Water resources are a problem of their use. Water resources of Russia: uniqueness, problems, solutions

Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine

Sumy State University

Department of Economics

ODZ by discipline:

"Economics of Natural Resources"

"Problems in the use of water resources"

Performed:

student of group EDz51s

Tserkovitskaya T.V.

Checked by: Chigrin E.Yu.

Introduction

1. The role and significance of water in nature, life and human activity
2. Water reserves on the planet and its distribution
3. World water problems
4. Use of water resources in Ukraine
5. Water quality
6. Problems of water resources in Ukraine
7. Problems of water resources of Sumy region

Maintaining

Water resources are among the most important factors in the economic and social development of the region and the country as a whole. The direction and scale of development and placement of productive forces, especially water-intensive industries, depend on the condition and availability of water resources. Their current production and economic activities are largely related to the use of water resources - water use.

In the 21st century, the water resources of most countries of the world will become a decisive factor in their economic development and environmental safety. According to UNESCO, today 1.5 billion people in the world do not have access to quality drinking water, and according to forecasts of the World Meteorological Organization, by 2020 the entire population of our planet may face a lack of drinking water. In Ukraine, the large-scale transformation of natural ecosystems, the attraction of significant volumes of water resources into economic circulation, their pollution, changes in the functioning conditions of landscapes, disrupted the natural balance, sharply reduced the quality of water resource potential, and led to the loss of the self-regenerating and self-purifying ability of aquatic ecosystems. As a result, modern water resource problems have acquired national significance and have become one of the main factors in the national security of Ukraine.

Of the Europeans, we are one of the least supplied with fresh water - 1 thousand m 3 per inhabitant per year. The main water artery of the state, the Dnieper, carries a huge anthropogenic load. Tens of thousands of industrial and agricultural enterprises, 4 nuclear power plants, 50 powerful irrigation systems, 50 cities with developed industrial infrastructure drink from the river basin. And they drink carelessly: according to UNESCO, in terms of rational water use, Ukraine ranks 92nd among 122 countries.

One can only guess about the true level of pollution of Ukrainian water. According to official statistics, out of 9.1 billion m 3 that entered Ukrainian reservoirs, 2.9 billion m 3 were polluted. Water reaches Zaporozhye that has already been used 5-6 times for various economic purposes - its qualities do not fully meet the needs of industry, not to mention its use as drinking water.

According to experts, in Ukraine the category “tap water” ceases to be drinkable - even if ultra-modern treatment facilities are installed in the city, the water supply system (usually equipment from the 70s) will bring a noticeably spoiled product to the end consumer.

1. The role and significance of water in nature, life and human activity

The water shell of the Earth, called the hydrosphere, is formed by the World Ocean, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, glaciers, groundwater and soil moisture.

Water appeared on the surface of our planet 3 - 3.5 billion years ago in the form of vapor due to degassing of the mantle. Currently, the mass of water is about 0.02% of the mass of the globe, its volume is 1.45-10 9 km 3.

Covering 70% of the Earth's surface, water is a vital element for the existence of all living organisms, including humans.

Therefore, the purpose of water as a natural resource is to support the vital needs of humans, as well as the animal and plant world.

Water is present throughout the biosphere: not only in reservoirs, but also in the air, soil, and in all living beings.

One of the main properties of water as a component of the biosphere and as a natural resource is its irreplaceability. While many types of mineral resources are, in principle, interchangeable, water is not. It is the basis of all life processes, the main source of oxygen in the main driving process on the planet - photosynthesis.

The loss of 20 - 30% of moisture by a living organism leads to its death. A person dies without water on the eighth day. Only in the presence of water do complex metabolic processes occur within organisms.

Water is an important climate-forming factor; its heat capacity is 3.3 thousand times greater than the heat capacity of air. Absorbing a huge amount of thermal energy and slowly releasing it, water serves as a regulator of climate processes on a global scale.

Water also acts as one of the most important factors that modified the earth's surface. Water resources have always occupied a special position in human life and activity. Man has long settled near water sources: rivers, lakes, ponds, or on sea shores. Almost all the great civilizations of antiquity arose near large rivers. The availability of water often determined the fate of countries and peoples. Water springs were previously (and in some countries even now) worshiped as pagan deities, they were called by the names of saints. Water is one of the most important sources of energy and communication routes; without water, human production and economic activity is impossible, and success in agriculture directly depends on optimal irrigation of crops.

Water is an essential component of almost all technological processes in both agricultural and industrial production. It acts sometimes as a raw material, sometimes as a coolant, sometimes as a transport system, sometimes as an intermediate stage of production, sometimes as a solvent, and almost always as a medium that removes waste. Water is a subject of work and rest, it heals ailments, inspires poets, composers and artists. All great geographical discoveries were made by seafarers, and the exploration and settlement of continents, as is known, also took place mainly along waterways. Thus, water is a unique and irreplaceable natural resource on which the physical and economic well-being of human society depends.

2. Water reserves on the planet and its distribution

The total volume of water on Earth is, according to domestic scientists Kalinin and Bykov, who compiled the World Water Balance - 1 billion. 386 million km 3. More than 97% of this volume comes from the waters of the World Ocean.

Table 1. World water reserves

Fresh water reserves, according to the latest data, amount to 35 million km 3, i.e. only 2% of the total reserves, and taking into account the unavailable for use of some of the fresh waters preserved in the form of ice in the polar glaciers - 0.3% of the volume of the hydrosphere.

Table 2. Distribution of freshwater resources

Fresh water reserves suitable for direct use are estimated at just over 35 million km 3 or 2.5% of the total, but only 0.3% is suitable for use.

That is, for every inhabitant of the Earth there is an average of more than 8 million m 3 of fresh water. However, it should be noted here that about 70% of fresh water reserves are concentrated in various types of ice and underground, at a depth of 150-200 m, which creates certain difficulties in its use.

The waters of rivers and lakes are the most accessible for use; they are the main sources of water supply for humans.

The reserve of fresh water in river beds and lakes is about 93 thousand km 3.

Fresh water is water containing no more than 1 g of salts per liter. The salinity of ocean water is on average 35g per liter.

Having an idea of ​​the amount of fresh water on Earth, we can say with some accuracy how much water can be used without damaging the biosphere, so as not to upset the water balance.

It has been established that the annual volume of water that human society can use for its needs should not exceed the volume annually renewed as a result of natural processes.

This volume is approximately equal to the total annual flow of rivers into the ocean and, according to the latest data, is 37.3 thousand. km 3.

Knowing what water resources humanity may have, it is very important to establish its real needs for water and assess whether they are adequate to the capabilities of the hydrosphere.

To do this, first of all, it is necessary to note that water resources are unevenly distributed across the globe. The water supply of the territory in various regions of the planet is for the most part inconsistent with the population size and the location of industrial and agricultural production.

Europe and Asia, for example, contain 77% of the world's population, but this area accounts for only 38% of the world's annually renewable freshwater. But the population of South America is only 5%, and water resources reach 25% of the total annual flow of the world's rivers.

3. World problems in the use of water resources

About one third of the world's population lives in countries suffering from freshwater scarcity, where water consumption exceeds 10% of renewable water supplies. By the mid-1990s, about 80 countries, accounting for 40% of the world's population, experienced acute water shortages. It is estimated that in less than 25 years, two thirds of the world's population will live in countries where freshwater is scarce. By 2020, water consumption is expected to increase by 40%, with 17% more water needed to meet the food needs of a growing population.

Over the last century, the increase in demand for fresh water has been driven by three main factors - population growth, industrial development and the expansion of irrigated agriculture. In developing countries, agriculture has accounted for the majority of freshwater use over the past two decades. Planners have always assumed that growing demands for freshwater will be met by harnessing an ever-increasing share of the hydrological cycle through the creation of ever-increasing infrastructure. The construction of dams has become one of the main ways to increase the available water resources needed for irrigation, hydroelectric power generation and meeting utility needs. About 60% of the world's 227 largest rivers are dissected by dams, diversion structures or canals, affecting freshwater ecosystems. All this infrastructure allowed for water developments such as increased food production and hydroelectric power. Costs have also become significant. Over the past 50 years, dams have transformed the appearance of the Earth's river systems, causing the displacement of 40 million to 80 million people in different parts of the world and irreversible changes in many ecosystems.

The priority given to the construction of hydraulic structures, coupled with lax enforcement of established water regulations, has limited the effectiveness of water resource management, especially in developing countries. Currently, the development of new strategies has switched from solving water resource problems to managing demand, giving the main place to a set of measures to provide fresh water resources needed by various sectors of the economy. These measures include improving water efficiency, pricing policies and privatization. Recently, much attention has been paid to integrated water resources management, which takes into account the needs of all stakeholders in water resources management and development.

Agriculture uses more than 70% of fresh water extracted from lakes, rivers and underground sources. The bulk of this water is used for irrigation, which provides about 40% of global food production. Over the past 30 years, the area of ​​irrigated land has increased from 200 million to more than 270 million hectares. World water consumption increased over the same period from 2,500 to more than 3,500 cubic meters. km. Unsustainable management of water resources has caused salinization of about 20% of the world's irrigated areas, and 1.5 million hectares of new land are subject to salinization every year, which significantly reduces agricultural production. The countries most susceptible to salinity are located mainly within arid and semiarid regions.

In response to growing demand for water, national action programs have been adopted, water policies have been reviewed and reformed, and water efficiency incentives and irrigation technology transfer have begun. At the global level, FAO initiated the creation of the global information system AQUASTAT in 1993, which accumulates and provides data on water use in agriculture.

The continued use of untreated water continues to pose one of the greatest public health risks in many of the poorest countries. While the number of people using piped water services increased from 79% (4.1 billion people) in 1990 to 82% (4.9 billion people) in 2000, 1.1 billion people still lack access to safe drinking water, and 2.4 billion live in unsanitary conditions. Most of these people live in Africa and Asia. Lack of access to water and sanitation systems results in hundreds of millions of cases of water-related illnesses and more than 5 million human deaths each year. Moreover, in many developing countries the problem has serious but difficult to measure adverse economic impacts.

The importance of meeting basic human needs for water has already played a significant role in shaping water policies. One of the first comprehensive conferences on water resources took place in 1977 in Mar del Plata (Argentina). The focus was on the needs of the population, resulting in the proclamation of the International Decade for Water Supply and Sanitation (1981 to 1990), as well as serious efforts by the UN and other international organizations to meet the basic needs of the population in this area. The commitment to meeting people's basic water needs was reaffirmed in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, and the program of action was expanded to include environmental needs for fresh water. As stated in one of the latest UN reports, all people should have access to the required amount of good-quality water for drinking and sanitation needs. Finally, in 2000, at the Second World Forum and Ministerial Conference in The Hague, a statement was adopted on behalf of more than 100 ministers, again emphasizing basic human needs as a priority for states, international organizations and donors.

A separate important problem remains the centralized water supply and sanitary and hygienic provision of the urban population. During the first half of the 1990s, about 170 million urban residents in developing countries were provided with adequate water, and another 70 million gained access to modern sanitation systems. However, this had only a limited effect, since by the end of 1994, about 300 million urban residents still did not have running water and almost 600 million did not have sewerage. The remarkable gains that have been made in many developing countries over the past 30 years have been attributed to investments in wastewater treatment, which have halted or even improved the deterioration of surface water quality.

Use of water resources in Ukraine.

The main sources of fresh water on the territory of Ukraine are the runoff of the Dnieper, Dniester, Southern Bug, Seversky Donets, Danube rivers with tributaries, as well as small rivers on the northern coast of the Black and Azov Seas.

