15.1. Catherine's domestic policyII
1. “Enlightened absolutism” is one of the forms of state policy in many European countries, which arose at a certain stage of their development as a result of strengthening the positions of new social forces that fought for their rights against existing absolutist-feudal regimes. This policy was formed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment, which condemned class inequality, arbitrariness of power, the Catholic Church and substantiated the “natural rights” of man - freedom, equality, the right to private property, as well as the principle of separation of powers, the rule of law, etc. Enlightenment philosophers believed that that "enlightened monarchs" with liberal views, by introducing reforms, establishing "reasonable laws" and promoting the spread of knowledge, would be able to achieve economic prosperity, social harmony and security for their people.
In Russia, the policy of “enlightened absolutism” is explained by the following reasons: a) the desire of the supreme power to bring the existing management system, the level of socio-economic and cultural development in accordance with the spirit of the times; b) the severity of social contradictions and the need to take measures that would soften the discontent of the lower classes; c) Russia's claims to a leading role in the system of international relations.
However, the immaturity of social and spiritual prerequisites (the absence of a national bourgeoisie, the ignorance of the bulk of the nobility, the patriarchal nature of the population) led to the fact that the policy of enlightened absolutism was superficial.
Tasks the policy of enlightened absolutism in Russia: a) strengthening the autocracy through modernization and improvement of the management system, eliminating its most archaic elements; b) expansion of the rights and freedoms of the nobility in order to transform it into a privileged and enlightened class, capable of serving the interests of the state and the whole society not out of fear, but out of conscience; c) carrying out measures aimed, on the one hand, at strengthening the power of landowners over their peasants, and on the other, designed to alleviate social tensions; d) creating conditions for the economic development of the country; e) dissemination of knowledge, development of European forms of culture and education in the country; f) increasing Russia's authority abroad, strengthening its international position.
2. Management reforms. Having come to power, Catherine began to transform the outdated system of public administration. In 1763, the Senate, which by that time had degenerated into a clumsy institution, was divided into six departments, each of which had a specific range of responsibilities and powers. In an effort to streamline the state apparatus, Catherine changed the system of local government in Ukraine. In 1764 the hetmanate was destroyed.
B1763-1764 Catherine carried out the secularization of church lands. The clergy lost their economic independence. In 1767, Catherine convened the Statutory Commission, which was supposed to prepare a new Code of Laws. For two years (1764-1765), the empress worked on drawing up the “Instruction” for deputies, basing it on the famous treatise of the French thinker C. Montesquieu “On the Spirit of Laws”, as well as the ideas of other educators. However, at the end of 1768, the Statutory Commission was dissolved without having completed its task.
In 1775, provincial reform was carried out. The provinces were liquidated, and the number of provinces increased from 23 to 50. In the counties, executive power belonged to the zemstvo court, headed by a police captain, elected by the local nobility. In county towns, power belonged to the appointed mayor. Thus, the nobility achieved a significant strengthening of its position in local government.
The judicial system was restructured according to the class principle: each class had its own court. In the provinces, judicial chambers were created - civil and criminal, the members of which were not elected, but appointed. The highest judicial body of the empire was the Senate. The court was to gain independence and obey only the law. In practice, however, the independence of the courts has never been respected. Governors appointed and dismissed judges, suspended cases, and approved court decisions. As a result, respect for the courts and the law has not developed in Russia.
3. The rights of the nobility were finally enshrined in the “Charter Granted to the Nobility” published in 1785. She confirmed the privileges given to the nobility earlier: freedom from corporal punishment, capitation tax, compulsory service, the right of unlimited ownership of estates and land with its subsoil, the right to trade and industrial activities. Deprivation of noble dignity could be carried out only by decision of the Senate with the highest approval. The estates of convicted nobles were not subject to confiscation. The nobility was henceforth called “noble”. The powers of noble class institutions were expanded. The nobility received class self-government: noble assemblies headed by provincial and district leaders. It is no coincidence that Catherine's reign IIcalled the “golden age” of the Russian nobility.
4. Simultaneously with the “Charter of Grant to the Nobility,” the “Charter of Grant to the Cities” was published, which continued attempts to create a “third estate.” She confirmed the previously granted exemption from poll tax and conscription to the rich merchants. Famous citizens and merchants of the first two guilds were exempt from corporal punishment and some townsman duties. The urban population was divided into six categories.
