human memory, in contrast to motor, emotional and figurative memory, which in their simplest forms are also characteristic of animals. Based on the development of other types of memory, verbal-logical memory becomes leading in relation to them, and the development of all other types of memory largely depends on the level of its development.

All types of memory are closely related to each other and do not exist independently of each other. Therefore, in each specific process, all types of memory are interconnected.

There is, however, a division of memory into types that is directly related to the characteristics of the activity itself. Thus, depending on the goals of the activity, memory is divided into involuntary and voluntary. . In the first case, we mean memorization and reproduction, which is carried out automatically, without volitional efforts of a person, without control by consciousness. In this case, there is no special goal to remember or remember something, i.e., no special mnemonic task is set. In the second case, such a task is present, and the process itself requires volitional effort.

There is also a division of memory into short-term and long-term. Short-term memory is a type of memory characterized by very brief retention of perceived information. From one point of view, short-term memory is somewhat similar to involuntary memory. But unlike involuntary memory, with short-term memory we make certain volitional efforts to remember.

The capacity of short-term memory varies from person to person. It characterizes a person’s natural memory and is preserved, as a rule, throughout life. The volume of short-term memory characterizes the ability mechanically, i.e. without using special techniques, remember perceived information.

Short-term memory plays a very important role in human life. Thanks to it, a significant amount of information is processed, unnecessary information is immediately eliminated and potentially useful remains. As a result, long-term memory is not overloaded. In general, short-term memory is of great importance for organizing thinking, and in this it is very similar to working memory.

The concept of operative memory refers to mnemonic processes that serve actual actions and operations directly carried out by a person.

Without good short-term memory, normal functioning of long-term memory is impossible. Only what was once in short-term memory can penetrate into the latter and be deposited for a long time, therefore short-term memory acts as a kind of buffer that passes only the necessary, already selected information into long-term memory. At the same time, the transition of information from short-term to long-term memory is associated with a number of features. Thus, short-term memory mainly contains the last five or six units of information received through the senses. Transfer from short-term memory to long-term memory is carried out through volitional effort. Moreover, much more information can be transferred into long-term memory than the individual capacity of short-term memory allows. This is achieved by repeating the material that needs to be memorized. As a result, the total volume of memorized material increases.

3. Individual characteristics of memoryand its development

Memory processes proceed differently in different people. Currently, it is customary to distinguish two main groups of individual differences in memory: the first group includes differences in learning productivity, the second includes differences in the so-called types of memory.

Differences in learning productivity are expressed in the speed, strength and accuracy of memorization, as well as in the readiness to reproduce the material. It is well known that some people remember quickly, others slowly, some remember for a long time, others soon forget, some reproduce accurately, others make many mistakes, some can remember a large amount of information, others remember only a few lines.

Thus, people with strong memories are characterized by rapid memorization and long-term retention of information. People are known with exceptional memory power.

Is there a connection between how quickly a person remembers and how long he remembers? Experimental studies have shown that there is no strict pattern here. More often there is a positive relationship between the strength and speed of memorization, i.e., those who memorize quickly remember longer, but at the same time, the inverse relationship is also observed. There is also no definite relationship between speed and accuracy of memorization.

Another group of individual differences concerns types of memory. The type of memory determines how a person remembers material - visually, auditorily or using movement. Some people, in order to remember, need to visually perceive what they are remembering. These are people of the so-called visual memory type . Others need auditory images to remember. This category of people has an auditory type of memory . In addition, there are people who, in order to remember, need movements and especially speech movements. These are people who have a motor type of memory (in particular, speech-motor).

However, pure memory types are not that common. Most people have mixed types. Thus, most often there are mixed types of memory - auditory-motor, visual-motor, visual-auditory. A mixed type of memory increases the likelihood of rapid and long-term learning. In addition, the participation of several analyzers in memory processes leads to greater mobility in the use of the formed systems of nervous connections: for example, a person does not remember something by ear - he will remember visually.

The type of memory depends not only on the natural characteristics of the nervous system, but also on upbringing.

It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that memory types should be distinguished from memory types. Types of memory are determined by what we remember. And since any person remembers everything: movements, images, feelings, and thoughts, then different types of memory are inherent in all people and do not constitute their individual characteristics. At the same time, the type of memory characterizes how we remember: visually, auditorily or in motion. Therefore, the type of memory is an individual characteristic of a given person. All people have all types of memory, but each person has a specific type of memory.

Belonging to one type or another is largely determined by the practice of memorization, i.e. what exactly a given person has to remember and how he learns to remember. Therefore, a certain type of memory can be developed through appropriate exercises.

Memory development does not occur by itself. This requires a whole system of memory education. The cultivation of positive memory properties is greatly facilitated by the rationalization of a person’s mental and practical work: order in the workplace, planning, self-control, the use of reasonable methods of memorization, the combination of mental work with practical work, a critical attitude towards one’s activities, the ability to abandon ineffective work methods and borrow from other people effective techniques. Some individual differences in memory are closely related to special mechanisms that protect the brain from unnecessary information. The degree of activity of these mechanisms varies from person to person. The protection of the brain from unnecessary information is explained by the phenomenon of hypnopaedia, i.e. sleep learning. During sleep, some mechanisms that protect the brain from excess information are turned off, so memorization occurs faster.

Memory disorders occupy a special place in memory research. Studies of memory pathology are important from a theoretical point of view, since they make it possible to find out what structures or factors are involved in the course of mnemonic activity, as well as to compare data on the disturbed links of mnemonic activity with the system of views on the formation of memory processes developed by domestic psychologists.

Memory disorders can be based on a variety of factors that give rise to various types of disorders, most of which fall under the category of amnesia. Amnesia is a memory disorder in the form of loss of the ability to retain and reproduce previously acquired knowledge.

Research conducted over the past decades has made it possible to come closer to the characteristics of those memory impairments that arise from general cerebral disorders of mental activity. If these disorders cause weakness and instability of excitations in the cerebral cortex, memory impairments can be expressed in a general decrease in memory capacity, difficulty in learning and easy inhibition of traces by interfering influences.

It is interesting that in cases of mental retardation, violations of logical memory can occur against the background of well-preserved mechanical memory, which in some cases can be satisfactory in volume.

4. Concept of attention

Attention is a psychological phenomenon regarding which until now there is no consensus among psychologists. On the one hand, the psychological literature addresses the question of the existence of attention as an independent mental phenomenon. Thus, some authors argue that attention cannot be considered as an independent phenomenon, since it is present to one degree or another in any other mental process. Others, on the contrary, defend the independence of attention as a mental process.

What is attention? To answer this question, imagine a school student doing his math homework. He is completely immersed in solving the problem, focused on it, thinking about its conditions, moving from one calculation to another. Characterizing each of these episodes, we can say that he is attentive to what he does, that he pays attention to those objects that he distinguishes from others. In all these cases, we can say that his mental activity is directed at or focused on something. This direction and concentration of mental activity on something specific is called attention.