The total amount of flows of Ukrainian rivers without the Danube in an average year of water content is 87.1 billion m 3, decreasing in a low-water year to 55.9 billion m 3. Directly on the territory of the state, 52.4 and 29.7 billion m3 of water are formed, respectively, the rest comes from adjacent territories. The water resources of the Danube average 123 billion m3 of water per year.

The predicted resources of groundwater of drinking quality are distributed extremely unevenly on the territory of Ukraine and amount to 22.5 billion m 3 per year (61.7 million m 3 per day), of which 8.9 billion m 3 (24.4 million m 3 per day) are not hydraulically related to surface runoff and constitute an additional component to surface runoff. Groundwater water intake in the forecast resources is 21%, which indicates the possibility of their wider use in many areas.

In order to provide the population and national economy with the necessary amount of water, 1087 reservoirs with a total volume of over 55 billion m3, 7 large canals with a length of about 2000 kilometers supplying over 1000 m3 of water per second, 10 large water pipelines of large diameter, which supplies water to low-water regions of Ukraine.

The annual runoff is very variable over time - most of it occurs during the spring flood (60 - 70% of the total runoff per year in the north and up to 80 - 90% in the south of the country), uneven and across the territory. The fewest water resources are where the largest water consumers are concentrated - Donbass, Krivorozhye, Crimea, and southern regions. Groundwater reserves are unevenly distributed across the territory of Ukraine, namely groundwater provides up to 54% of domestic and drinking water supply, or 17% of total water consumption in the country. In addition to river and underground fresh waters, lake waters are of certain interest, but due to their small quantity and level regime, they cannot be a reliable source of water supply.

This, so to speak, is the basic potential of water resources, which must be used rationally. Today, surface water sources and underground waters of the uppermost aquifer (groundwater), among which the latter are the basis for drinking and domestic water supply in rural areas, are polluted and their quality is assessed as unsatisfactory. Fresh water consumption in Ukraine per unit of produced product significantly exceeds such indicators in developed European countries: France - 2.5 times, Germany - 4.3 times, Great Britain and Sweden - 4.2 times.

Ukraine has a fairly high level of provision of the population with centralized water supply. The average daily water consumption per urban resident in Ukraine is 320 liters, while in large European cities this figure is 100 - 200 liters.

On average, more water is consumed in Ukraine for domestic needs than in most European countries. However, a more detailed analysis shows that this average does not yet mean a high level of living comfort in Ukraine. More than a quarter of the housing stock in urban settlements is not even equipped with cold water inlets. The population that lives in them uses water from standpipes, which means that the specific water consumption of this population does not exceed 60 - 80 l/day. Centralized water supply systems in the Dnieper basin in Ukraine cover 100% of cities, 89% of towns and about 20% of villages. 94% of cities, 50% of towns and about 3% of villages are provided with centralized sewerage systems.

The population that lives in urban settlements in the Dnieper basin is largely provided with water supply and sewerage. Residents of rural settlements are provided with water use systems only by 24%.

Table 3. Water supply to Ukrainian settlements

The main source of water supply in Ukraine is surface water (up to 80%), in particular, the river basin. The Dnieper provides up to 70% of the population with drinking water.

It should be noted that 12.1% of households in rural areas of the Dnieper region have a basic set of amenities (centralized gas supply, water supply, sewerage). This indicator is sharply differentiated by region - from 34.8% in the Donetsk region to less than 1% in the Kirovograd region. The regions with the worst improvement of rural housing stock include Chernihiv, Zaporozhye, Vinnitsa and Nikolaev regions. The situation is best in the Dnepropetrovsk, Kharkov and Kherson regions.

In the Dnieper region, 16.7% of households have comfortable housing (hot water supply, bath or shower, home telephone). The lowest rates are observed in Sumy, Khmelnitsky, Kirovograd and Chernihiv regions (up to 8%), and the highest - in Kharkov, Zaporozhye, Kherson and Dnepropetrovsk regions (over 20% of households).

Thus, the majority of rural settlements in the Ukrainian part of the Dnieper basin have unsatisfactory conditions for the improvement of the housing stock, in particular the level of water supply and sewerage systems. According to experts, the situation in rural areas is one of the worst in Europe.

Water use in industry in the Ukrainian part of the Dnieper River basin in 2000 amounted to 4.37 billion cubic meters. m and has decreased by 2.1 times since 1990. The largest amount of water for industrial purposes was used from the Dnieper River bed - 37.7 billion cubic meters. m or 86%. At the same time, 83% of water for industrial purposes is used by three regions: Zaporozhye - 1360 million cubic meters. m, Dnepropetrovsk - 1284 and Kiev - 939.1.

The most water-intensive industries in the Ukrainian part of the Dnieper basin are: energy, ferrous metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries, which use about 86% of water taken in industry. Of the total water consumption for industrial needs, the energy sector consumes 41%, incl. thermal power plants - 39%, nuclear power plants - 1%, ferrous metallurgy - 8%, chemical and petrochemical - 1%.

In Ukraine, in the Dnieper basin, industry uses circulating water supply systems with sequential use of water. Saving water in the basin due to recycled water supply is 71% (in 1995 - 67%). The largest volume of water contained in circulating systems is at nuclear energy enterprises - 56% of the total capacity in the pool.

An analysis of statistics on water withdrawals for industrial needs in the basin countries over the past 10 years indicates a significant reduction in industrial water consumption. The dynamics of the main indicators of the use and protection of water resources in Ukraine are presented in Table 4. However, this is not evidence of a more rational use of water resources, but a consequence of a decrease in industrial production indicators during this period. At the same time, recycling water supply systems are being increasingly implemented at existing industrial facilities, which gives tangible results in the rational use of water resources.

In 2000, 2129 m3 of fresh water was used for agricultural purposes in Ukraine, which is 3.4 times less than in 1990. 440.4 million m3 or 20% were used from the Dnieper bed.

The largest amount of water for irrigation from the rivers of the Dnieper basin was used in the Autonomous Republic of Crimea. In Crimea, 826.2 million m 3 of water was used for agricultural needs, or 38.8%, and the two southern Kherson and Zaporozhye regions and the Autonomous Republic of Crimea used 1563 million m 3 of water, or 73.4%.

Irrigation is the most water-intensive consumer. The peculiarity of this type of water consumption is that sometimes less than 10% of the water supplied to irrigation fields is returned to the river network. However, in arid and semi-arid areas, irrigation is vital, and sometimes the only condition for agricultural production.

The basis of irrigation agriculture in the south of Ukraine is made up of large irrigation systems - Kakhovskaya, Krasnoznamenskaya, Inguletskaya, Frunzenskaya, Priazovskaya, Serogozskaya.

The North Crimean Canal is the largest artificial waterway in Ukraine. It originates from the Kakhovka reservoir, passes through the territory of the Kherson and Crimean regions and transfers the regulated flow of the Dnieper to the arid steppes of the Black Sea region and Northern Crimea for irrigation of agricultural land and water supply to populated areas.

The cascade of hydroelectric power plants (HPPs) in the Ukrainian part of the Dnieper basin includes 8 HPPs located at a distance of about 1000 km. All hydroelectric power stations are located in the riverbed of the Dnieper River. This:

The total installed capacity of hydroelectric power plants on the Dnieper in Ukraine is 3938 MW. In general, electricity production in an average year by water availability reaches 9.8 billion kWh.

The Dnieper is the main waterway of Ukraine. With a total length of the river of 2200 km, the navigable part is 1869 km. of which 1038 km are within Ukraine. The temperate climate of Ukraine in the Dnieper basin determines significant navigation times, which include:

Kyiv has 263 days on the Dnieper;

On the Desna River near the city of Novgorod-Siversky 246 days.

In the lower reaches of the Dnieper, the duration of navigation increases significantly.

Most of the annual runoff on the Dnieper tributaries occurs during spring floods (60-80%), which is the cause of significant floods. During low water periods, the water content of rivers decreases sharply, which leads to a drop in depth and difficulty in navigation on them. Therefore, transport development of such tributaries of the Dnieper as Psel, Vorska, Ingulets, and others is low.

Table 4 Dynamics of main indicators of use and protection of water resources

1 including sea water, water from underground sources and mine and quarry water.

Along the entire length of the Dnieper River, within Ukraine, the depth of the shipping lane is guaranteed at 3.65 m.

The Dnieper plays a major role in river transport in Ukraine. On its banks there are large industrial centers, which are served by the Kyiv, Cherkassy, ​​Kremenchug, Dneprodzerzhinsk, Dnepropetrovsk, Zaporozhye and Kherson ports, the total cargo turnover of which reaches 90 million tons.

Many tributaries flow into the Dnieper on the territory of Ukraine, some of which are navigable, mainly in the lower part: Pripyat - 64 km, Desna - 476 km, Teterev - 28 km, Sula - 119 km, Samara - 62 km, Ingulets - 19 km, Konka - 37 km. Also navigable in the lower part of Sozh and Berezina. Of these, only Pripyat, according to the European classification of inland waterways, belongs to routes of international importance (class IV, a pushed train consisting of a pusher and one barge with a tonnage of up to 1200 tons), and cargo turnover is carried out only along the Desna and Samara. The section of the Dnieper River from Kherson to the mouth (28 km) is a passage area for sea vessels and falls under the status of sea routes of Ukraine. Currently, the volume of intra-basin cargo transportation by river transport has sharply decreased: in 1990, 63 million tons were transported, in 1995 - 1 million 427 thousand tons, in 1996 - 330 thousand tons, in 1998 - 543 thousand tons, in 1999 - 447.2 thousand tons. In 2000 - 2002 The volume of cargo transportation has increased slightly and the expected quantity in the near future will be about 500 thousand tons.

Table 5. Transport services of river ports and berths for cargo handling for January - September 2010

There are seven shipping locks in operation on the Dnieper: Kyiv, Kanevsky, Kremenchugsky, Dneprodzerzhinsky, Zaporozhye (three-chamber), Kakhovsky.

The main volume of freight traffic falls on the city of Kyiv - 83%, also in the Dnepropetrovsk region - 9%, in Poltava, Zaporozhye, Chernigov - 2% each. The average distance for transporting 1 ton of cargo by river transport in 2000 was 706 km.

The main range of goods transported includes: coal, construction materials, and in foreign transportation - iron ore, metals, coal, clay, etc.

The passenger turnover of river transport in the total passenger turnover is insignificant - in the period 1990 - 2000. tended to decrease: from 0.3 to 0.02%.

There are practically no regular passenger services, with the exception of some local routes on the Kakhovka Reservoir.

The regulation of the Dnieper flow on the territory of Ukraine led to the restructuring and reshaping of historically established biocenoses, including ichthyofauna. In this regard, since the mid-50s of the last century, the formation of the ichthyofauna of the Dnieper reservoirs has been considered in terms of their cascading nature. In connection with the ongoing hydraulic construction, leading Ukrainian ichthyologists developed scientific foundations and projects for the rational fishery development of reservoirs, and outlined ways for the directed formation of ichthyofauna. Based on extensive and comprehensive studies reflecting the peculiarities of the formation of ichthyofauna in individual reservoirs of the Dnieper in different periods of their existence in a comparative aspect with the river before flow regulation, patterns of formation of ichthyofauna and fish productivity in the conditions of the created cascade of reservoirs were established.

Before the construction of the Dnieper hydroelectric station, in the Dnieper basin from the mouth to Kakhovka there were 67 species and subspecies of fish belonging to 17 families, and from Kakhovka to the mouth of Pripyat (Chernobyl) - 63, belonging to 15 families. At the same time, 59 species and subspecies of fish were discovered in the Dnieper section from Kakhovka to Zaporozhye, and from Zaporozhye to Dnepropetrovsk - 55, from Dnepropetrovsk to Kremenchug - 52, from Kremenchug to Kyiv - 48, from Kyiv to Chernobyl - 49 species.