15.2. The crisis of the serf system
The strengthening of serfdom reached its apogee. As a result, serfdom endsXVIII centuries, it differed from slavery only in that the peasants ran their own farms, while the serfs were practically equal to slaves. This period includes signs of the decomposition of the feudal serf system:
- main signfeudal-serf economy - the dominance of natural economy. But in the second halfXVIII V. as a result of the development of commodity-money relations, the formation of an all-Russian market, the expansion of domestic and foreign trade, the development of industry and the growth of cities, its gradual destruction occurred.
- attaching the peasant to the land and providing them with land and the main means of production (horse, cow, seed, tools). However, this feature also began to deform as a result of the deprivation of peasants of independent farming.
- personal dependence of the peasant on the landowner and non-economic feudal compulsion to work. In the case of direct dispossession of land, feudal dependence turned into almost slavish dependence. And in the conditions of the peasant leaving to work, he was increasingly subjected to economic coercion, working for hire,
- low level of equipment and technology. This feature persisted, although there were attempts to introduce new methods of land cultivation, the use of modern agricultural machines, and the introduction of new plant varieties and livestock breeds.
15.3. Peasant War E. I. Pugacheva (1773-1775)
Reasons for the uprising: a) dissatisfaction of the Yaik Cossacks with government measures aimed at eliminating their privileges; b) increased personal dependence of peasants on landowners, an increase in state taxes and duties caused by the ongoing process of development of market relations; c) difficult living and working conditions for working people, as well as assigned peasants in the factories of the Urals.
The uprising of E. Pugachev became the largest in Russian history. In Russian historiography of the Soviet period it was called the Peasant War. The Peasant War was understood as a major uprising of the peasantry and other lower strata of the population, covering a significant territory, leading in fact to the split of the country into a part controlled by the government and a part controlled by the rebels, threatening the very existence of the feudal-serf system. During the Peasant War, rebel armies are created, waging a long struggle with government troops. The uprising covered a vast territory: the Orenburg region, the Urals, the Urals, the Lower and Middle Volga regions.
The reasons for the defeat of the uprising: a) the weakness of the organization and poor armament of the rebels; b) lack of a clear understanding of their goals and a constructive program for the uprising; c) the predatory nature and cruelty of the rebels, which caused widespread indignation in various strata of society; d) the strength of the state mechanism, which was able to mobilize and organize the suppression of the uprising.
Historical significance of the uprising. The rebels could win, but could not create a new fair system, which they represented in the form of Cossack freemen throughout the country. Pugachev's victory would mean the extermination of the only educated layer - the nobility, which would cause irreparable damage to culture, undermine the state system of Russia, and create a threat to its territorial integrity.
On the other hand, the uprising forced the landowners and the government to moderate the degree of exploitation. Thus, wages were significantly increased at Ural factories. The ferocity and massive scale of the uprising clearly showed the ruling circles that the situation in the country required change. The consequence was new reforms. The memory of the Pugachev era has firmly entered the consciousness of both the lower classes and the ruling strata. The uprising prompted the government to improve the system of governing the country and completely eliminate the autonomy of the Cossack troops.
15.4. Results of Russian foreign policy
1. Access to the Black Sea, annexation of Crimea (as a result of two victorious wars with Turkey 1768-74 and 1787-91).
2. The entry into Russia of part of Poland, and most importantly - of Right Bank Ukraine and Belarus (during the partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795 with Austria and Prussia).
Russia gained access to the Black Sea, annexed Crimea, and created the Black Sea Fleet. Thanks to this, the development of the Black Sea steppes began. Russia's military-strategic position on its southern borders has strengthened and its spheres of influence have expanded. The entry of Transcaucasia into Russia began. Belarus, Lithuania, Right Bank Ukraine, and part of the Baltic states were annexed to Russia, which had a beneficial effect both on the development of Russia itself and on the position of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples. Russia actively became involved in the fight against the French Revolution, and then against French expansion in Europe. In general, during this period, Russia’s role and influence on the world stage increased.
Catherine the Second is a great empress, whose reign is now referred to as the era of enlightened absolutism. Why is this time called so? The answer is obvious: it was a policy of imitating the ideas of the Enlightenment and creating various reforms. Emperors were supposed to be educators. These were King Frederick II of Prussia, King Gustav III of Sweden, Emperor Joseph II of Austria and the notorious Empress of Russia Catherine II.
Enlightened absolutism became the beginning of all the reforms carried out by Catherine the Second, and created a completely new look for the absolute monarchy in the legal and state senses. At the same time, the class division remained into nobles, burghers and peasants. Among the first class (nobles) one cannot help but notice such outstanding figures as Count Vorontsov, commander Suvorov, Prince Potemkin, Count Rumyantsev and many others. Catherine's reign was marked by the creation of valuable laws and the annexation of large territories.