In turn, the direction of mental activity should mean its selective nature, i.e., the selection from the environment of specific objects and phenomena that are significant for the subject, or the choice of a certain type of mental activity. The concept of direction also includes the preservation of activity for a certain period of time. It is not enough to just choose this or that activity in order to be attentive - you need to maintain this choice, preserve it.

As follows from our definition, another characteristic of attention is concentration. By concentration, first of all, we mean greater or lesser depth in an activity. Obviously, the more complex the task, the greater the intensity and intensity of attention should be, i.e., greater depth is required. On the other hand, concentration is associated with distraction from everything extraneous. Otherwise, when you cannot distract yourself from someone else, solving the problem becomes more difficult.

Direction and concentration are closely related. One cannot exist without the other. When you direct your attention to something, at the same time you focus on it. Conversely, when you focus on something, you direct your mental activity towards it. However, despite the close connection between them, these concepts are not identical. Direction is associated with the transition from one activity to another, and concentration is associated with depth in an activity.

In order to understand what role attention plays in human mental activity, imagine that you are looking at some group of objects. Some objects that are in the center of your visual field will be perceived most clearly by you, others that are on the periphery of your visual field will be less clearly perceived. A similar analogy can be constructed in relation to our consciousness: what constitutes the meaning of our activity occupies the center of our consciousness, and what is currently insignificant goes to the periphery, or “side field,” of consciousness.

If we imagine our consciousness graphically, then we should draw two circles: one inside the other. The large circle will be called the zone of unclear consciousness, and the small circle will be called the zone of clear and distinct consciousness, or the zone of attention. Thus, attention ensures clarity and clarity of consciousness, awareness of the meaning of mental activity at a given moment in time. But speaking about two zones of clarity and distinctness of consciousness, it should be borne in mind that in the unclear zone of consciousness there are its own phases of vagueness and indistinctness.

Attention, like any mental process, is associated with certain physiological phenomena. In general, the physiological basis for the release of individual stimuli and the flow of processes in a certain direction is the excitation of some nerve centers and the inhibition of others. A stimulus affecting a person causes activation of the brain. Activation of the brain is carried out primarily by the reticular formation. Irritation of the ascending part of the reticular formation causes the appearance of rapid electrical oscillations in the cerebral cortex, increases the mobility of nervous processes, and reduces sensitivity thresholds. In addition, the diffuse thalamic system, hypothalamic structures, etc. are involved in brain activation.

5. Main types of attention

In modern psychological science, it is customary to distinguish several main types of attention. The direction and concentration of mental activity can be involuntary or voluntary. When an activity captivates us and we engage in it without any volitional effort, then the direction and concentration of mental processes is involuntary. When we know that we need to do a certain job, and we take on it because of the goal set and the decision made, then the direction and concentration of mental processes is already arbitrary. Therefore, according to their origin and methods of implementation, two main types of attention are usually distinguished: involuntary and voluntary.

Involuntary attention is the simplest type of attention. It is often called passive, or forced, since it arises and is maintained independently of a person’s consciousness. An activity captivates a person by itself, due to its fascination, entertainment or surprise. However, this understanding of the causes of involuntary attention is very simplified. Usually, when involuntary attention occurs, we are dealing with a whole complex of reasons. This complex includes various physical, psychophysiological and mental causes. They are interrelated with each other, but they can be roughly divided into the following four categories.

The first group of reasons is related to the nature of the external stimulus. This must include, first of all, the strength or intensity of the stimulus. Imagine that you are passionate about something. In this case, you may not notice slight noise on the street or in the next room. But suddenly a loud knock is heard nearby from a heavy thing falling from the table. This will involuntarily attract your attention. Thus, any sufficiently strong irritation - loud sounds, bright light, strong shock, strong smell - involuntarily attracts attention. In this case, the most significant role is played not so much by the absolute as by the relative strength of the stimulus. For example, if we are passionate about something, we do not notice weak stimuli. This is explained by the fact that their intensity is not great enough compared to the intensity of the stimuli that constitute the subject or conditions of our activity. At the same time, in other conditions, for example, at night, when we are resting, we can react very sensitively to all sorts of rustles, creaks, etc.

Of no small importance is the contrast between the stimuli, as well as the duration of the stimulus and its size and shape. This group of reasons should also include such quality of the stimulus as its novelty and unusualness. In this case, novelty is understood not only as the appearance of a previously absent stimulus, but also as a change in the physical properties of existing stimuli, weakening or cessation of their action, the absence of familiar stimuli, and the movement of stimuli in space. Thus, the first group of reasons includes the characteristics of the stimulus affecting a person.

The second group of reasons that cause involuntary attention is associated with the correspondence of external stimuli to the internal state of a person, and, above all, to his needs. So, a well-fed and hungry person will react completely differently to a conversation about food. A person experiencing a feeling of hunger will involuntarily pay attention to a conversation in which food is discussed. From the physiological side, the effect of these reasons is explained in the proposal proposed by A.A. Ukhtomsky principle of dominance.

The third group of reasons is related to the general orientation of the individual. What interests us most and what constitutes the sphere of our interests, including professional ones, as a rule, attracts attention, even if we come across it by chance. That is why, walking down the street, a policeman pays attention to an illegally parked car, and an architect or artist pays attention to the beauty of an ancient building. An editor easily finds errors in the text of a book that he simply picked up to read for fun, because identifying stylistic and other errors is the area of his professional interests and is supported by long-term practice. Consequently, the general orientation of the individual and the presence of previous experience directly affect the occurrence of involuntary attention.

As a fourth independent group of reasons that cause involuntary attention, we should name those feelings that the influencing stimulus causes in us. What is interesting to us, what causes us a certain emotional reaction, is the most important reason for involuntary attention. For example, when reading an interesting book, we are completely focused on the perception of its content and do not pay attention to what is happening around us. Such attention can rightly be called predominantly emotional.

Unlike involuntary attention, the main feature of voluntary attention is that it is controlled by a conscious goal. This type of attention is closely related to the will of a person and was developed as a result of labor efforts, therefore it is also called volitional, active, intentional. Having made a decision to engage in some activity, we carry out this decision, consciously directing our attention even to what is not interesting to us, but what we consider necessary to do. The main function of voluntary attention is the active regulation of mental processes. Thus, voluntary attention is qualitatively different from involuntary attention. However, both types of attention are closely related to each other, since voluntary attention arose from involuntary attention. It can be assumed that voluntary attention arose in a person in the process of conscious activity.