The gradual creation of hydroelectric power stations on the Dnieper blocked the paths for spawning and feeding migrations of anadromous and semi-anadromous fish species. This situation has led to the disappearance from the ichthyofauna of valuable anadromous fish (Black Sea beluga sturgeon, Black Sea-Azov sturgeon, Black Sea sturgeon, Black Sea-Azov herring, plump-cheeked pipefish, river eel) and semi-anadromous (carp, shemaya). In the Dnieper waters, valuable aquatic fish (natives of the ichthyofauna) - Dnieper madder (Dnieper barbel) - have also disappeared, and the number of podust, chub, ide, burbot, and dace has decreased.

The basis of the commercial ichthyofauna of the Dnieper reservoirs are fish species belonging to the Ponto-Caspian freshwater (32.4 - 68.1% of the total catch) and boreal lowland (13.8 - 33.1%) faunal complexes.

Among the main reasons that led to the disappearance of many fish species and a reduction in the number of others, one should name a decrease in the number of spawning grounds, the lack of the necessary meadow vegetation on them that can withstand prolonged flooding, their abundant overgrowth with aerial-aquatic vegetation, significant fluctuations in water levels, a sharp decrease in water exchange and speeds currents. The decline in commercial fish catches in the Dnieper reservoirs in recent years is associated not only with a decline in fish stocks or the availability of natural food resources, but is largely associated with socio-economic problems in Ukraine (decrease in fishing intensity due to the lack of material and technical base, fuel, fleet, network materials, etc.).

In order to carry out bioreclamation of reservoirs and increase their fish productivity, the introduction of herbivorous fish (silver carp, grass carp) was carried out. Since the mid-70s, stocking of ichthyofauna with representatives of the Chinese lowland faunal complex was carried out in all reservoirs, and by the mid-80s they accounted for 7.7% of the total commercial catch in all reservoirs.

The problem of the ecological state of water bodies is relevant for all water basins of Ukraine. As for the Dnieper, whose water resources make up about 80% of Ukraine’s water resources and provide water to 32 million people and 2/3 of the country’s economic potential, this is one of the most important tasks of economic and social development and environmental policy of the state. This is predetermined by the complex ecological situation in the basin, since 60% of it is plowed, 35% of the land is heavily eroded, and 80% of the primary natural landscape is transformed. Reservoirs on the Dnieper have become accumulators of pollutants. Significant damage was caused to the northern part of the basin as a result of the disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant; The small rivers of the basin are in critical condition, a significant part of which have lost their natural ability to self-purify. The rivers of the Lower Dnieper are in a catastrophic state, where the sanitary and epidemiological situation becomes more complicated every year, fish catch decreases, and biological diversity becomes poorer.

Significant harm to the Dnieper ecosystem, along with the annual pollution of the basin with organic substances (40 thousand tons), petroleum products (745 tons), chlorides, sulfates (400 thousand tons each), salts of heavy metals (65 - 70 tons), causes pollution with nutrients as a result the use of backward technologies of agricultural production, low efficiency of municipal treatment facilities.

The ecological improvement of the Dnieper basin is one of the most important priorities of state policy in the field of protection and restoration of water resources. On February 27, 1997, the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine approved the National Program for the Environmental Improvement of the Dnieper Basin and Improvement of the Quality of Drinking Water. The main goal of the National Program is to renew and ensure the constant functioning of the Dnieper ecosystem, high-quality water supply, environmentally friendly living conditions for the population and economic activities, and the protection of water resources from pollution and depletion.

The basins of other rivers of Ukraine (Seversky Donets, Dniester, Western Bug, Southern Bug, river basins of the Azov and Black Sea lowlands) are not in the best, but in some places even worse condition. Therefore, the goal and strategic directions defined by the National Program for the Dnieper are similar for other water basins of Ukraine.

5. Water quality

Analysis of data on drainage and the quality of natural waters over a long period of time indicates growing pollution of surface and underground waters, and especially groundwater. This trend has increased significantly over the past 10 to 12 years. If the volumes of fresh water used from 1990 to 2001 decreased from 30.2 to 12.2 billion m 3, and the volume of discharged waste water - from 20.3 to 12.3 billion m 3, then the volume of polluted water increased from 3.2 in 1990 to 3.8 billion m 3 in 1999, including without treatment - from 0.5 to 0.7 billion m 3 (in 1992 - 1998 this value was 0.8 -1.2 billion m3).

The water quality of most water bodies is classified as polluted and dirty (IV - V quality class) based on the state of chemical and bacterial contamination. The most acute ecological condition is observed in the basins of the Dnieper and Seversky Donets rivers, the rivers of the Azov region, and individual tributaries of the Dniester and Western Bug, where the water quality is classified as very dirty (class VI). The ecosystems of most water bodies in Ukraine are characterized by elements of ecological and metabolic regression.

The main pollutants include petroleum products, phenols, ammonium and nitrate nitrogen, heavy metals and the like.

For the vast majority of industrial and municipal enterprises, the discharge of pollutants significantly exceeds the established level of maximum permissible discharge (hereinafter referred to as MAP). This leads to pollution of water bodies and violation of water quality standards.

The main causes of pollution of surface waters in Ukraine are:

• discharge of untreated and insufficiently treated municipal and industrial wastewater directly into water bodies and through the city sewerage system;
• entry of pollutants into water bodies during surface water runoff from built-up areas and farmland;
• soil erosion in the water intake area.

The quality of groundwater is also constantly deteriorating as a result of economic activities. This is due to the existence on the territory of Ukraine of about 3 thousand filtering wastewater storage tanks, as well as the widespread use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides. The most unsatisfactory quality of groundwater is in the Donbass and Krivbass. A significant danger in production wells in Western Ukraine is the presence of phenols (up to 5 - 10 maximum permissible concentrations - further than the maximum permissible concentration), as well as increased mineralization and an increase in the content of heavy metals in the groundwater of Crimea.

When analyzing the dynamics of the discharge of pollutants into surface water sources, a significant decrease was found. If in the early 90s of the last century more than 5 million tons of pollutants were discharged, then at the end of the millennium a little more than 3 million tons. Despite this, pollution of surface water sources and groundwater not only did not decrease, but partially increased . This process is explained by the fact that the possibility of self-purification of rivers and other water bodies has sharply decreased.

Pollution of soil, surface and groundwater has created an ecological crisis situation in the aquatic ecosystems of Ukraine. The aggravation of this problem was significantly contributed by the high (the highest in Europe) rates of destruction of agricultural land, the state of forests (and the forest cover of the territory as a whole), the scale of soil pollution, air pollution, and radioactive contamination of a significant part of the country's territory.

The ecological crisis situation in Ukraine in general and the crisis state of its water sector in particular did not arise immediately, but were conditioned by our entire gradual development. Ukraine, which occupied 2.7% of the territory of the USSR, produced 18% of the gross national product, and the technogenic load on its ecosystems was 6-7 times higher than the general level in the Soviet Union.

A negative role in creating an environmental crisis situation was played by the disproportions characteristic of Ukraine in national and regional economic structures, the discrepancy between the distribution of natural resource and socio-economic potentials, the growing technical and technological backwardness and, as a result, the progressive depletion of natural resources, especially water, and deterioration in quality surrounding natural environment.

Intervention in nature, imbalance in large natural complexes (regulation of large and small rivers beyond permissible environmental standards, large-scale insufficiently balanced drainage of Polesie, and the like).

6. Problems of water resources in Ukraine

A systematic analysis of the current ecological state of Ukrainian river basins and the organization of management of the protection and use of water resources made it possible to outline the range of the most pressing problems that need to be solved, namely:

• excessive anthropogenic load on water bodies as a result of the extensive method of water management has led to a crisis reduction in the self-reproducing capabilities of rivers and depletion of water resource potential;
• a steady trend towards significant pollution of water bodies as a result of disorderly disposal of wastewater from populated areas, economic facilities and agricultural land;
• large-scale radiation contamination of many river basins as a result of the disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant;
• deterioration of the quality of drinking water as a result of the unsatisfactory environmental condition of drinking water supply sources;
• imperfection of the economic mechanism for water use and implementation of water protection measures;
• insufficient efficiency of the existing management system for the protection and use of water resources as a result of imperfections in the regulatory framework and organizational structure of management;
• lack of an automated, permanent monitoring system for the ecological state of water basins in the Black and Azov Seas, the quality of drinking water and wastewater in water supply and drainage systems of settlements and economic facilities .

The Dnieper and Dniester are the main waterways of our country, in the basins of which almost 80% of the population lives. In the past, the Dnieper - one of the largest rivers in Europe - was pure water, with a stable ecosystem that functioned normally for thousands of years, watering and feeding millions of people.

Today, due to gross violations by humans of all the rules and principles of rational environmental management, the Dnieper ecosystems are degrading, the vertical and horizontal connections of bionts and the abiotic environment are destroyed. The main reasons for the current crisis situation are as follows:

• construction of a cascade of reservoirs on the Dnieper, which radically changed the flow dynamics;
• large-scale reclamation;
• construction of numerous industrial complexes in the river basin;
• huge volumes of water intake for industrial and irrigation needs;
• very heavy pollution.

For the same reasons, the Dniester ecosystem is degrading, where valuable fish species have also become extinct, a huge amount of terrigenous sediments, heavy metals, radionuclides, humic substances are accumulated at the bottom, and coastal erosion is developing.

About 15 billion liters of water are withdrawn from the Dnieper annually for the needs of industry and agriculture, and almost 10 million tons of gas and dust pollution are released into the atmosphere over the river basin. Every year, about 500 thousand tons of nitrogen compounds, 40 thousand tons of phosphorus, 20 thousand tons of potassium, 1 thousand tons of iron, 40 tons of nickel, 2 tons of zinc, 1 ton of copper, fall into the Dnieper and its reservoirs with rain and melt water. 0.5 t chromium. There are seven nuclear power plants in the Slavutich basin!

Among all the reservoirs of the Dnieper cascade, the greatest biogenic pollution due to water blooming has recently been recorded in the Kiev and Kremenchug reservoirs, the least - in the Dnepropetrovsk. Dnieper water requires additional purification before being supplied to the consumer: filtration, coagulation, disinfection.

The river regime of the Dnieper has been artificially transformed into a lake regime, water exchange has sharply slowed down, zones of stagnation have formed, and the rate of eutrophication has accelerated. Reservoirs have significantly worsened the condition of the surrounding areas: the groundwater level has increased even at fairly large distances from the shores, soil salinity has increased and the humus content in them has decreased, the volume of underground flow has increased almost 10 times and, at the same time, the level of groundwater pollution, especially in the lower parts of the pool; The water-salt regime in irrigation zones has changed, and erosion of the coastal zone has increased.

In the bottom sediments of the Dnieper, the concentration of radionuclides is constantly increasing, especially in the Kiev Reservoir. In the waters and silts of the Dneprodzerzhinsky and Dnepropetrovsk reservoirs, the concentration of iron, cyanides, chlorides, chromium, copper, cobalt, lead, zinc, cadmium, phenols, and petroleum products is rapidly increasing. Losses from the flooded Dnieper creeks, according to estimates, amount to about 18 billion dollars annually, while the profit from all six hydroelectric power stations of the Dnieper cascade is only 25 - 28 million dollars per year. Not only did the productive floodplain biocenoses perish, but the Dnieper also lost its ability to self-purify to a significant extent.

The gum also needs urgent and serious help; its once clean, healing waters today do not even meet the third category of quality, and the situation is getting worse. The main polluters of the Desna include the Shostka chemical plant, as well as enterprises in Chernigov and Sumy, Smolensk and Kursk nuclear power plants.