The policies of the Russian Empress were mostly aimed at the nobles. Most of all, she wanted to educate the Russian people, which contributed to the observance of laws. Catherine also wanted and established a loyal police force, which monitored not only the actions, but also the thoughts of people. Catherine the Great wanted to improve the Russian Empire, to make it formidable, so that her neighbors would respect her and her country.
Catherine began by deciding to develop a new set of laws. It would seem, why does she need this? Why not be content with the old? But the fact is that the Council Code was already more than a hundred years old, and the number of new laws only increased. Moreover, sometimes they contradicted the primordial ones.
The Empress gave an order to people from different classes to create a new Code, and after two years of work in 1767, she proposed the “Nakaz”, which defined the norms of legal policy and system. It consisted of 22 chapters. After the Commission listened to the “Order”, they decided to offer Catherine the titles of the Great, Mother of the Fatherland and the Wise, but she refused them, leaving the decision to the people of the future.
The essence of the “Order” was close to the views of Voltaire (with whom, as is known, Catherine had correspondence): the enlightened monarch fenced himself off from the people with special administrative bodies. According to Montesquieu, these were independent bodies. Catherine the Great did not think so: these organs worked only at her request.
Being an enlightened person, Catherine understood that serfdom was an evil that needed to be destroyed, but she could not do this. Why? After all, the guards put her on the throne, and they can remove her from there. And if she abolished serfdom, the nobles would be practically ruined, so she adhered to the policy of enslavement, which she extended to the Zaporozhye Sich.
Under Catherine the Second, art actively developed: she created Moscow University, the Russian Academy, the Academy of Arts, and the Free Economic Society; she founded many magazines, the Hermitage and various public theaters, where the first Russian opera soon appeared.
Enlightened absolutism is when politicians in a state try to achieve the "common good". The heyday of this phenomenon in Europe was observed in the 18th century.
Catherine II ascended the throne
The Russian Empress Catherine II came to the throne, although she had no right to do so. Klyuchevskoy wrote about this that she seized power twice: the first time when she overthrew her own husband, and the second time without giving her son the opportunity to ascend the throne.
Those people who were far from intrigues in the imperial palace took the overthrow of Peter the Third extremely unexpectedly. There was even a case when, after Catherine was proclaimed Empress of Russia, a toast in her honor was not supported by ordinary people and soldiers. The memories of impostor rulers were still too strong, so many considered Catherine the Second to be one of them.
She was a very smart woman and understood very well how to win people over. This allowed Catherine the Second to quickly gain popular support. She justified her actions by the fact that the Empire needed protection from the policies of Peter the Third, which were treasonous.
First reforms
After her accession to the throne, the secularization of church property was stopped, the peace treaty with Prussia was terminated, and the nobles 11 February In 1763 they again had to undergo compulsory conscription service. But the main tasks remained unchanged: the power of the state had to be increased, the position of the nobility had to be strengthened.
But the reign of Catherine the Second brought many innovations - this is the policy of enlightened absolutism.
Innovations in the reign of Catherine II
The enlightened absolutism of Catherine II is not something that applies only to Russia. The most prominent of these monarchs who carried out “enlightenment” reforms in their state are Gustav III, Joseph and Frederick II.
The strengthening of absolutism in the Russian Empire was supposed to reassure the public that the throne was in the hands of one person. At the same time, it was necessary to ensure that representatives of all strata of society, including peasants, supported the emperor. The people's belief that the monarch's actions were aimed at achieving the good of everyone was very important in this case. This is the policy of enlightened absolutism.
New orders
Absolutism in Russia consisted in the fact that the emperor consciously asked for advice from the greatest thinkers of the time, enlisted their support in order to adapt the order in the state to new socio-economic relations.
In her young years, Catherine 2 studied many books written by French educators: Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot and others. Their ideas fascinated the future empress. In her opinion, absolutism in Russia was supposed to help the state and its subjects become richer. She expressed such thoughts long before she ascended the throne.
"Order" of the Empress
For two years in a row, Catherine 2 wrote a program for her reign, which was published in 1767 and was called “Instruction.” Everything about him was reminiscent of absolutism. This is because the “Nakaz” promoted the idea of the common good. This document said that people had to be deprived of their freedom, but their actions should be aimed only at good deeds. The unlimited power of the empress was explained by the fact that the state was enormous.