The reasons for voluntary attention are not biological in origin, but social: voluntary attention does not mature in the body, but is formed in a child during his communication with adults. As was shown by L.S. Vygotsky, in the early phases of development, the function of voluntary attention is divided between two people - an adult and a child. An adult selects an object from the environment by pointing at it and calling it a word, and the child responds to this signal by following a gesture, grasping an object, or repeating a word. Thus, this object stands out for the child from the external zero. Subsequently, children begin to set goals on their own. It should also be noted the close connection of voluntary attention with speech. The development of voluntary attention in a child manifests itself first in the subordination of his behavior to the speech instructions of adults, and then, as he masters speech, in the subordination of his behavior to his own speech instructions.

Despite its qualitative difference from involuntary attention, voluntary attention is also associated with a person’s feelings, interests, and previous experiences. However, the influence of these moments during voluntary attention is not direct, but indirect. It is mediated by consciously set goals, therefore in this case the interests act as the interests of the goal, the interests of the result of the activity.

There is another type of attention that we haven't talked about. This type of attention, like voluntary attention, is purposeful in nature and initially requires volitional efforts, but then the person “enters” into the work: the content and process of the activity, and not just its result, become interesting and significant. Such attention was called N.F. Dobrynin post-arbitrary. For example, a schoolchild, solving a difficult arithmetic problem, initially puts some effort into it. He takes on this task only because it needs to be done. The task is difficult and at first cannot be solved; the student is constantly distracted. He has to bring himself back to solving the problem through constant efforts of will. But now the decision has begun, the right course is outlined more and more clearly. The task is becoming more and more clear. Although it turns out to be difficult, it is possible to solve. The schoolboy becomes more and more interested in her, she captivates him more and more. He stops being distracted: the task has become interesting to him. Attention went from being voluntary to becoming, as it were, involuntary.

In contrast to truly involuntary attention, postvoluntary attention remains associated with conscious goals and is supported by conscious interests. At the same time, unlike voluntary attention, there is no or almost no volitional effort.

The enormous importance that post-voluntary attention has for the pedagogical process is also obvious. Of course, a teacher can and should encourage students to exert volitional efforts, but this process is tedious. Therefore, a good teacher must captivate the child, interest him so that he works without wasting his strength, that is, so that the interest in the goal, the interest in the result of the work, turns into immediate interest.

6. Main characteristics of attention properties

Attention has a number of properties that characterize it as an independent mental process. The main properties of attention include stability, concentration, distribution, switching, distractibility and attention span.

Stability lies in the ability to concentrate on the same object for a certain time. This property of attention can be determined by peripheral and central factors. Experimental studies have shown that attention is subject to periodic involuntary fluctuations. The periods of such oscillations, according to N.N. Lange, are usually equal to two to three seconds, reaching a maximum of 12 seconds. If you listen to the ticking of a clock and try to concentrate on it, you will either hear it or not. The fluctuations of our attention have a different character when observing more complex figures - in them, first one and then another part will act as a figure. This effect, for example, is given by the image of a truncated pyramid: if you look closely at it for some time, it will alternately appear convex and concave.

Attention researchers believe that the traditional interpretation of the stability of attention requires some clarification, because in reality such short periods of fluctuations in attention are by no means a universal pattern.

If attention were unstable under all conditions, more or less effective mental work would be impossible. It turns out that the very inclusion of mental activity, which reveals new aspects and connections in a subject, changes the laws of this process and creates conditions for stability of attention. In addition, the stability of attention depends on a number of other conditions. These include the degree of difficulty of the material and familiarity with it, its understandability, the subject’s attitude towards it, as well as individual personality characteristics.

Many authors believe that the distribution of attention is the reverse side of its other property - switchability. Switching means a conscious and meaningful movement of attention from one object to another. In general, switching attention means the ability to quickly navigate a complex, changing situation. The ease of switching attention varies from person to person and depends on a number of conditions (primarily on the relationship between previous and subsequent activities and the subject’s attitude towards each of them). The more interesting the activity, the easier it is to switch to it. It should be noted that switching attention is one of the well-trained qualities.

The next property of attention is its volume. Attention span refers to the number of objects that we can cover with sufficient clarity at the same time. It is known that a person cannot think about different things and perform a variety of jobs at the same time. This limitation forces information coming from outside to be divided into parts that do not exceed the capabilities of the processing system. An important and defining feature of attention span is that it practically does not change during learning and training.

The study of attention span is usually carried out by analyzing the number of simultaneously presented elements (numbers, letters, etc.) that can be clearly perceived by the subject. For these purposes, a tachistoscope is used - a device that allows you to present a certain number of stimuli so quickly that the subject cannot move his eyes from one object to another. This allows you to measure the number of objects available for simultaneous identification.

Distractibility is the involuntary movement of attention from one object to another. It occurs when extraneous stimuli act on a person who is engaged in some activity at that moment. Distractibility can be external or internal. External distractibility occurs under the influence of external stimuli. The most distracting objects or phenomena are those that appear suddenly and act with varying strength and frequency. In response to these stimuli, a person develops a difficult-to-extinguish orientation reflex. During schoolchildren's educational activities, both in the classroom and at home, objects and influences that distract children from their main task must be eliminated.

Internal distraction of attention occurs under the influence of strong experiences, extraneous emotions, due to a lack of interest and a sense of responsibility for the work that a person is currently engaged in. In order for a student to study carefully and successfully, negative experiences that distract him from his studies should be eliminated from his life: fear, anger, resentment, etc. Cultivating in schoolchildren a persistent and deep interest in knowledge is also an important condition for combating distraction.

The physiological basis of external distractibility of attention is the negative induction of excitation and inhibition processes caused by the action of external stimuli that are not related to the activity being performed. When internal distraction of attention is caused by strong feelings or desires, a powerful focus of excitation appears in the cerebral cortex; a weaker focus corresponding to the object of attention, in which inhibition occurs according to the law of negative induction, cannot compete with it. Internal distractibility due to lack of interest is explained by extreme inhibition that develops under the influence of fatigue of nerve cells.

The question of absent-mindedness is of great importance for studying the characteristics of attention. Absent-mindedness is usually referred to as two different phenomena. Firstly, absent-mindedness is often called the result of excessive absorption in work, when a person does not notice anything around him - neither the surrounding people and objects, nor various phenomena and events. This type of absent-mindedness is usually called imaginary absent-mindedness, since this phenomenon arises as a result of great concentration on some activity. The physiological basis of absent-mindedness is a powerful focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex, causing inhibition in the surrounding areas of the cortex according to the law of negative induction.

A completely different type of absent-mindedness is observed in cases where a person is not able to concentrate on anything for a long time, when he constantly moves from one object or phenomenon to another, without stopping at anything. This type of absent-mindedness is called true absent-mindedness. The voluntary attention of a person suffering from genuine absent-mindedness is characterized by extreme instability and distractibility. Physiologically, genuine absent-mindedness is explained by insufficient strength of internal inhibition. Excitation arising under the influence of external signals spreads easily, but is difficult to concentrate. As a result, unstable foci of excitation are created in the cerebral cortex of an absent-minded person.