Saving the Dnieper is possible only subject to the adoption and implementation of a comprehensive program at the national level, a mandatory component of which should be a system of measures for environmental rehabilitation and restoration of small rivers, as well as cooperation with Russia and Belarus in these matters.

The same phenomena are characteristic of the Dniester. Enormous harm to its basin is caused by runoff from fields contaminated with pesticides and nitrates, emissions from industrial concerns "Chlorvinyl" (Kalush), "Ukrtsement" (Kamenets-Podolsky), "Ukr-Neftekhim" (Nadvornaya), Burshtyn State District Power Plant, etc.

The Black and Azov Seas are the most distant from the World Ocean. The area of ​​their drainage basin is much larger than the area of ​​the seas themselves. This determines their extreme sensitivity to the influence of human activity. In recent decades, there have been eutrophication processes, pollution of the sea shelf with toxic substances, coastal abrasion, a decrease in biological diversity and fish stocks, and significant losses of recreational resources.

An acute environmental crisis has gripped the Sea of ​​Azov. This is, without exaggeration, a zone of environmental disaster. Just 40 - 50 years ago, 35 times more fish were caught in it than in the Black Sea, and 12 times more than in the Baltic. There were 114 species of fish in this sea, and the total catch sometimes exceeded 300 thousand tons. A significant part of the catch was valuable sturgeon. Today, catches have decreased by an average of 6 times, and the fish caught sometimes contains so many chemicals that consuming them is hazardous to health. There was also a silent biological explosion in the Sea of ​​Azov. A decade ago, the Far Eastern fish pelengas emerged from experimental cats into the sea and quickly settled throughout the waters of Azov. Being competitively stronger, pelengas displaces many native species of the Azov ichthyofauna and has already become one of the main industrial species of this sea. The waters of Azov have long been famous for their healing properties. Currently, as a result of anthropogenic pollution, these properties are lost. Thus, back in 1987, the concentration of pesticides increased 20 times. Today, the content of toxic chemicals and heavy metals in the bottom sediments of the sea is many times higher than the norm.

In the 70s, the first large outbreaks of toxic “blooming” of blue-green algae were recorded in the Taganrog Bay. In the 80s they became regular. In 1997, a “bloom” was already observed in the open waters of the sea and covered not only its eastern, most polluted part, but also its western part. The sanitary and epidemiological situation on the Azov coast has sharply worsened. Every year, large resort areas are periodically declared closed due to non-compliance with sanitary and hygienic standards and outbreaks of particularly dangerous infectious diseases, such as cholera.

The main reasons for the environmental crisis in Azov:

• predatory fishing by enterprises of the former USSR, which began in the 50s using the method of powerful ocean fishing using huge trawls, cats, mechanical dredges, instead of traditional small nets, special gear, small longboats designed for sea depths of 5 - 8 m;
• construction of dams and reservoirs on the main rivers feeding the sea - the Don and Kuban, and the transformation of these reservoirs into giant industrial settling tanks;
• the introduction of irrigated agriculture and intensive technologies for growing rice in the basins of runoff into the sea instead of growing traditional crops, which led to over-chemicalization and salinization of soils, water pollution, and a significant reduction in the flow of the Don and Kuban rivers;
• uncontrolled, avalanche-like washout of pesticides from agricultural fields and their removal into the sea by the waters of the Don and Kuban;
• an increase in the amount of untreated emissions from chemical and metallurgical industry enterprises in the cities of Mariupol, Rostov-on-Don, Taganrog, Kamysh-Burun (Mariupol alone “supplies” 800 thousand tons of toxic substances to the Azov basin annually);
• intensive construction on the coast and sea spits of numerous boarding houses and recreation centers and, as a consequence, the dumping of household waste and sewage into the sea.

The ecological situation in the Black Sea basin is somewhat better, which is facilitated by its size and depth. However, the Dnieper, Southern Bug, Dniester, and Danube flow into the Black Sea, which annually bring millions of cubic meters of wastewater containing dozens of toxicants. The concentration of radionuclides in water and bottom sediments has increased significantly. The shelf is polluted by domestic and sewage waste, which accompanies the tourism industry. Because of this, the beaches of Yalta, Feodosia, Evpatoria, Alushta, and Odessa have been closed dozens of times recently. In the southwestern part of the Black Sea, in connection with the development of underwater oil and gas fields, intensive water pollution with oil products began. In the same region, death zones are increasingly emerging. Powerful port factories and the Southern Port near Odessa pose a huge danger. Here, in particular, huge volumes of liquid ammonia are produced and concentrated, and the powerful Odessa-Togliatti ammonia pipeline is operated. This extremely harmful substance is transported by tankers with a capacity of 50-120 thousand tons. Even one accident at a factory, in a port or on such a tanker can have very serious environmental and economic consequences. Due to the disruption of the regional hydrodynamic, hydrochemical and thermal balances of sea water masses, the limit of deep waters saturated with hydrogen sulfide is gradually increasing. If earlier it took place at a depth of 150-200 m, now it has risen to 80-110 m. As a result of water pollution and overfishing, the composition of the ichthyofauna of the Black Sea has changed significantly. In recent years, there has been a general decline in fish catch, and most of all this concerns valuable species - mackerel, bonito, salmon, goby, mullet, but low-value species - sprats and anchovy - come out on top. Four species of Black Sea sturgeon are listed in the Red Book of Ukraine: beluga, sturgeon, sterlet and Atlantic sturgeon. Due to the catastrophic decline in the amount of red algae Phyllophora, its harvesting is prohibited. This also applies to shellfish, in particular mussels. A crisis situation is developing in the Black Sea estuaries - the Dnieper-Bugsky, Dniester, Kalamitsky and Karkinitsky gulfs, and in the estuary-Lake Sasik it is assessed as catastrophic. Toxic blooms of blue-green algae have been observed in estuaries, and since the early 1980s, blooms similar to the infamous “red tides” have appeared both in estuaries and in open sea areas. All over the world, it is this “bloom” that is considered the most harmful, because the resulting algae are capable of releasing saxitoxin into the water - the deadly poison curare.

7. Problems of drinking water supply

Contamination of drinking water supply sources due to insufficient efficiency of water treatment facilities leads to a deterioration in the quality of drinking water supplied to consumers. This poses a threat to public health, causes a high incidence of intestinal infections, hepatitis, and increases the risk of carcinogenic and mutagenic factors affecting the human body.

The specificity of drinking water supply in Ukraine is that 75% of it is based on surface water sources. Modern technologies make it possible to purify water from any contamination and even bring it to a distilled state, but the cost of such purification, as well as the consequences of drinking such water, should be taken into account.

Since water from natural surface sources is currently mainly of the third - fifth quality category, and traditional water purification technologies are designed for the first - second category of water quality in the water source, their application does not allow preparing drinking water that would meet regulatory requirements.

Wouldn’t it be easier and better for us and future generations to help Nature restore the natural balance in the aquatic and near-aquatic ecosystems of Ukraine and thereby ensure the natural, rather than man-made, development of the nation and preserve its healthy gene pool?

The situation that has developed in the drinking economy and water supply is associated with many unresolved regulatory, organizational and technological issues.

The supply of water “on schedule” and water that does not meet sanitary and hygienic standards is being repeated more and more often in different cities. The rural population drinks water from the first aquifer (groundwater), which is a fairly “strong cocktail” of pesticides and their breakdown products.

In general, the most serious reasons for the unfavorable situation that has developed in providing the population with drinking water of standard quality are not only environmental factors, but also a number of problems that arose due to the fact that for a long time the water supply and sewerage sector developed at a slow pace and unsatisfactorily equipped with machinery, materials and equipment.

These reasons can be formulated as follows:

inconsistency of water treatment technologies;

non-compliance of water bodies with the requirements for sources of domestic and drinking water supply;

unsatisfactory condition of the water supply network;

low technical level of operation of the water supply and sewerage system.

8. Problems of water resources of Sumy region

In the Sumy region, historically, too much water is used for the needs of sugar and alcohol factories, which were built not only on large, but also on small rivers. In the post-war years, the development of the chemical and engineering industries contributed to the pressure on river waters. The volume of water intake immediately increased, although the waste water was later “dumped” back, but its quality was far from necessary. As of 01/01/1996; In total, in the Sumy region for consumption needs, fresh water intake amounted to 224 million m 3, including 70 million m 3 from surface sources. Of course, if we compare with data from ten years ago regarding water consumption, then in reality the fact is that water is saved by almost 65 million m 3. Unfortunately, these savings were achieved not due to the efficient use of water intakes, not due to the introduction of recirculating water use systems, but mainly due to a reduction in production volumes. However, our main problem is not even related to the volume of water withdrawals, but to the quality of water that returns to the rivers after its industrial use. Water for the operation of a plant or factory can be taken from a river, a reservoir on this river, from underground layers, but used, “waste” water is thrown only into rivers, there is no other alternative. Large factories have their own treatment facilities, but, as a rule, these facilities are expensive and at the present stage operate in excessive overvoltage modes. Due to overvoltage, 23 biological water treatment plants out of 64 available in the region are operating ineffectively. Thus, the industry of the city of Romny turned the Lozovka River - a tributary of the Sula - into a “sewage ditch”, and the industrial enterprises of the city of Konotop had the same impact on the river. Ezuch. PA "Desna" discharges into the river. Shostka up to 12 thousand m 3 per day of standard clean wastewater and more than 1000 m 3 per day of insufficiently treated wastewater. The treatment facilities of the Belopol Machine-Building Plant receive wastewater from the entire city, so they are overloaded 5 times and provide only mechanical purification. Therefore, during the year in the river. 3 million m3 of untreated waste flows into the river. Analysis of river water carried out by the water inspectorate of the region downstream from these cities allows us to classify these four small rivers as very “polluted”. The list of such rivers can be continued. The Psel River deserves special attention, where a whole complex of chemical and other plants is located, where there are more than 700 water intakes, where there are many problems regarding the quality of waste water treatment and problems of the river. Psla. Thus, there are no high-quality water treatment facilities at the Temp plant, porcelain factory, cloth factory, or meat processing plant. Due to outdated equipment, the water neutralization stations of SMNPO named after. Frunze. The commissioning of the industrial wastewater treatment system for the AN, UBiVT factories is disrupted, and all the dirt from them enters the river. A bag. The electrocoagulation plant for industrial wastewater at the Centrolit plant should have been reconstructed long ago. Every day only PO "Khimprom" drops into the river. Psel 12 thousand m 3 of insufficiently treated wastewater. Over the course of a year, this constitutes a significant addition to the natural chemical composition of river water: 120 thousand tons of salts, 11.6 tons of iron, 190 tons of chlorides, 6.4 thousand tons of sulfates, 78 tons of ammonium nitrogen, etc. During the flood period, every year for 25-30 days, pollution from sludge reservoirs is discharged in a volume of 1.8 to 2.4 million m 3. The quality of these pollutants exceeds the maximum permissible concentrations (MAC) for fluorine, ammonium nitrogen, and sulfates by several times.