The enlightened absolutism of Catherine 2 is a kind of declaration that the equality of all citizens before the law will protect the monarchy from turning into despotism. The Empress also spoke out against serfdom, but there were no demands to finally abolish it.
The absolutism of Catherine 2 was very contradictory: it seemed that educational philosophy was promoted in the state, but on the other hand, the dominance of the noble class was proclaimed, serfdom and autocratic power were preserved.
The convening of the Statutory Commission, which took place in 1767, is nothing more than a manifestation of absolutism. Representatives of all segments of the country's population were to take part in its work. However, the commission was unable to cope with the mission entrusted to it - the creation of a new set of laws.
New "enlightened" laws
The policy of enlightened absolutism was also embodied in the laws adopted by Catherine the Second. One of the most significant is the decree according to which anyone who has the opportunity can create plants and factories. And in 1767, citizens were allowed to earn money by their craft.
But still, the policy of absolutism could not bring real freedom, since serfdom no one canceled. The contradictions that took place in Catherine the Second’s “Nakaz” became even more apparent when she began to resolve peasant issues. In 1766, the Empress proclaimed a task, the meaning of which was that it was necessary to give peasants the right to property. Catherine did not carry out the division of all settled lands among the landowners, although the aristocracy persistently demanded exactly this. She ordered representatives of the Livonian nobility not to collect taxes from the peasants.
Successes of the nobility
But nevertheless, during the reign of Catherine II, the nobles were able to ensure that almost unlimited powers were established in relation to the serfs belonging to them. The year 1763 was remembered for the fact that they issued a decree according to which peasants who allowed themselves all sorts of insolence and liberties, except for severe punishment, would have to reimburse all the costs of maintaining a detachment of soldiers sent after them.
In 1765, landowners received the right to independently exile serfs to Siberian lands to work in hard labor. In 1767, another law appeared, according to which any complaint by a peasant against his actual owner was equated to a state crime. A very severe punishment was imposed for him, which often crossed the line of cruelty. In essence, for the peasant the landowner was a judge with unlimited power. Moreover, the latter’s actions were not controlled by the authorities.
Senate reform
The central authorities underwent major reforms to strengthen absolutism. This was explained by the fact that, in the opinion of the empress, the Senate had bitten off too large a piece of the power pie. In 1764, the Senate was divided into 6 representative offices, two of which were located in Moscow, and the rest in St. Petersburg. Each department was appointed as an independent authority: it had a clearly defined range of affairs and had its own office. This made it possible to significantly weaken the Senate. At the same time, the personal office of Catherine the Second became much more influential than before. From now on, legislative acts were prepared only under the control of the empress herself. This is another proof of how clearly the unity of power of the monarch was manifested, which characterizes the Russian era of absolutism.
Local government reform
Local government reforms were primarily aimed at strengthening the power of the emperor. In 1775, the project “Institutions for the management of provinces”, which was independently developed by Catherine the Second, came into force. The number of provinces and districts was increased, the power of the governor became sole (however, it was still subordinate to the power of the monarch). Absolutism could also be detected in this law. This was manifested in the fact that the principle of election of judicial bodies was now in effect in the state. They separated from the administrative bodies and became estates. Judicial institutions now consisted of three levels:
- The district and upper zemstvo courts - to resolve cases of representatives of the nobility.
- The provincial magistrate and city court are for ordinary citizens.
- Lower and upper punishment is for the peasant class.
In addition to him, a conscientious court was created in each province, which accepted complaints from those who remained in custody for more than three days, but the reason for the arrest was not reported and not a single interrogation was conducted. If no serious crimes were detected against the citizen, then he was released (this clearly demonstrates an attempt to use the guarantee of the inviolability of personal rights, which appeared in England).
The provincial Order of Public Charity is also imbued with educational ideas. Its goal is to help citizens create hospitals, orphanages, schools, etc.
Granted certificates
Catherine also begins to develop letters of grant for the nobility, cities and state peasants. They began to operate in 1785. Thanks to the charter, every hereditary nobleman was exempt from taxes, compulsory service, and corporal punishment. He was given the right to any property; only a fellow nobleman could sue him. In addition, a nobleman could open factories and plants and trade. Noble communities from each province were given the opportunity to meet, elect their leader and manage the treasury. But even here the empress reminded of a single authority: the activities of such meetings were under the control of the governor of the province.