The reasons for genuine absent-mindedness are varied. They may be a general disorder of the nervous system, blood diseases, lack of oxygen, physical or mental fatigue, severe emotional experiences. In addition, one of the reasons for genuine absent-mindedness may be a significant number of impressions received, as well as the disorder of hobbies and interests.

7. Development of attention

Attention, like most mental processes, has its own stages of development. In the first months of life, the child has only involuntary attention. The child initially reacts only to external stimuli. Moreover, this only happens if they change abruptly, for example, when moving from darkness to bright light, with sudden loud sounds, with a change in temperature, etc.

Starting from the third month, the child becomes increasingly interested in objects that are closely related to his life, that is, those closest to him. At five to seven months, the child is already able to look at an object for a long time, feel it, and put it in his mouth. His interest in bright and shiny objects is especially noticeable. This suggests that his involuntary attention is already quite developed.

The rudiments of voluntary attention usually begin to appear towards the end of the first - beginning of the second year of life. It can be assumed that the emergence and formation of voluntary attention is associated with the process of raising a child. The people around the child gradually teach him to do not what he wants, but what he needs to do. According to N.F. Dobrynin, as a result of upbringing, children are forced to pay attention to the action required of them, and gradually, consciousness begins to manifest in them, still in a primitive form.

Play is of great importance for the development of voluntary attention. During the game, the child learns to coordinate his movements in accordance with tasks and; ry and direct their actions in accordance with its rules. In parallel with voluntary attention, involuntary attention also develops on the basis of sensory experience. Acquaintance with more and more objects and phenomena, the gradual formation of the ability to understand the simplest relationships, constant conversations with parents, walks with them, games in which children imitate adults, manipulation of toys and other objects - all this enriches the child’s experience, and together thereby developing his interests and attention.

The main feature of a preschooler is that his voluntary attention is quite unstable. The child is easily distracted by extraneous stimuli. His attention is overly emotional - he still has poor control of his feelings. At the same time, involuntary attention is quite stable, long-lasting and concentrated. Gradually, through exercise and volitional efforts, the child develops the ability to control his attention.

School is of particular importance for the development of voluntary attention. During school, the child learns discipline. He develops perseverance and the ability to control his behavior. It should be noted that at school age the development of voluntary attention also goes through certain stages. In the first grades, the child cannot yet fully control his behavior in class. He still has involuntary attention. Therefore, experienced teachers strive to make their classes bright and captivating the child’s attention, which is achieved by periodically changing the form of presentation of educational material. It should be remembered that at this age a child’s thinking is mainly visual and figurative. Therefore, in order to attract the child’s attention, the presentation of educational material must be extremely clear. memory attention mental appearance

In high school, the child’s voluntary attention reaches a higher level of development. The student is already able to engage in a certain type of activity for quite a long time and control his behavior. However, it should be borne in mind that the quality of attention is influenced not only by the conditions of upbringing, but also by age characteristics. Thus, physiological changes observed at the age of 13-15 years are accompanied by increased fatigue and irritability and in some cases lead to a decrease in attention characteristics. This phenomenon is due not only to physiological changes in the child’s body, but also to a significant increase in the flow of perceived information and impressions of the student.

Thus, two main stages can be distinguished in the development of attention. The first is the stage of preschool development, the main feature of which is the predominance of externally mediated attention, that is, attention caused by environmental factors. The second is the stage of school development, which is characterized by the rapid development of internal attention, that is, attention mediated by the child’s internal attitudes.

Bibliography

1. Gippenniter Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology: Course of lectures: Textbook for universities. - M.: CheRo, 1997.

2. Blonsky P.P. Memory and thinking. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001.

3. Bodalev A.A. Psychology about personality. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1988.

4. Maklakov A.G. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001.

5. Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 1999.

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Introduction
Conclusion

Introduction

No other mental process is mentioned so often in everyday life or finds a place with such difficulty within the framework of psychological concepts as attention. Often attention explains success in school and work, and inattention explains mistakes, blunders and failures. Features of attention are necessarily diagnosed when admitting children to school, during selection for a wide variety of professional activities, as well as to determine the current state of a person. However, in scientific psychology the problem of attention stands somewhat apart, and researchers have significant difficulties in interpreting this concept and the phenomena that lie behind it. This situation is connected with two important points. Firstly, many authors emphasize the “lack of independence” of attention as a mental process. Attention, at first glance, does not appear anywhere in isolation from other phenomena and does not have its own separate specific product. Secondly, attention is a mental instrument of the subject’s activity, allowing him not to be a toy of external influences when interacting with the outside world.

Attention can be defined as a psychophysiological process, a state that characterizes the dynamic features of cognitive activity. They are expressed in its concentration on a relatively narrow area of external or internal reality, which at a given moment in time becomes conscious and concentrates the mental and physical forces of a person for a certain period of time.

Attention is the process of conscious or unconscious (semi-conscious) selection of some information coming through the senses and ignoring others. Attention has no content of its own. It is included in other mental processes: sensations and perceptions, ideas, memory, thinking, imagination, emotions and feelings, manifestations of the will. Attention is also included in practical, in particular, motor actions of people, in their behavioral acts - actions. This ensures clarity and distinctness of the reflection of reality, which is one of the necessary conditions for the success of any activity.

Chapter 1. Relationship between the properties of attention and human cognitive activity

Characterizing attention as a complex mental phenomenon, a number of functions of attention are distinguished. The essence of attention is manifested primarily in the selection of significant, relevant, i.e. corresponding to the needs, corresponding to the given activity, influences and ignoring (inhibiting, eliminating) other - insignificant, side, competing influences. Along with the selection function, there is a function of retention (preservation) of a given activity (preservation of images, certain objective content in consciousness) until the act of behavior is completed, cognitive activity, until the goal is achieved. One of the most important functions of attention is the regulation and control of activity.

Attention can manifest itself both in sensory and mnemonic, mental and motor processes. Sensory attention is associated with the perception of stimuli of different modalities (types). In this regard, visual and auditory sensory attention are distinguished. The objects of intellectual attention as its highest form are memories and thoughts. Sensory attention has been the most studied. Virtually all data characterizing attention were obtained in the study of this type of attention.

Properties of attention - volume, concentration, distribution, stability, fluctuation, switchability, selectivity.

1. Attention span measured by the number of objects that are perceived simultaneously. Objects that are united in meaning are perceived in greater numbers than those that are not united. In an adult, the attention span is 4-6 objects.

An important and defining feature of attention span is that it is practically impossible to regulate during learning and training. For example, they tried to train pilots to fly the plane very low (at an altitude of 50-100 m above the ground) and at the same time look for small landmarks on the ground. A study of pilots' actions under these conditions showed the impossibility of dividing attention between these two independent actions, since each of them required maximum attention. The pilot's difficulties lay in the practical impossibility of switching attention and organizing the collection of information in such a way as to ensure the completion of both tasks. It was not possible to overcome this difficulty through training.