However, R. Psel suffers not only from untreated factory wastewater. A serious danger of pollution of the rivers Strelka, Sumka and Psel is caused by frequent ruptures of the first line of the pressure sewer collector, through which household waste flows to the city's treatment facilities, due to its significant deterioration, as well as due to the failure rate of the collector itself. Who has seen what the water in the river becomes like? A dog after rain, at the confluence of the Bag, will not dare to swim here. The black water, covered in oil stains, absorbs the rain streams that flow through the city. Numerous toxic substances and waste from the traffic flow of cars dissolve within these flows. Such water contains high concentrations of manganese, lead, nickel, carbon and sulfur compounds. Rainwater washes away our streets, and rivers silently and reliably take in all the accumulated dirt and carry it further downstream, depositing it at the bottom in front of hydroelectric dams. Who knows what consequences this will lead to or has already led to? We know that water has a remarkable ability to restore its quality on its own. However, even large rivers are now finding it very difficult to cope with this. This is how the problem of river water quality arose. And the boom in the use of high levels of mineral fertilizers has caused even greater harm to rivers. Carelessly applied fertilizers are washed away by rain streams, adding substances to river water that were never there in the first place. Therefore, even the large rivers of the region (Seim, Vorskla, Psel, Sula) in terms of the amount of ammonium and nitrate nitrogen in their water exceed the maximum permissible concentration by 2 - 5 times (1995 data). The river water also contains high levels of chlorides and sulfates, although it does not exceed the maximum permissible concentration. Employees of the water inspection of the state environmental safety department in the Sumy region claim that the rivers Esman, Kleven and Syrovotka can be classified as clean rivers. The Vorskla and Seim rivers were considered relatively clean or moderately polluted. The Psel and Sula rivers are more polluted. Certain places of the Shostka, Vyr, Ezuch and Lozovka rivers are the most polluted. The problems of our rivers do not end with changes in the chemical composition of waters. It was already mentioned earlier about the siltation of river bottoms with the products of soil washout, but at the same time, mineral and biological substances enter the water from agricultural lands, promoting the intensive development of aquatic vegetation, which reduces the speed of water flow and reduces the transporting capacity of the river. This further contributes to siltation of the riverbed. Reservoirs created on rivers especially become silted. Already 5 - 6 years after creation they require clearing. The estimated volume of silt in the reservoirs is 21 million m3, so many of them urgently need to be cleaned or completely drained, since they no longer perform the tasks that were assigned to them during their construction. But their negative aspects were clearly revealed, in particular, swamping of the surrounding water meadows, changes in meadow vegetation, and rising groundwater levels. The Sumy region is considered to be well supplied with water resources. The main sources of water supply are the surface waters of the Desna, Psla, Seima, Sula, Vorskla, Khorol, Shostka rivers, as well as the groundwater of the Cretaceous-Marl, Poltava, Kharkov and Buchatsky aquifers. The potential resources of the local river flow are 2.45 km 3 . This average long-term runoff value can be significantly reduced once every four years (in a low-water year) (up to 1.75 km 3), and once every 20 years it can be minimal (1.15 km 3). The transit flow that comes to us from other regions is 3.34 km 3 . In dry years it can be reduced to 1.73 km 3 . Operable groundwater reserves are estimated at 1.25 km 3 .

By analyzing this large set of problems, it is possible to draw very important conclusions regarding the environmental reality of our state, to discover factors and features of life and environmental management.

The “basic” shortcomings of Ukraine at the present stage are complex, multifaceted factors that exercise a complex, total influence on all sectors of the economy, operate in different areas, at different levels of economic management, and therefore they need special attention, special solutions, that is, systemic decisions from the state. These factors are:

• macroeconomic policy, which forces economic entities to extensively use natural resources;
• investment policy, which is focused on the development of resource-intensive sectors of the economy;
• unstable legislation;
• lack of property rights to natural resources;
• lack of an environmentally balanced long-term economic strategy;
• at the regional and local levels, the lack of direct and indirect effects of environmental protection from (economic and social) “global profits”;
• inflation, economic crisis and economic instability interfere with the implementation of long-term projects, which include most environmental projects;
• lack of ecological thinking, environmental awareness.

To resolve these issues, on May 12, 1997, the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, by Resolution No. 439, approved the Concept (strategy) for the conservation of biological diversity of Ukraine, for the implementation of which a National Action Program for 1998-2015 is being developed. The main tasks of activity in this area are:

• preservation, improvement of the condition and renewal of natural and disturbed ecosystems, habitats for individual biological species and landscape components;
• promoting the transition to a balanced use of natural resources; minimizing direct and indirect negative impacts on ecosystems, their components and complexes;
• increasing the level of public awareness on issues of biological diversity, as well as enhancing the participation of citizens in activities regarding its conservation; strengthening the responsibility of enterprises, organizations, institutions and citizens whose activities are related to the use of natural resources or affect the state of the environment for the preservation of biological diversity.

For the stated purposes, it is envisaged to apply and develop appropriate legal, financial, organizational, scientific, methodological, information and educational means. At the same time, the main areas of activity regarding the conservation of biological diversity are: achieving economic and environmental balance, structural restructuring of the economy, deepening the improvement of legislation and culture of environmental management, conservation and renewal of ecosystems, namely:

• preservation and renewal of coastal and marine, river and floodplain, lake and swamp, meadow and steppe, forest and mountain ecosystems;
• conservation of species and populations; environmental improvement of urban landscapes and other areas of intensive economic activity;
• greening of agricultural landscapes and agricultural technologies, methods of activity in forestry, fishing, hunting, water and land management;
• creation of a national ecological network (system of “green” corridors) as an integral part of the European ecological network.

List of used literature

1. G.O. Bilyavsky, R.S. Furduy, I.Yu. Kostikov. Fundamentals of ecology: Pidruchnik K.: "Libid", 2004.
2. Resolution of the Supreme Council of Ukraine "On the National Program for the Environmental Improvement of the Dnieper Basin and Improvement of the Quality of Drinking Water."
3. The camp of the natural environment and the problems of its protection in Sumy region, Sumi, “Dzherelo”, 1997.
4. Sumy State University im. A. S. Makarenka. K.K. Karpenko. The main directions of the government policy of Ukraine are the protection of water resources, the recovery of natural resources and the provision of environmental safety. - http://student.km.ru.
5. Scientific and organizational principles of environmentally safe water use in Ukraine.

6. Training and consulting center "UkrCONSULTING". Ecology. Series 10. Organization of environmental work at the enterprise. Environmental management, Kharkov.

Acting Head of the Federal Water Resources Agency Vadim Nikanorov is visiting Radio Komsomolskaya Pravda [audio]

Photo: Ivan MAKEEV

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Afonina:

Over the next hour, we would like to talk about the wealth that our country has. When they look at Russia and say that it is a storehouse of riches, I mean, of course, not only our mineral resources, but also water resources. So, in the context of population growth, industrial development, and environmental pollution, people’s access to usable sources of fresh water is actually decreasing. That is why some are especially zealous and look at Russia as such a storehouse of water resources. This is what we decided to talk about. With us in the studio Acting Head of the Federal Water Resources Agency Vadim Nikanorov. What is unique about the water resource potential of our country, what do we have that others don’t?

Nikanorov:

It’s probably a little wrong to pose the question this way; everyone has a little bit of everything. Russia just has a lot of this. Russia is washed by the waters of 12 seas, we have over 2.5 million large and small rivers, and more than 2 million lakes. And this is its water potential, the basis of Russia’s water fund. The only drawback of Russia in this part is that these water bodies are located very unevenly on its territory. Nevertheless, 120 thousand rivers more than 10 km long create the water framework of Russia. We have more than 400 thousand kilometers on Russian territory that are favorable for shipping, and this also contributes to economic development. 90% of the annual river flow occurs in the Arctic and Pacific ocean basins. And only less than 8% - in the Caspian and Azov basins. At the same time, more than 80% of the Russian population lives in the Caspian and Azov basins. And the main part of the country’s economic infrastructure is also concentrated. The largest river systems are located on the territory of the Siberian District, which in principle is the richest in terms of water. These are the Angara-Yenisei, as well as the Ob and Irtysh. And in general, the Siberian District accounts for 43% of the resources of the entire river flow of Russia.

As for the lakes. We have about 2 million of them. Fresh, salty, brackish. And among them, the deepest freshwater lake in the world is Baikal. Many researchers also classify the Caspian Sea as lakes. Lakes are also unevenly distributed throughout Russia. Most of them are located in the northwest - the Kola Peninsula, Karelia, the Urals, Western Siberia, the Lena-Vilyui Upland, Transbaikalia and the Amur basin. The number of lakes like ours is practically never repeated. Only Canada has more lakes than Russia. Therefore, this is also our wealth.

And, of course, Baikal. The main part of fresh water resources is concentrated in Lake Baikal. This is 23 thousand cubic kilometers. Or 20% of the world's and more than 90% of national fresh water reserves. Lakes Ladoga and Lake Onega can also be classified as large or great lakes of Russia. And in total, the 12 largest lakes contain about 25 thousand cubic meters of fresh water. Despite the fact that the total supply of fresh water in the lakes is 26.5-26.7 thousand cubic meters.

Afonina:

Vadim Anatolyevich, you just talked about Lake Baikal, I think that our radio listeners immediately remembered what scandals are associated with this lake. How difficult it is now to say that this is one of the cleanest lakes on our planet. Alas, unfortunately, but this is true. We remember the actions that volunteers organized when they cleaned Baikal, we remember those scandals associated with water pollution by enterprises... Who should be responsible for the squandering of water resources? Who is to blame? At enterprises located along rivers and lakes? Is the blame on those who gave permission for the construction of these objects? How can this situation be changed for the better now? After all, such a task is certainly worthwhile.

Nikanorov:

Yes, of course, there is such a task, but I would not talk about wasting water resources; for now we are talking about how to make Baikal cleaner, or rather, not even make it cleaner, but not allow its further pollution. And all the efforts of everyone are aimed at this - both environmental services, as well as the constituent entities of the federation, which are located along the shores of Lake Baikal. These are mainly the Irkutsk region, Transbaikal region and the Republic of Buryatia. In fact, probably, those organizations and enterprises that are located along Lake Baikal, permits for their construction were issued a very long time ago. And now it’s probably not worth remembering someone with unkind words. We need to make sure that these enterprises become cleaner and begin to discharge the water that would not harm Lake Baikal. The biggest problem is that almost all of these enterprises operate without treatment facilities. Now all the efforts of scientists who are located in the Baikal region, who are dealing with the problems of water purification, and who are working on Baikal itself and the quality of the water in it, are looking at how to make sure that all large and small enterprises are provided with treatment facilities. In fact, on the part of the Republic of Buryatia, there are no longer any large enterprises directly located on the territory of Lake Baikal. The Baikal pulp and paper mill is closed. There are still problems with past environmental damage. This issue is being resolved. No new resets are being made. But those sanatorium-resort institutions that are located, small enterprises, recreation centers, etc. – they all operate without treatment facilities. And this is probably one of the main problems.

The second main problem is the growth of new algae in Baikal. The so-called spirogyra. Scientists have proven that the main environment that promotes their growth is the chemicals found in detergents. And one of the tasks now facing both the authorities of the constituent entities of the federation and environmental structures is to introduce a ban on the sale and distribution of such detergents in the Baikal region. According to scientists from the Limnological Institute, who are closely involved in the problems of Lake Baikal, this will dramatically improve the condition of the Baikal ecosystem.

Afonina:

It turns out that the purity of water resources depends on each of us, and if we do not use such means in everyday life, maybe the situation will really change?

Vadim Anatolyevich, now we have talked about only one lake - about Baikal - of course, scientists come, explore, look, we are trying with all our might to properly maintain this world pearl. But let's remember that in Soviet times, for example, there was a slogan “let's turn back the rivers.” And they turned. Let's adjust, as they say, water resources to human needs. Have you moved away from such a policy now?