According to the charters, the townspeople (the so-called “average people”) also received the right to inheritance and property. Merchants stood out from the background of other townspeople, as they were registered in guilds, which provided many privileges: they could pay off conscription duties with money and were given exemption from government orders. It was henceforth forbidden to apply corporal punishment to merchants of the first and second guilds, as well as to eminent residents (among them bankers, scientists and artists).
The center of city self-government was appointed as a “general council”, which included representatives of all city classes.
Project "Rural Situation"
The Empress did not have time to complete the “Rural Situation” project, because after the revolution in France, Catherine’s attitude towards educational ideas changed very much. In 1794, in one letter, she even said that philosophical ideas lead to nothing but destruction. In her opinion, the world will always need a ruler, since the idea of universal freedom leads to madness.
Changes in foreign policy
Foreign policy changed instantly. When Catherine 2 believed in the ideas of “enlightenment,” the state had successes on the world stage: victory was won in two Turkish wars, as a result of which the entire north of the Black Sea went to the Russian Empire; Novorossiysk steppes and Crimea were recaptured. In 1773 and 1793, the divisions of Poland took place, as a result of which the eastern part of Belarus and right-bank Ukraine became part of Russia. But after Catherine II's course changed, she decided to give up Gdansk, a large share of Greater Poland and Torun. The Poles begin riots and uprisings. In 1795 they were defeated and the third partition of Poland took place, as a result of which it ceased to exist Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Russia received Lithuania, Courland and many other lands.
The policy of “enlightened absolutism” was characteristic of the development of a number of European countries and Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Enlightened absolutism is characterized by the practical application of some ideas of the French Enlightenment: the destruction “from above” and the transformation of outdated and most outdated institutions of feudal society (including some class privileges, subordination of the church to the state, censorship prohibitions). Enlightened absolutism implied reform in the field of education, legal proceedings, etc. Moreover, modernization was carried out by the monarchs themselves with the help of enlightened advisers, relying on the ideas of French philosophers - Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu. This policy is characterized by conservatism in the political and social fields. It strengthened the position of the nobility as the support of absolutism.
There is another point of view on the policy of “enlightened absolutism”. A number of authors understand it as a policy of social demagoguery. And the slogans of the enlighteners are only slyly used, in their opinion, to preserve the old order. In the second half of the 18th century, Enlightened absolutism was characteristic of Joseph II in Austria (1765-1780), Frederick II in Prussia (1740-1786), Catherine II in Russia (1762-1796) and, partly, for her son Paul I (1796-1801).
The reign of Catherine II left a bright mark on the history of Russia. Although during the first years of her reign she did not feel very confident on the throne. After all, Catherine II was not the heir to the Russian throne in a direct line. She was the wife of Peter III, the grandson of Peter I. Catherine was originally from Germany, her full name was Sophia-Augusta-Frederica-Emilia Anhalt-Zerbska.
Arriving in Russia at the age of 16, Catherine tried to become “Russian” as soon as possible. She carefully studied the language, respected the Orthodox Church, and carefully observed all customs and rituals. She was attentive to government affairs and engaged in self-education. And Catherine’s appearance corresponded to the coveted Russian crown. She had magnificent posture and a regal gait. White-skinned, with black, intelligent eyes, and a straight “Roman” nose, she was very attractive.
However, Peter III did not love his wife and threatened to imprison her in a monastery. Seeing that his inept management of the country was irritating the nobles and the guards, Catherine, on the advice and support of her favorites, primarily the Orlov brothers, came to the barracks of the Izmailovsky Guards Regiment. And with the help of the guard, on June 28, 1762, she carried out a coup d'etat. Peter, imprisoned on his estate, was killed, and Catherine II became an autocratic empress. On June 28, the era of palace coups ended.
The Catherine era has arrived - the era of Enlightened absolutism.
Almost immediately after the coup - on July 6 - an imperial manifesto was published, in which the very structure of the Russian state was exposed. The manifesto read: “Autocracy, unbridled by good and philanthropic qualities in a sovereign who rules autocratically, is an evil that is directly the cause of many harmful consequences.”
The manifesto promised to introduce the principles of legality into public life, to protect autocratic power with laws, and to create the foundations of a rule of law state.
At the beginning of Catherine's reign, Count Panin drew up a draft of the Imperial Council, which was supposed to restrain undivided autocratic power. But it was not implemented. The reform of central government was limited only to the division of the Senate into departments.
State affairs were often handled by favorites and temporary workers (Count Grigory Orlov, Prince Grigory Potemkin).