2. Focus is the degree of concentration of consciousness on an object (objects). The smaller the circle of objects of attention, the smaller the area of the perceived shape, the more concentrated the attention.

Concentration of attention ensures an in-depth study of cognizable objects and phenomena, brings clarity to a person’s understanding of a particular object, its purpose, design, and form.

Concentration and focus of attention can successfully develop under the influence of specially organized work to develop these qualities.

3. Distribution of attention expresses the ability to simultaneously perform several actions or monitor several processes and objects. In some professions, the distribution of attention becomes especially important. Such professions are those of a driver, pilot, and teacher.

It is this quality that makes it possible to perform several actions at once, keeping them in the field of attention. Many have heard about the phenomenal abilities of Julius Caesar, who, according to legend, could do seven unrelated things at the same time. It is also known that Napoleon could simultaneously dictate seven important diplomatic documents to his secretaries. However, there is every reason to assume that only one type of conscious mental activity occurs at a time, and the subjective feeling of simultaneous performance of several is due to rapid sequential switching from one to another. Wundt’s work also showed that a person cannot concentrate attention on two simultaneously presented stimuli; the distribution of attention is actually carried out by its rapid transfer. Sometimes it seems that a person is carrying out two types of activities at the same time. In fact, in such cases, one of them is so automated that it does not require attention. But if this is not the case, then combination is impossible. For example, it is useless to ask an untrained person walking on a gymnastic beam to solve the simplest arithmetic problem - he will not be able to complete it, while an experienced gymnast can easily cope with the distribution of attention necessary for the corresponding mental operations. Thus, the distribution of attention is essentially the reverse side of its switching. From a physiological point of view, the distribution of attention is explained by the fact that, although there is optimal excitability in the cerebral cortex, in some of its areas there is only partial inhibition, as a result of which these areas are able to control simultaneously performed actions. The better a person has mastered actions, the easier it is for him to perform them simultaneously.

4. Sustainability of attention does not mean the concentration of consciousness throughout the entire time on a specific object or its separate part or side. Stability is understood as the general focus of attention in the process of activity. Interest has a significant influence on the stability of attention. A necessary condition for stability of attention is the variety of impressions or actions performed. Monotonous actions reduce the stability of attention.

Physiologically, this is explained by the fact that under the influence of prolonged action of the same stimulus, excitation, according to the law of negative induction, causes inhibition in the same area of the cortex, which leads to a decrease in the stability of attention.

Sustainability is the duration of attention being attracted to the same object or to the same task. It can be determined by peripheral and central factors. Stability, determined by peripheral factors, does not exceed 2-3 seconds, after which attention begins to fluctuate. But stability increases significantly if a person actively interacts with an object, examines it and studies it, and not just looks at it. The stability of central attention can be a much longer interval - up to several minutes. It is clear that fluctuations in peripheral attention are not excluded, but it returns all the time to the same object. At the same time, the duration of attracting central attention, according to S.L. Rubinstein, depends on the ability to constantly reveal new content in an object. We can say that the more interesting an object is for us, the more stable our attention will be.

Affects the stability of attention and active activity with the object of attention. Action focuses attention even more on the object. Thus, attention, merging with action and intertwining, creates a strong connection with the object.

The opposite property of stability is distractibility . The physiological explanation for distractibility is either external inhibition caused by extraneous stimuli or prolonged exposure to the same stimulus.

Distractibility is expressed as fluctuations in attention, which are periodic weakening of attention to a specific object or activity. Fluctuations in attention are observed even during very concentrated and intense work, which is explained by the continuous change of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex. However, after 15-20 minutes, fluctuations in attention can lead to involuntary distraction from the object, which once again proves the need to diversify human activity in one form or another.

5. Switchability is determined by the speed of transition from one type of activity to another. At the same time, transferring attention from one thing to another is always accompanied by some nervous tension, which is realized by volitional effort. Sometimes a person, deeply concentrated on an internal task that is especially important to him, subconsciously tries to avoid these efforts and does not switch from this task to external stimuli. The important role of this characteristic is easy to demonstrate when analyzing such a well-known and widespread phenomenon as dissipation, which boils down mainly to poor switchability.

Many jokes are about the absent-mindedness of scientists. However, their absent-mindedness is often the flip side of maximum composure and concentration on the main subject of interest: they are so immersed in their thoughts that when faced with everyday trifles they do not switch and can find themselves in a funny position. Here are some facts of this kind. Much has been said about the absent-mindedness of the famous composer and chemist A.P. Borodin, Once, when he had guests, tired, he began to say goodbye to them, saying that it was time for him to go home, since he had a lecture tomorrow, and went to get dressed in the hallway. Or such a case. Borodin went abroad with his wife. While checking passports at the border checkpoint, the official asked his wife's name. Due to his absent-mindedness, Borodin could not remember her name. The official looked at him suspiciously. At this time, his wife, Ekaterina Sergeevna, entered the room, and Borodin rushed to her: “Katya! For God’s sake, what’s your name?”

This story is also known. N.E. arrives Zhukovsky goes to his home, calls, and from behind the door they ask: “Who do you want?” He responded: “Tell me, is the owner at home?” - "No". - “And the hostess?” - “There is no hostess either. What should I convey?” - “Tell me that Zhukovsky came.”

And one more fact. Once upon a time, the famous mathematician Hilbert had a party. After one of the guests arrived, Madame Gilbert took her husband aside and told him: “David, go and change your tie.” Gilbert left. An hour passed and he still did not appear. The alarmed housewife went in search of her husband and, looking into the bedroom, found him in bed. He was fast asleep. When he woke up, he remembered that, having taken off his tie, he automatically began to undress further and, putting on his pajamas, went to bed. Here we are again faced with the deep interconnectedness of all characteristics of attention.

What is the reason for the described absent-mindedness? Mainly that, having developed everyday stereotypes, scientists took advantage of every opportunity to remove from consciousness the control over their execution or timely switching to another program and thereby free up the field of attention for solving the main scientific problem.

A distinction is made between intentional (voluntary) and unintentional (involuntary) switching of attention. Deliberate switching of attention is accompanied by the participation of a person’s volitional efforts.

Unintentional switching of attention usually occurs easily, without much strain or volitional effort.

6. The limited volume of perceived and processed material forces us to continuously break up incoming information into parts and determine the sequence (priority) of analyzing the environment. What determines the selectivity of attention and its direction? There are two groups of factors. The first includes factors characterizing the structure of external stimuli reaching a person, i.e. structure of the external field. These include the physical parameters of the signal, such as intensity, its frequency and other characteristics of the organization of signals in an external field. The second group includes factors characterizing the activity of the person himself, i.e. structure of the internal field. Indeed, everyone would agree that if a signal appears in the perceptual field that is either of greater intensity than others (for example, the sound of a gunshot or a flash of light) or of greater novelty (for example, a tiger unexpectedly entering the room), then this stimulus will automatically attract attention.