Nikanorov:

They are moving away from such a policy. Water resource management is based on different principles, and almost no one within the country has any desire to turn the rivers back. Although there are such wild heads in our country and in neighboring states who often say that Russia has too much water and let’s share it with neighboring states, and propose transferring it to neighboring states, selling it abroad, etc. But so far, thank God, there are no such serious attempts, because we understand that the amount of water that we have and what we talked about in the first part of our program is unevenly distributed, and secondly, it is subject to cyclicity. And if in one year there is a lot of this water - we have floods, floods - then in another year there may not be enough of it. And we are entering, or some region of our country may be entering, a stage of low water. Thus, unfortunately, we cannot predict in advance whether Russia will be able to fulfill its international agreements over a long period of time by supplying water somewhere abroad. Therefore, I think that it is necessary to move away from such a policy and use water for the benefit of Russia within the country.

Afonina:

What are the main challenges of our time? How would you define them?

Nikanorov:

If we are talking about what is happening inside our country, then, as I have already said, these are alternating floods and alternating periods of low water. This is a very complex system that depends both on climate, on its changes, and on other factors, including technological ones. And if, in principle, we know how to deal with floods, if we have reservoirs, we cut off the peaks of floods, collect them in the spring with the proper forecast from Roshydromet, empty the reservoirs and fill them with flood water, not letting them flow downstream, not allowing some cities to be flooded, then during the period of low water everything worsens. There is not enough water for some of the purposes for which it was previously used, and problems begin. Problems in organizations, problems in shipping, problems in industry. The thing is that, in accordance with the Water Code, in the absence of the proper amount of water resources, the needs of the population are met first. Thus, we limit consumption by other industries and supply water without restrictions - we try - to supply the population and economic facilities. Therefore, problems with low water are a whole chain of problems. In particular, for several years we had very big problems at the Volga-Kama cascade. This is the largest cascade on the European territory of the Russian Federation and for several years there was such a protracted period of low water. This was associated with restrictions on shipping; this was also associated with underloading of ships and underutilization of enterprises that used water in the Volga-Kama cascade area. This was due to the restriction of the tourism business, because the Upper Volga reservoirs partially fall into the system of the Golden Ring of Russia, ships of tourists were transported along them, and this also had to be limited. That is, you understand that when a country enters a period of low water, this entails a lot of restrictions.

Afonina:

But they will tell you - this is an element of nature, in fact, who can predict this and what to do about it? Well, yes, there is probably some algorithm of actions for this or that case, but it is probably impossible to identify any periodicity. This, to some extent, probably removes a certain amount of responsibility?

Nikanorov:

It is, in principle, possible to identify periodicity, but it is very difficult to have such large reserves of water to ensure the period of some dry years. This requires very large reservoirs with a multi-year period of operation. We have few such reservoirs. Mostly our reservoirs have seasonal or annual regulation. Therefore, it is, of course, difficult to accumulate water for the cycle of dry years. The way out of this is the construction of new reservoirs, maintaining existing reservoirs in working condition and, naturally, adapting the water management structure, which includes waterways, water intake structures of enterprises, water intake structures of housing and communal services. Working with low levels is precisely the solution to this problem during such a period.

Afonina:

Unfortunately, in the history of modern Russia there have been situations when it even resulted in human casualties. Now I’m talking about an excessive amount of water... It seems that they don’t listen to experts, they don’t consult, for example, with the Federal Water Resources Agency, when they organize these unauthorized developments, and the authorities don’t react to this, and then people’s houses washes away and people die. When it turns out that basic safety measures for staying near water bodies are not observed. By the way, do our radio listeners know what they write? I will literally read a couple of such messages to you. "Northern Donets. The banks of the river are littered with garbage. It's disgusting to watch. Nothing really is being done” - this is a message from Belgorod. Egor from Tver writes: “On the whole, I’m satisfied, with the exception of the development close to the rivers by some comrades who don’t pick up trash after themselves.” “We have a city on the Amur,” writes our radio listener from Khabarovsk, “the water condition is terrible, you can’t swim, it’s dangerous to fish. Pollution mainly comes from the “Chinese brothers”. And this is the great Russian river? That is, the questions are probably not even about the flooding of the rivers itself or, conversely, about the insufficient amount of water, but about how this is approached and how it is handled. Is there any opportunity to respond to these claims to our radio listeners?

Nikanorov:

They are absolutely right. Development near rivers, in so-called water protection zones or coastal protective strips, is the main problem. The fact is that if all building regulations were followed, of course, there would be much less damage from floods. But people are drawn to the water and believe that the closer he builds a house or makes some kind of personal plot, he will be better off. Indeed, for a certain period of time this satisfies everyone, but then big water comes, the house is washed away or it stands under water for a long period of time, loses its qualities and people try to appeal to the state to compensate them for the damage from the flood.

Afonina:

Yes, but now, as far as I understand, the state is ready, for example, to ensure that people themselves fully insure their homes, which are located in such a dangerous zone and, accordingly, subsequently pay for it themselves... if you cannot get rid of yours your own problems, that you really want to live near the water and at the same time understand the danger, then you have to pay for it. There is another interesting message that concerns the state of the Simferopol reservoir. “Simferopol Reservoir is the largest fresh water reservoir in Crimea. A very sad picture. The coastline is terribly littered, no sanitary zone is observed, cars drive right next to the water, especially on weekends and holidays, fuel and lubricants end up on the ground. Since the water level changes all the time, all this sooner or later ends up in the water. It’s just a barbaric attitude – both on the part of local residents and on the part of city authorities, who cannot restore order,” writes Andrey.

Nikanorov:

Yes, in fact, many such examples can be given. We at our agency see this all the time, because we receive a huge number of letters from people who are dissatisfied with the state of the coastline of water bodies and the use of water bodies on their territory. And I will say that here full responsibility for this state, for all these things lies with local governments, with the subjects of the federation. This is due to the fact that, in accordance with the Water Code in force in our country, Article 26 transferred the powers to manage water resources on their territory to the constituent entities of the federation.

Afonina:

Who manages water resources anyway? Is it the state or somehow this scheme is structured differently? In order to understand, maybe all our rivers are already privately owned, but we don’t know about it - who is the manager?

Nikanorov:

No, our rivers are not privately owned and cannot be. Small water bodies that are located on the territory of one plot of land, small quarries, ponds - these can be privately owned. And they are actually being actively transferred to private ownership. As for all other water bodies, they are all owned by the state. In federal ownership. However, as I already said, the federation transferred some of the powers to manage them to the constituent entities of the federations. Reserving for itself the management of large reservoirs, cascades of reservoirs that are of strategic importance for the country, and reservoirs that are used for domestic drinking water supply to two or more constituent entities of the federation. There is a list of reservoirs and they are managed by the Federal Water Resources Agency.

Afonina:

Why was this done? Why don't the federal subjects govern? What is the danger if all this is left to the discretion of regional authorities?

Nikanorov:

Here, first of all, to avoid possible conflicts between neighbors, between subjects of the federation regarding water allocation. Therefore, in order to avoid such possible conflicts and to guarantee the needs of the population and industry in the water resources of these subjects of the federation, the state manages it. The structure of water resources management in Russia is built on the basin principle. We have 15 basin departments. These are our territorial bodies. Here they are in their place making sure that all the capabilities of large reservoirs are used to meet the needs of a particular subject. For this purpose, basin councils are created on the territory of these basin departments, which include representatives of federal subjects, large water users, and other interested parties, who together solve all problems that arise in the entire basin. Such meetings of basin councils are held at least twice a year and there, in addition to solving pressing problems of today, planning of events for the future takes place, discussing issues of what needs to be done and for which water bodies in the near future. And these plans are then consolidated by the subjects in the form of some of their regional programs for the use of water resources, and the subject and the basin as a whole move according to them.

Afonina:

Let us now turn again to our radio listeners - are you satisfied with the condition of the rivers and lakes? And Alexander called us. Good afternoon.

Alexander:

Good day. As you said, we have the Volga-Don basin, the city of Belgorod, the Seversky Donets River, which flows through two states. A blatant case! Unfortunately, our authorities are not paying attention to this, the reservoir is getting smaller and blooming. We, residents who have been living for a long time, have repeatedly appealed, but the land is being stolen... our government has not changed for 25 years in the region... and I would like to ask - have you or have you ever been to our long-suffering region in terms of water?

Afonina:

Vadim Anatolyevich, have you been to the Belgorod region?

Nikanorov:

Yes, sure. And not only in the Belgorod region, I once traveled the entire Seversky Donets basin, I know all the problems that exist there. There, the river really begins in the Belgorod region, passes through Ukraine and ends in the Rostov region, flowing into the Don and carrying there all the nastiness that has accumulated over the entire flow of the Seversky Donets. Indeed, the river is in very poor condition. Both on the territory of the Belgorod region and on the territory of Ukraine. A huge amount of all kinds of prohibited, let's say, substances are dumped there... When our relations with Ukraine were better, these problems were discussed every year at the level of the intergovernmental commission, there were laboratories that monitored the quality of water both in the Belgorod region, before supplying it to Ukraine, and in the Rostov region, when we were tracking what Ukraine was throwing at us. The situation was more or less satisfactory. And now we continue to measure the amount of pollutants that come to us from the territory of Ukraine, but, unfortunately, we cannot do anything about it yet. The only reassuring thing is that due to the current situation in the Donbass, industry now practically does not work there, so discharges into the Seversky Donets are minimized.

As for the Belgorod region itself, then, of course, it is necessary to draw the attention of the local leadership, the governor, to the state of the Seversky Donets River, and we, for our part, will also ask the Don Basin Water Administration, whose prerogative includes supervision of the state of water resources in the Belgorod region, to consider at the nearest basin council, discuss the state of the river and reservoirs that are located on the territory of the Belgorod region and make some emergency, and maybe even planned decisions.

Afonina:

Yes, we came up with a topic that, I think, also interests our radio listeners. It turns out that the joint use of water resources by different states sometimes leads to quite serious conflicts. Let's remember the conflict between Turkey and Syria over the Tigris and Euphrates. Between Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia due to the Nile River. Between Israel, the Palestinian Authority and Jordan due to the Jordan River Basin. In Central Asia, we constantly have these conflicts over the division of water resources. Yes, by the way, scientists also scared that the first nuclear conflict on our planet will break out not between Russia and the United States, but between India and Pakistan due to problems around access to drinking water on the Hindustan Peninsula. That is, here we have the theme of a rather global conflict that can unfold over what we think is ordinary fresh water. In this sense, is Russia not subject to such influences, fears, and the emergence of certain conflicts? After all, our rivers, as we understand, are also not only our welfare and only our prerogative to use? Here is one of the examples you just gave. Are there others? What conflicts may arise? Where are the pain points?

Nikanorov:

Yes, the problem of water use in the world is becoming a major factor that affects the economy, social sphere, and ensuring regional and national security. And so I want to quote that the 2015 World Economic Forum Global Risks report put forward the water crisis as the number one threat to humanity in terms of expected impact. The report's authors suggest that by 2030, water demand will exceed available water resources by 40%. This is very recent data and it is impossible not to listen to it. As for Russia, as I said earlier, Russia is one of the countries most endowed with water resources and the average long-term renewable resources of Russia account for 10% of the world river flow. It is second in the world after Brazil. That is, in principle, Russia is not facing a water crisis. And on average in our country, per person there is just over 30 thousand cubic meters of water per year. Which significantly exceeds the critical indicator established by the UN. And it is equal to 1.7 thousand cubic meters. That is, the difference is noticeable. And even this minimum level established by the UN guarantees that the minimum needs of the population, the economy and the preservation of the environment are met.

Afonina:

Yes, this is, rather, an answer to a question from one of our radio listeners, probably this is the final remark, one of those who listens to us writes: “The water goes underground. Instead of extracting minerals, we will die of thirst." We won’t die, the expert in our studio tells us, yes, as I understand it, Vadim Anatolyevich?

Nikanorov:

Yes, absolutely true.