The empress herself continued to be influenced by the ideas of European enlightenment. Under the influence of Voltaire and Montesquieu, she wrote that laws are the greatest good, recognizing in herself a “perfectly republican soul.” In general, Catherine’s works amounted to 12 voluminous volumes. She wrote studies on history, philosophy, and law. By the way, she even has scientific research in comparative linguistics. She became fascinated by the idea of the French linguist Cour de Gebelen about a primitive indigenous language - the forefather of all later ones - and began to compile a comparative dictionary of all languages. Later, its materials were transferred to Academician Pallas, who prepared the first volume of the publication entitled “Comparative dictionaries of all types of languages and dialects, collected by the right hand of the highest person.”
But let’s return to Catherine’s legislative activities. According to her decree, a Commission was created to compose a new code (or the Statutory Commission). The commission included elected deputies from the nobility, urban population, peasantry and Cossacks.
They had to draw up a new set of laws to replace the outdated Council Code of 1649.
The Empress wrote for the Legislative Commission a “Mandate”, compiled under the influence of the book “The Spirit of Laws” by Montesquieu. The “Nakaz” spoke about the equality and freedom of citizens, religious tolerance, the principles of the Constitutional monarchy, and the mitigation of serfdom. The thoughts of “Nakaz” made a great impression on the deputies. The commission asked Catherine to accept the titles: Great, Wise, Mother of the Fatherland.
However, the Statutory Commission did not fulfill its task and did not develop a new code. In fact, under Catherine II, the strengthening of autocracy and serfdom took place. Serfdom was extended to Little Russia. Serfs were forbidden to even complain about their masters. Thus, serfdom reached its highest development precisely under Catherine.
The Empress carried out the final secularization of church lands. Church lands were turned into state property by her.
A policy was pursued of granting class advantages to the nobility. Catherine gave a letter of grant to the nobility, which confirmed the liberty and freedom of the nobles, the voluntary nature of their service to the state. Nobles are subject to the jurisdiction only of their class court and are not subject to corporal punishment.
According to the charter, provincial noble assemblies were created to resolve class affairs, headed by the provincial leader of the nobility. So this important act marked the beginning of the class organization of the Russian nobility.
At the same time, a charter to the cities was adopted, which marked the beginning of the class organization of the Russian bourgeoisie. The urban population was divided into 6 categories. The highest ranks were registered citizens (i.e., those who had houses and lands in cities), as well as guild merchants (merchants of the lowest third guild had to have a capital of at least 1 thousand rubles, merchants who did not have such capital were classified as burghers) . The lower ranks were made up of guild artisans and townspeople, who worked in various menial jobs.
Cities were granted self-government. All matters were to be handled by the City Duma, headed by the mayor. The Duma was elected by all six categories of the urban population. To assist the mayor, an executive body was elected - a six-vote duma (one voter from each category of the city population). All elections were held on the basis of property qualifications and, naturally, the overwhelming majority of the public councils were representatives of the emerging bourgeois class.
Thus, Catherine’s domestic policy is characterized, on the one hand, by the strengthening of serfdom and autocracy, but on the other hand, elements of “enlightened absolutism”, a departure from totalitarianism, the creation of segments of the population enjoying a certain independence from the central government, self-government (nobles, higher urban layers).
Let us now briefly consider the main directions of Russia's international activities under Catherine II.
Here the eastern question was successfully resolved for the country. Two major wars with Turkey were successfully fought. As a result of the first Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. Russian troops occupied Azov and Taganrog. The naval battle in Chesme Bay put an end to the Turkish fleet. Russian troops, led by Rumyantsev and Suvorov, inflicted a number of major defeats on the Turks on land.
As a result of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty, Russia received part of the Azov lands, access from the Azov Sea to the Black Sea, and the right of passage of its ships through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. Türkiye also recognized the independence of Crimea, which soon, together with the Kuban possessions of the Crimean Khan, was annexed to Russia. According to the Treaty of Georgievsk of 1783. Georgia came under the protection of Russia.
All this led to the second Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791. On the Russian side, two armies took part in the war under the command of Rumyantsev and Potemkin. Suvorov distinguished himself again by storming the largest Turkish fortress on the Danube - Izmail. The Russian fleet under the command of Admiral Ushakov won a brilliant victory in the battle of Cape Kaliakria.
According to the peace treaty concluded in Iasi, Russia received Ochakov, a number of Turkish territories up to the Bug, and wider access to the Black Sea. Türkiye was forced to recognize the annexation of Crimea and Kuban to Russia, as well as its protectorate over Georgia.