The fact that certain physical parameters of the signal clearly determine the direction of attention was the first to be included in theoretical ideas about the structure of this process. Thus, Broadbent described attention as a filter that selects information already at the inputs. In his first model of attention, selection was carried out on the basis of only physical parameters using the all-or-nothing principle. Here a person was understood as a passive receiver of information. This position was based on the fact that he discovered that if a person was simultaneously presented with information in both ears and, according to the instructions, he was supposed to perceive only the information entering the left ear, then other information supplied to the right ear was completely ignored.

Further research turned the attention of scientists to factors of central (internal) origin that influence the selectivity of attention: the correspondence of incoming information to a person’s needs, his emotional state, and the relevance of this information for him. In addition, actions that are not sufficiently automated, as well as those that are not completed, require attention.

Numerous experiments have found that words that have a special meaning for a person, for example his name, the names of his loved ones, etc., are easier to extract from noise, since the central mechanisms of attention are always tuned to them. A striking example of the impact of highly relevant information is a fact known as the “party phenomenon.” Imagine that you are at a party and are engrossed in an interesting conversation. Suddenly you hear your name spoken softly by someone in another group of guests. You quickly turn your attention to the conversation taking place between these guests, and you may hear something interesting about yourself. But at the same time, you stop hearing what is being said in the group where you are standing, thereby missing the thread of the conversation in which you participated before. You tuned in to the second group and disconnected from the first. It was the high significance of the signal, and not its intensity, the desire to find out what other guests think of you, that determined the changes in the direction of your attention.

Thus, attention performs a kind of “feeling,” inspection, and analysis of the environment. Since it is impossible to feel the entire environment at once, a part of it is singled out - the field of attention. This is the part of the environment that is covered by attention at the moment. The analytical effect of attention can be considered as a consequence of its reinforcing influence. By intensifying the perception of part of the field and successively transferring this intensification to other parts, a person can achieve a complete analysis of the environment.

It is important to note that the various properties of attention do not reach their peak at the same time. So, according to B.G. Ananyev, the optimal amount of attention is at 33 years old, the smallest amount is observed in the period from 18 to 21 years. The best selectivity of attention is also achieved by the age of 33. The maximum switching ability of attention occurs at 29 years of age. Sustainability of attention reaches its optimum at 34 years of age.

Chapter 2. The place of involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary attention in human cognitive activity

There are several different classifications of types of attention. According to W. James, attention can be, firstly, sensory, i.e. direct (if the object is of interest in itself), or derivative (indirect, if the object is of interest only by association), secondly, involuntary (passive, reflexive, not accompanied by a feeling of effort) or voluntary (active, accompanied by a feeling of effort).

Classification based on arbitrariness is the most traditional. Historians of psychology find the division of attention into voluntary and involuntary already in Aristotle, and a complete and comprehensive description of these varieties was made already in the 18th century. Later, this division received serious theoretical justification in the works of T. Ribot and N.N. Lange. The motivating reasons for involuntary attention are found in the characteristics of external objects. The sources of voluntary attention are entirely determined by subjective factors. This type of attention is subject to the goals and intentions of the subject.

However, the phenomenology of attention is so extensive that dividing only into voluntary and involuntary is clearly not enough. Therefore, within these types of attention, various subtypes are distinguished. For example, within the framework of involuntary attention, forced, involuntary and habitual are distinguished. Forced attention is attention that is very difficult to control; it is attracted by stimuli of increased intensity (loud sounds, bright lights, pungent odors, etc.), as well as repetitive, moving, unusual stimuli. Involuntary attention is called attention to objects that are associated with the satisfaction of basic needs, such as hunger or thirst, but these objects attract attention only under certain circumstances. If you are hungry, you will involuntarily pay attention to the cafe sign, but if not, you may not notice it. Habitual attention is associated with the main areas of human interest and activity. Thus, during a walk together, representatives of different professions notice different objects.

Within the framework of voluntary attention, we can distinguish volitional (occurs in the event of a conflict between a consciously chosen direction of activity and the tendencies of involuntary attention), expectant (associated with the conscious expectation of the appearance of a particular object) and spontaneous (is transformed volitional attention and occurs when the object , who came into the field of attention due to effort, remains there due to the interest it arouses) (Dormyshev Yu.B., Romanov V.Ya., 1995).

A successful attempt both in concept and in execution to construct a classification of types of attention based on a single basis was made by N.F. Dobrynin (1938). He proposes to organize all known forms of attention according to changes in the subject’s activity, distinguishing three sections in this continuum. On the first he places all forms of involuntary attention. The second is reserved for volitional, or actually voluntary, attention. The third area is associated with spontaneous attention, or, as Dobrynin called it, post-voluntary attention.

Involuntaryattention

Involuntary attention - involuntary, spontaneously occurring attention caused by the action of a strong, contrasting or new, unexpected stimulus or a significant stimulus that evokes an emotional response.

In the psychological literature, several synonyms are used to denote involuntary attention. In some studies it is called passive, in others emotional. Both synonyms help to reveal the features of involuntary attention. When they say O passivity, they highlight the dependence of involuntary attention on the object that attracted it, and emphasize the lack of effort on the part of the person aimed at focusing. When involuntary attention is called emotional, the connection between the object of attention and emotions, interests, and needs is highlighted. In this case, there is also no volitional effort aimed at concentration: the object of attention is highlighted due to its correspondence to the reasons that motivate a person to activity.

attention cognitive conscious unconscious

So, involuntary attention is the concentration of consciousness on an object due to some of its characteristics.

It is known that any stimulus, changing the strength of its action, attracts attention.

The novelty of the stimulus also causes involuntary attention.

Objects that evoke a bright emotional tone in the process of cognition ( rich colors, melodic sounds, pleasant smells) cause involuntary concentration of attention. Intellectual, aesthetic and moral feelings are even more important for the emergence of involuntary attention. The item that caused at a person's surprise, admiration, delight, attracts his attention for a long time.

Interest, as a direct interest in something that is happening and as a selective attitude towards the world, is usually associated with feelings and is one of the most important reasons for long-term involuntary attention To subjects.

freeattention

Synonyms for arbitrary ( attention) are the words active or volitional. All three terms emphasize the active position of the individual when focusing attention on an object.

Voluntary attention is a consciously regulated concentration on an object.

A person focuses not on what is interesting or pleasant for him, but on what he should do.

This type of attention is closely related to will. By voluntarily concentrating on an object, a person makes a volitional effort , which maintains attention throughout the entire process of activity. Voluntary attention owes its origin to work.

Voluntary attention occurs when a person sets a goal for an activity, the implementation of which requires concentration.