Afonina:

We will not be left without fresh water, just like that. Well, thank you very much! With us in the studio was the acting head of the Federal Water Resources Agency, Vadim Nikanorov.

Contemporary water issues

The problems of clean water and the protection of aquatic ecosystems are becoming more acute with the historical development of society, and the impact on nature caused by scientific and technological progress is rapidly increasing.

Already, in many areas of the globe there are great difficulties in ensuring water supply and water use as a result of the qualitative and quantitative depletion of water resources, which is associated with pollution and irrational use of water.

Water pollution mainly occurs due to the discharge of industrial, household and agricultural waste into it.

In some reservoirs, the pollution is so great that they have completely degraded as sources of water supply.

A small amount of pollution cannot cause a significant deterioration in the condition of the reservoir, since it has the ability of biological purification, but the problem is that, as a rule, the amount of pollutants discharged into the water is very large and the reservoir cannot cope with their neutralization.

Water supply and water use are often complicated by biological obstacles: overgrowing of canals reduces their throughput, algae blooms worsen water quality and its sanitary condition, fouling creates interference in navigation and the functioning of hydraulic structures.

Therefore, the development of measures with biological interference acquires great practical importance and becomes one of the most important problems of hydrobiology.

Due to the disturbance of the ecological balance in water bodies, a serious threat of significant deterioration of the environmental situation as a whole is created. Therefore, humanity faces the enormous task of protecting the hydrosphere and maintaining biological balance in the biosphere.

The problem of ocean pollution

Oil and petroleum products are the most common pollutants in the World Ocean.

By the beginning of the 80s, about 6 million tons of oil entered the ocean annually, which accounted for 0.23% of world production. The greatest oil losses are associated with its transportation from production areas. Emergency situations such as tankers discharging washing and ballast water overboard—all this causes the presence of permanent fields of pollution along sea routes. In the period 1962-79, about 2 million tons entered the marine environment as a result of accidents.

oil. Over the past 30 years, since 1964, about 2,000 wells have been drilled in the World Ocean, of which 1,000 and 350 industrial wells have been equipped in the North Sea alone. Due to minor leaks, 0.1 million tons of oil are lost annually. Large masses of oil enter the seas through rivers, with domestic and storm drains.

The volume of pollution from this source is 2.0 million tons/year.

Every year 0.5 million tons of oil enters with industrial waste. Once in the marine environment, oil first spreads in the form of a film, forming layers of varying thickness.

The oil film changes the composition of the spectrum and the intensity of light penetration into water. The light transmittance of thin films of crude oil is 1-10% (280 nm), 60-70% (400 nm).

A film with a thickness of 30-40 microns completely absorbs infrared radiation.

When mixed with water, oil forms two types of emulsion: direct - “oil in water” - and reverse - “water in oil”. When volatile fractions are removed, oil forms viscous inverse emulsions that can remain on the surface, be transported by currents, washed ashore and settle to the bottom.

Pesticides. Pesticides constitute a group of artificially created substances used to control plant pests and diseases.

It has been established that pesticides, while destroying pests, harm many beneficial organisms and undermine the health of biocenoses. In agriculture, there has long been a problem of transition from chemical (polluting) to biological (environmentally friendly) methods of pest control.

Industrial production of pesticides is accompanied by the emergence of a large number of by-products that pollute wastewater.

Heavy metals.

Heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc, copper, arsenic) are common and highly toxic pollutants. They are widely used in various industrial processes, therefore, despite treatment measures, the content of heavy metal compounds in industrial wastewater is quite high.

Large masses of these compounds enter the ocean through the atmosphere. For marine biocenoses, the most dangerous are mercury, lead and cadmium. Mercury is transported to the ocean by continental runoff and through the atmosphere.

During the weathering of sedimentary and igneous rocks, 3.5 thousand tons of mercury are released annually. Atmospheric dust contains about 12 thousand tons of mercury, a significant part of which is of anthropogenic origin. About half of the annual industrial production of this metal (910 thousand tons/year) ends up in the ocean in various ways.

In areas polluted by industrial waters, the concentration of mercury in solution and suspended matter increases greatly. Contamination of seafood has repeatedly led to mercury poisoning of coastal populations. Lead is a typical trace element found in all components of the environment: rocks, soils, natural waters, atmosphere, living organisms.

Finally, lead is actively dissipated into the environment during human economic activity. These are emissions from industrial and domestic wastewater, from smoke and dust from industrial enterprises, and from exhaust gases from internal combustion engines.

Thermal pollution.

Thermal pollution of the surface of reservoirs and coastal marine areas occurs as a result of the discharge of heated wastewater by power plants and some industrial production. The discharge of heated water in many cases causes an increase in water temperature in reservoirs by 6-8 degrees Celsius. The area of ​​heated water spots in coastal areas can reach 30 square meters. km. More stable temperature stratification prevents water exchange between the surface and bottom layers.

The solubility of oxygen decreases, and its consumption increases, since with increasing temperature the activity of aerobic bacteria decomposing organic matter increases. The species diversity of phytoplankton and the entire algal flora is increasing.

Freshwater pollution

The water cycle, this long path of its movement, consists of several stages: evaporation, cloud formation, rainfall, runoff into streams and rivers and evaporation again. Along its entire path, water itself is capable of purifying itself from contaminants that enter it - products of decay of organic substances, dissolved gases and minerals, suspended solids.

In places where there are large concentrations of people and animals, natural clean water is usually not enough, especially if it is used to collect sewage and transport it away from populated areas.

If not much waste gets into the soil, soil organisms process it, reusing nutrients, and clean water seeps into neighboring watercourses. But if sewage immediately gets into the water, it rots, and oxygen is consumed to oxidize it. A so-called biochemical demand for oxygen is created. The higher this need, the less oxygen remains in the water for living microorganisms, especially fish and algae.

Sometimes, due to lack of oxygen, all living things die. The water becomes biologically dead; only anaerobic bacteria remain; They thrive without oxygen and, in the process of their life, emit hydrogen sulfide, a poisonous gas with a specific smell of rotten eggs. The already lifeless water acquires a putrid odor and becomes completely unsuitable for humans and animals.

This can also happen when there is an excess of substances such as nitrates and phosphates in the water; they enter water from agricultural fertilizers in fields or from wastewater contaminated with detergents. These nutrients stimulate the growth of algae, the algae begin to consume a lot of oxygen, and when it becomes insufficient, they die. Under natural conditions, the lake exists for about 20 thousand years before it silts up and disappears.

years. Excess nutrients accelerate the aging process and reduce the lifespan of the lake. Oxygen is less soluble in warm water than in cold water. Some plants, especially power plants, consume huge amounts of water for cooling. The heated water is released back into the rivers and further disrupts the biological balance of the water system.

Low oxygen content hinders the development of some living species and gives an advantage to others. But these new, heat-loving species also suffer greatly as soon as the water heating stops. Organic waste, nutrients and heat become an obstacle to the normal development of freshwater ecological systems only when they overload these systems.

But in recent years, ecological systems have been bombarded with huge amounts of completely alien substances, from which they have no protection. Pesticides used in agriculture, metals and chemicals from industrial wastewater have managed to enter the aquatic food chain, which can have unpredictable consequences. Species at the beginning of the food chain can accumulate these substances in dangerous concentrations and become even more vulnerable to other harmful effects.

Polluted water can be purified. Under favorable conditions, this occurs naturally through the natural water cycle. But polluted basins—rivers, lakes, etc.—take much longer to recover. In order for natural systems to recover, it is necessary, first of all, to stop the further flow of waste into rivers. Industrial emissions not only clog, but also poison wastewater.

Despite everything, some urban households and industrial enterprises still prefer to dump waste into neighboring rivers and are very reluctant to abandon this only when the water becomes completely unusable or even dangerous.

Impact of waste from wood processing enterprises on the environment

4. Environmental problems associated with emissions from wood processing enterprises

Water resource

1. The importance of water resources for the environment and people

For the environment The importance of a water resource for the aquatic environment is that it provides useful substances, vitamins, minerals; water contains many microelements that can help soil and trees grow...

Exposure to low doses of radiation

5.

Problems associated with regulating radiation exposure

The outstanding Swedish radiobiologist R.M. Siewert came to the conclusion back in 1950 that there is no threshold level for the effect of radiation on living organisms. The threshold level is...

Geoecological problems of exploration and development of mineral deposits

1.

The main problems associated with geological exploration work

From a life planning perspective, there are two main approaches to environmental protection: from a hazard and resource perspective. In other words, a person must take into account the potential dangers...

Hygienic requirements for drinking water quality

2. Problems related to drinking water

Environmental pollution from waste from fish processing plants

2.1 Environmental problems associated with the generation of fish waste

The Federal Law “On the Sanitary and Epidemiological Welfare of the Population” dated March 30, 1999 No. 52-FZ regulates the sanitary and epidemiological requirements for the collection, use, neutralization, transportation...

Protection of land resources from negative natural and anthropogenic processes

2.

Land resources and problems associated with them

Drinking water quality and public health

In Russia, the problem of providing the population with good-quality drinking water remains unresolved, and in a number of regions it has become a crisis.

Of the volume of water supplied to the population, 68% is occupied by surface water sources...

Drinking water quality and human health

1.2 Problems related to drinking water

In Russia, the problem of providing the population with good-quality drinking water remains unresolved, and in a number of regions it has become a crisis. Of the volume of water supplied to the population, 68% is occupied by surface water sources...

Weakening Hotelling's conditions in the theory of non-renewable natural resources

2.2 Impact of an alternative inexhaustible resource on the exploitation of an exhaustible natural resource

The higher (compared to economic) importance of the environmental criterion and the desire to preserve the environment impose strict restrictions on the volumes of mineral resource extraction.

In this case, NTP comes into play and then the need...

Concept and consequences of urbanization

2. Environmental problems associated with urban growth

Increasing population density. 2. In large cities, insolation (the amount of solar energy) is reduced by 15%. 3. The amount of precipitation increases. 4. The amount of fog increases (by 30% in summer and 100% in winter). 5…

Concept and causes of environmental crisis

1.3 Problems associated with anthropogenic impact on the biosphere

The global processes of formation and movement of living things in the biosphere are determined by the circulation of huge masses of matter and colossal flows of energy.

Processes occurring with the participation of living matter...

The current state of nature in Belarus: subsoil and mineral resources

2. Environmental issues associated with mineral resource development

The upper part of the lithosphere is subject to intense technogenic impact as a result of human economic activity, including during geological exploration and development of mineral deposits...

Environmental problems associated with oil and gas production in Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug

3) Environmental problems associated with oil and gas production in the district.

In the process of developing oil and gas fields, the most active impact on the natural environment is carried out within the territories of the fields themselves, the routes of linear structures (primarily main pipelines)…

Environmental risks associated with the exploitation of oil fields

Environmental risks associated with the exploitation of oil fields

Environmental risk is understood as the likelihood of adverse environmental consequences of any changes in natural objects and factors...

General state of Russia's ecology

Volley and emergency releases of harmful substances into the Earth's atmosphere are gradually becoming more frequent. And the air basins of cities such as Krasnoyarsk, Moscow, Novosibirsk and Arkhangelsk have the highest levels of pollution.

It is noted that the acidification of atmospheric precipitation and emissions of sulfur dioxide have become more frequent. This is due to the fact that emissions do not only relate to Russian enterprises; they are often due to transboundary transfer.

Also, environmental problems are associated with water resources, since due to the rapid development of civilization they are changing rapidly.

Water problems

Problems associated with increased water tension are highlighted.

This is due to the fact that water resources are not evenly distributed throughout Russia, and in those regions where there are enough water resources, they are all involved in national economic activities. This and many other factors lead to water loss.