Voluntary attention requires volitional effort, which is experienced as tension, mobilization of forces to solve the task at hand. Volitional effort is necessary to concentrate on the object of activity, not to be distracted, and not to make mistakes in actions.

So, the reason for the emergence of voluntary attention to any object is the setting of the goal of the activity, the practical activity itself, for the implementation of which a person is responsible.

There are a number of conditions that facilitate voluntary concentration of attention.

Focusing on mental activity is easier if practical action is included in cognition . For example, it is easier to maintain attention on the content of a scientific book when reading is accompanied by note-taking.

An important condition for maintaining attention is a person’s mental state. It is very difficult for a tired person to concentrate. Numerous observations and experiments show that by the end of the working day the number of errors when performing work increases, and a state of fatigue is subjectively experienced: it is difficult to concentrate.

Emotional arousal caused by reasons extraneous to the work being performed (preoccupation with some other thoughts, painful condition and other similar factors) significantly weakens a person’s voluntary attention.

Voluntary attention - conscious concentration on certain information requires volitional efforts, tires after 20 minutes.

Developmentarbitraryattention.

The mentioned characteristics of attention (stability, concentration, etc.) are to some extent characteristic not only of humans, but also of animals. But a special property of attention - arbitrariness - is truly human. Animals have only involuntary attention.

Initially, a child’s attention is realized through hereditary mechanisms. Until 10 months, he is only capable of involuntary attention, his eyes stop at shiny, bright objects and familiar faces. Attention in a child is manifested externally in temporary holding of breath and restriction of movements, in inhibition, which serves to prepare for action. After 10 months, voluntary attention develops, which coexists with involuntary attention for the rest of life. When the mother names an object and points to it with a gesture to the child, thereby highlighting it from the environment, a restructuring of the child’s attention occurs. It ceases to obey only natural indicative reactions, which are controlled either by novelty or by the strength of the stimulus, and begins to obey speech or gesture.

Observation shows that at the very beginning of the formation of any skill, a large number of useless movements are made. A child who is learning to write moves his entire hand, eyes, head, part of the body and tongue. Training consists of strengthening only a certain part of the movements, coordinating them into groups and eliminating unnecessary movements. Voluntary attention is directed to inhibiting unnecessary movements.

The development of stability of voluntary attention in children is studied by determining the maximum time that children of different ages can spend concentrating on one game. Let's give the data. So, if the maximum duration of one game for a six-month-old child is only 14 minutes, then by the age of six it increases to one and a half hours. Concentration of attention develops similarly. If at three years old a child is distracted on average 4 times in 10 minutes of play, then at six years old - only once.

According to P.Ya. Halperin, involuntary attention is united with voluntary attention by the fact that it is also control over the object of perception or thinking, but in it the order of examination and control criteria are not yet determined arbitrarily, but by what the object “prompts” with its conspicuous signs. Attention becomes voluntary when the choice of content, the order of examination and the method of control are organized by a person based on the objective requirements of the task. Unlike involuntary attention, voluntary attention is not biological in origin, but social. It is not a product of the maturation of the body, but is formed in a child only through his interaction with adults. For the first time, L.S. pointed out the social roots of higher forms of attention. Vygotsky. He discovered that in the early phases of development the function of voluntary attention is divided between two people - an adult and a child. The first selects an object from the environment, pointing at it with a gesture or denoting it with a word, the second responds to this signal, fixing the named object with his gaze or grasping it. Pointing to an object with a gesture or word forcibly organizes the child’s attention, changing its direction. Thus, this object stands out for the child from the external field. When a child develops his own speech, he can name an object himself, thus arbitrarily distinguishing it from the rest of the environment. The function of analyzing the environment, which was previously divided between an adult and a child, becomes internal for the child (immersed) and is performed by him independently. The development of voluntary attention in children initially ensures the realization of only those goals that adults set for them, and then those that children set independently.

Voluntary attention is closely related to speech. The development of voluntary attention in a child manifests itself first in the subordination of his behavior to the speech instructions of adults, and then in the subordination of his behavior to his own speech instructions. Only at 2 - 2.5 years old, a simple verbal instruction from an adult clearly directs the child’s behavior.

Post-voluntaryattention

Post-voluntary attention - is caused through entry into an activity and the interest that arises in connection with this, as a result, focus is maintained for a long time, tension is relieved and the person does not get tired, although post-voluntary attention can last for hours. Post-voluntary attention is the most effective and lasting.

Pattern of circulation, fluctuations of attention - Every 6-10 seconds, the human brain switches off from receiving information for a split second, as a result, some part of the information may be lost.

Research by B.M. Teplova and V.D. Nebylitsyn showed that the quality of attention depends on the properties of the human nervous system.

It was found that for people with a weak nervous system, additional stimuli interfere with concentration, and for people with a strong nervous system, they even increase their concentration. People with an inert nervous system have difficulty switching and distributing attention.

However, the lack of stimuli and information is an unfavorable factor. Studies have shown that when a person is isolated from irritants coming from the environment and from his own body (sensory deprivation, when a person is placed in a soundproof chamber, wearing light-proof glasses, placed in a warm bath to reduce skin sensitivity), then a normal physically healthy person will quickly begins to experience difficulties in controlling his thoughts, he loses orientation in space, in the structure of his own body, he begins to have hallucinations and nightmares. When examining people after such isolation, they observed disturbances in the perception of color, shape, size, space, time, and sometimes the constancy of perception was lost.

Conclusion

Attention occupies a significant place in human cognitive activity. It gives us the opportunity to select a certain part from the field of perception for its analysis at a given moment in time and controls the flow of information directed to and from memory. The analytical function of attention is an indispensable component of any cognitive activity: by transferring attention from one object to another, a person gains the opportunity to fragment and dismember the continuous external environment. By changing the sequence of objects to which attention is directed - the trajectory of inspection of the external field, a person draws more and more new information from the same field, which provides one of the ways of in-depth penetration into the environment.

To ensure stable attention, long-term concentration and persistent overcoming of distractions, first of all, we must take care of the formation of a corresponding interest in a person, i.e. it is necessary to rebuild the hierarchy of values so that it includes this problem in the structure of significant goals. If this happens, then in the future the attention will filter out and eliminate everything that is not related to the problem automatically, and the person will not only not have to make an effort to keep attention on it, but, on the contrary, it will be increasingly difficult for him not to notice everything that is connected to this end.

Bibliography

1. Granovskaya R. Elements of practical psychology - St. Petersburg, 2003

2. Psychology: Textbook for economic universities. / Edited by V.N. Druzhinina. - St. Petersburg.

3. Stolyarenko L.D. Basics of psychology. Workshop. R. n/d., 2008.

Posted on Allbest.ru

How does our attention work?

The world around us is filled with information. The human psyche is structured in such a way that it is important for it to select only information that is relevant at the moment and structure it, otherwise we face complete disorientation. Attention acts as a “filter” for the correct functioning of memory and thinking. We also need to keep our attention on the current activity, communicate constructively with people around us, and be successful in completing our work.

The functions of attention help our conscious and subconscious minds cope with these tasks. What functions are we talking about?

Selectivity

In other words, selecting the information needed at the moment and maintaining attention on it.

It's no secret that humans have different senses. We see, hear, taste, feel our body. Each of us has a leading representational system through which it is easiest to receive information. It is easier for auditory learners to perceive a speech message, for visual learners – what they can read, for kinesthetic learners – what they feel. This is one side of selective attention. We prefer to receive much of the important information in a way that is convenient for us.

The other side of selectivity is the ability to “weed out” interference, the ability to focus on what is most relevant at the moment. This is a voluntary process. Often you need to force yourself to maintain attention for a long time on uninteresting, unfamiliar or difficult work.

Selectivity is related to concentration. There is a concept called “depth of concentration.”

Do you know the state when, while doing some activity, you “didn’t hear or see” anything around? For example, being called out to you or something being said to you. This means that you have taken a deep dive into the task at hand.

With “superficial” concentration, on the contrary, we are constantly distracted by other objects.

Factors influencing selectivity:

Interest, necessity.
What interests us always involuntarily attracts attention. The need to complete certain tasks forces you to highlight the main thing and focus on it.
Goal setting.
In order to get a high grade, a student carefully completes a boring lesson and looks for additional information on the subject being studied.
Structurality.
It is difficult to work with “chaotic” information; structured information is much easier to perceive.

Development of selectivity

Selectivity of attention can and should be improved by developing the work of representative systems. In a difficult life situation, there are always many ways out, but often they are not visible “thanks to” selectivity.

You can expand your “picture of the world”, discover dormant talents within yourself and increase your energy potential by performing a simple “Hear-See-Feel” exercise. For 5 minutes, track only what you see, 5 - what you hear, 5 - what you feel. For the last 5 minutes, be in a state where you see, hear and feel at the same time. Exercise perfectly relieves anxiety and helps your subconscious mind see the best way to solve life's problems.

Focus

There are the following types of focus:

"to myself";
to the outside world;
for one or many objects.

Attention is directed “inward” when a person meditates, solves a life problem, conducts an internal dialogue, and concentrates on sensations in the body.

Orientation to the outside world is associated with a person’s abilities, aspirations and attitudes. The seller directs his attention to communication with clients, people of technical professions - to various mechanisms. The focus of attention influences the choice of profession and success in it.

This function of attention is also associated with emotions and feelings. An interesting thing will “feed” attention. Attitudes too, regardless of what emotions are associated with them. For reference: installations is the significance attached to signals from the external world, i.e. information that “touches your heartstrings.”

Focus on one object is associated with stability and high concentration of attention, on several objects - with switchability and distribution. Teachers, drivers, pilots are forced to do several things at the same time, i.e. distribute attention to several objects. Scientists focus on solving the only pressing problem. Distribution is possible only if one of the activities is performed automatically.

Factors influencing direction:

strength (intensity) of the stimulus;
novelty, brightness;
human condition;
emotions, attitudes, abilities (refer to subjective factors).

Personal factors (character, upbringing) play a significant role.

Control and regulation

In relation to one's own behavior

The role of attention as a controlling function is involved together with the following processes:

In memory.
We can focus on the tasks at hand, on past events, or on our plans for the future. We work, respectively, with operational, short-term and long-term memory, extracting the necessary facts and events from it.
Thinking.
Within the limits of one intellectual activity, there is a need to distribute attention and maintain it until the end of the work. For example, a student, while completing course work, must make calculations, draw diagrams, and write a theoretical part. facilitates the execution of activities.
Managing daily activities (not forgetting anything, being attentive/alert).
The factor of willpower is prevalent.

In relation to other people

Expressed in a person's communication abilities.

When we communicate, we focus on formulating our thoughts, monitoring intonations, absorbing the information conveyed by the interlocutor and responding appropriately to it.

At the same time, we monitor and respond to nonverbal cues.

Factors for effective communication:

concentration of attention on the interlocutor;
the ability to “disconnect” from your own internal dialogue;
respond not only to words, but also to emotions.

By learning to be an attentive interlocutor, you can raise your standard of living and change its quality.

Conclusion

There are many in modern psychology. Its properties and “failures” are studied, recommendations on “how to become attentive” are developed, and various experiments are conducted.

It will improve the functioning of memory, perception, thinking and make your life interesting, fulfilling and diverse.

Author of the article: Lyudmila Lapinskaya

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Introduction

Chapter 1. Relationship between the properties of attention and human cognitive activity

Properties of attention - volume, concentration, distribution, stability, fluctuation, switchability, selectivity.

1. Attention span measured by the number of objects that are perceived simultaneously. Objects that are united in meaning are perceived in greater numbers than those that are not united. In an adult, the attention span is 4-6 objects.

2. Focus is the degree of concentration of consciousness on an object (objects). The smaller the circle of objects of attention, the smaller the area of the perceived shape, the more concentrated the attention.

Concentration of attention ensures an in-depth study of cognizable objects and phenomena, brings clarity to a person’s understanding of a particular object, its purpose, design, and form.

Concentration and focus of attention can successfully develop under the influence of specially organized work to develop these qualities.

3. Distribution of attention expresses the ability to simultaneously perform several actions or monitor several processes and objects. In some professions, the distribution of attention becomes especially important. Such professions are those of a driver, pilot, and teacher.

Physiologically, this is explained by the fact that under the influence of prolonged action of the same stimulus, excitation, according to the law of negative induction, causes inhibition in the same area of the cortex, which leads to a decrease in the stability of attention.

Affects the stability of attention and active activity with the object of attention. Action focuses attention even more on the object. Thus, attention, merging with action and intertwining, creates a strong connection with the object.

The opposite property of stability is distractibility . The physiological explanation for distractibility is either external inhibition caused by extraneous stimuli or prolonged exposure to the same stimulus.

A distinction is made between intentional (voluntary) and unintentional (involuntary) switching of attention. Deliberate switching of attention is accompanied by the participation of a person’s volitional efforts.

Unintentional switching of attention usually occurs easily, without much strain or volitional effort.

Chapter 2. The place of involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary attention in human cognitive activity

Involuntaryattention

Involuntary attention - involuntary, spontaneously occurring attention caused by the action of a strong, contrasting or new, unexpected stimulus or a significant stimulus that evokes an emotional response.

Conclusion

Bibliography

1. Granovskaya R. Elements of practical psychology - St. Petersburg, 2003

2. Psychology: Textbook for economic universities. / Edited by V.N. Druzhinina. - St. Petersburg.

3. Stolyarenko L.D. Basics of psychology. Workshop. R. n/d., 2008.

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How does our attention work?