Another environmental problem is the pollution of surface waters, which is caused by the entry of huge amounts of pollutants with wastewater.

Water bodies in Russia are subject to anthropogenic influence, and this leads to the fact that they cannot meet regulatory requirements.

To solve this environmentally difficult situation, it is necessary to increase the number of treatment facilities, since their number does not yet correspond to the volume of contaminated water.

In addition, there is a constant decrease in the water content of large rivers and massive death of small rivers, which significantly affects the ecological state of many cities and contributes to the deterioration of the economic situation.

For a long time, groundwater reserves have been depleted and become polluted, and one of the key and most dangerous problems for human health is the deterioration of the quality of drinking water.

More than half of the population is forced to use water resources that do not meet standards for various water indicators.

As a result of all of the above, the seas are polluted, which impairs the reproduction of fish stocks.

Land resource problems

Environmental problems are also associated with land degradation. The main forest resources of Russia are used irrationally and ill-considered; the amount of waste during use and logging is not controlled.

Forest areas are being depleted from an atmosphere polluted by harmful industrial waste. This leads to the degradation of vegetation cover, which is extremely important for the development of many types of agriculture.

The species fund of flora and fauna is also being depleted; many species of animals and plants are in danger of extinction.

At the moment, 16-18% of the total territory of Russia is identified, which is a zone of environmental crisis.

This leads to a decrease in life expectancy and a general deterioration in the health of Russians.

Solutions to environmental problems and the role of geography

For a balanced solution to environmental problems, first of all, it is necessary to move to the sustainable development of all spheres of life, including stabilization of the environmental situation.

Geography, as a science, must have a structured approach to solving environmental problems.

The greening of economic activity must be carried out; for this, structural and institutional transformations must be formed to ensure the formation of a new, more ecological economic model.

It is important that the economic capacity of the country’s ecosystems be assessed and the permissible anthropogenic impact on them determined.

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Recirculating and closed water systems

Intensive development of industry and agricultural production, an increase in the level of improvement of cities and towns, and significant population growth have led to a shortage and sharp deterioration in the quality of water resources in almost all regions of Russia in recent decades.

One of the main ways to meet society's needs for water is the engineering reproduction of water resources, i.e.

their restoration and increase not only quantitatively, but also qualitatively.

The prospects for rational reproduction of technological water consumption are associated with the creation of re-sequential, recycling and closed water supply systems at enterprises.

They are based on the amazing property of water, which allows it not to change its physical essence after participating in production processes.

Russian industry is characterized by a high level of development of recycling water supply systems, due to which the saving of fresh water spent on production needs averages 78%.

The best indicators of using circulating systems are in the gas (97%), oil refining (95%) industries, ferrous metallurgy (94%), chemical and petrochemical (91%) industries, and mechanical engineering (85%).

Maximum water consumption in circulating and re-sequential water supply systems is typical for the Ural, Central, Volga and West Siberian economic regions.

In Russia as a whole, the ratio of the volumes of fresh and recycled water use is 35.5 and 64.5%, respectively.

The widespread introduction of advanced water circulation systems (even closed ones) can not only solve the problem of water supply to consumers, but also preserve natural water sources in an environmentally friendly state.

Use of water resources

In recent years, due to economic destabilization, which led to a drop in industrial output, a decrease in agricultural productivity and a reduction in irrigated areas, there has been a decrease in water consumption in Russia (from 1991 to 1995).

fresh water - by 20.6%, sea water - by 13.4%). The structure of fresh water use has also changed: water consumption for industrial needs decreased by 4% (from 53% in 1991 to 49% in 1995), for irrigation and water supply - by 3% (from 19 to 16%), at the same time the share of domestic drinking water supply increased by 4% (from 16 to 20%).

The volume of fresh water use in Russia amounted to 75780.4 million m3/year, sea water - 4975.9 million m3/year.

Municipal water supply

Russia's public utilities supply the water needs of the urban population, municipal, transport and other non-industrial enterprises, as well as water consumption for the improvement of populated areas, watering streets and extinguishing fires.

A distinctive feature of public utilities is the consistency of water consumption and strict requirements for water quality.

The main volume (84-86%) of consumed water is used for household and drinking needs of the population; on average in Russia, specific water consumption per city resident is 367-369 l/day.

About 99% of cities, 82% of urban settlements, 19.5% of settlements in rural areas are provided with centralized water supply.

The improvement of urban housing stock on average across the country is characterized by the following indicators: provision of central water supply - 83.8%, sewerage - 81.4%, central heating - 84.7%, baths and showers - 76.7%, hot water supply - 70.8% (data for 1996).

Industry enterprises discharge about 13 km 3/year of wastewater into surface water bodies; for various reasons, insufficiently purified water predominates in the structure of discharged water.

In the whole country, about 70% of all supplied water is pre-passed through treatment systems.

Due to the unfavorable state of drinking water supply sources and the imperfection of the water treatment system, the problem of water quality continues to be acute.

Standard treatment facilities, including a two-stage scheme of clarification, decolorization and disinfection, cannot cope with the increasing loads of new pollutants (heavy metals; pesticides, halogen-containing compounds, phenols, formaldehydes). Chlorination of water containing organic substances that accumulate in water sources leads to secondary pollution and the formation of carcinogenic organochlorine compounds.

About 70% of industrial enterprises discharge wastewater into public sewers, which, in particular, contains salts of heavy metals and toxic substances.

The sludge formed during the treatment of such wastewater cannot be used in agriculture, which creates problems with its disposal.

Industrial water supply

Industrial water supply, which ensures the functioning of technological processes, is the leading area of ​​water use. Industrial water supply systems include hydraulic structures for collecting process water and delivering it to enterprises, as well as water treatment systems.

The industrial potential of each economic region of the Russian Federation is represented by almost all major industries.

There are also areas where very specific industries are predominantly concentrated. For example, 46% of light industry production is concentrated in the Central Economic Region, the Ural Economic Region accounts for about 70% of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy products, and the West Siberian Region accounts for 46% of the fuel industry.

The volume of water consumption depends on the structure of industrial enterprises, the level of technology, and the measures taken to save water.

The most water-intensive industries are thermal power engineering, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering, petrochemical and wood processing industries.

The most water-intensive industry, the electric power industry, accounts for about 68% of the total consumption of fresh water and 51% of recycled water.

Since the majority of industrial facilities are concentrated in large cities, combined industrial and communal water supply systems have gained priority in Russia, which, in turn, leads to unreasonably high costs for industrial needs of drinking quality water (up to 30-40% of the daily supply of city water supply systems) .

Industrial enterprises are the main source of surface water pollution, annually discharging large amounts of waste water (in 1996.

- 35.5 km’). Wastewater from the chemical, petrochemical, oil refining, pulp and paper and coal industries is especially diverse in its properties and chemical composition.

Despite the sufficient capacity of treatment facilities, only 83-85% of discharged wastewater meets regulatory requirements. In the structure of discharged waters containing pollutants above the standard level, discharge without treatment currently amounts to 23% (28% in 1991); the remaining waters are discharged insufficiently purified.

Agricultural water supply

In rural areas, water supply is carried out mainly through local systems and through individual provision of water users.

Local water supply systems are very dependent on the quality of water in the sources and, if necessary, are equipped with special structures. In areas with high rural population density, group systems are used.

For the needs of the industry, about 28% of the total volume of water withdrawn is taken from natural water sources.

Among agricultural sectors, the main consumer of fresh water and a major polluter of surface water bodies, discharging untreated wastewater through the collector and drainage network, is irrigated agriculture.

A serious danger to surface water bodies is the removal of fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural fields.

Another large consumer of water and a powerful source of pollution of surface and groundwater are livestock complexes for raising cattle, pigs, and poultry. Purification of livestock wastewater is associated with great difficulties, since it must be kept in storage ponds for a long time before being discharged into water bodies.

Water transport

Water transport is perhaps the most ancient water user.

Up to 50 million tons of cargo are transported along Russia's inland waterways (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, canals), with a total length of over 400 thousand km.

When using rivers and other water bodies for navigation, it is necessary to maintain guaranteed depths, flow regimes and other conditions that ensure the uninterrupted operation of water transport during the navigation period.

In a number of cases, the interests of water transport conflict with the interests of other water users and consumers, such as water supply, irrigation, and hydropower.

For example, hydraulic construction, on the one hand, makes it possible to increase the depth and width of the waterway, eliminate rapids, and on the other hand, it introduces serious complications into the operation of water transport by reducing the duration of the navigation period, sharp daily and weekly fluctuations in flow rates and water levels in the downstream of hydroelectric power stations. .

Water transport, without placing high demands on water quality, is one of the significant sources of pollution of water bodies with oil products and suspended substances.

Timber rafting has a very adverse effect on the ecological state of water bodies, changing the natural state of riverbeds, clogging water bodies with submerged wood, and destroying spawning areas.

Fisheries

Fisheries are directly related to the use of water resources and place very high demands on their regime, quantity and quality.

For successful reproduction and normal development of fish, clean water with a sufficient amount of dissolved oxygen and the absence of harmful impurities, appropriate temperature and food supply are necessary. Water quality standards for fisheries are more stringent than for drinking water supplies.

In Russia, about 30% of catches in inland seas and reservoirs are freshwater fish (pike, bream, pike perch, roach, perch, carp, whitefish, stellate sturgeon, beluga, salmon, chum salmon, pink salmon).

In recent years, there has been a decline in catches, which is due to a decrease in the productivity of fisheries as a result of intense anthropogenic impact.

The increase in fish reproduction is carried out through artificial fish breeding in fish hatcheries, spawning and nursery farms, and fish hatcheries.

A very promising direction is the cultivation of fish in cooling ponds of thermal power plants.

Recreation

Water bodies are a favorite place for recreation, sports, and people’s health. Almost all recreational institutions and structures are located either on the banks of water bodies or near them. In recent years, the scale of recreational activities on water bodies has been constantly growing, facilitated by an increase in the urban population and improved transport communications.

In the Russian Federation, about 60% of all sanatoriums and over 80% of recreational facilities are located on the banks of reservoirs.

60% of tourist centers and 90% of recreational facilities for the largest suburban holiday in the country.

Water resources (table of contents)
State of the World's Water Resources >>

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Date: 09/01/2011
“Construction Complex Predictor” No. 72
Subject: ***

Current problems of water consumption: who is to blame and what to do?

Scientists warn

Over the past 40 years, the amount of fresh water on the planet has decreased by 60%.

Today, 2 billion people live with limited drinking water, and the industries with the highest water consumption are only increasing their production. This situation was prepared by the President of the International Atomic Energy Agency, honorary ecologist of the Russian Federation, Doctor of Technical Sciences, prof. Dr. V. A. Rogalev. In particular, he noted that Russia is the second largest in the world in terms of drinking water reserves (according to Brazil), but uses only about 2%.

At the same time, only about 10% of water is lost annually in industry due to outdated, low-quality pipes. According to the scientist, if we begin to use efficient water consumption technologies, annual costs for these needs can be reduced from 180 to 25 billion.

dollars.

Every year, due to water pollution, the state suffers 70 billion losses, and fines are issued only for 500 million rubles. The main polluters are industrial enterprises (63%), utilities (25%) and agriculture (11%).

In addition, V.A. Rogalev emphasized that more than half of the Russian population uses low-quality drinking water, which naturally affects the health of citizens. For example, in the Northwestern Federal District, the list of water supply networks was only 40% completed, only 1% of groundwater reserves met the requirements of class 1, 21% - a danger to the population, the scientist said.

President of the Council of the Professional Association of Healthcare Workers in St. Petersburg Petersburg, Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor A.

A. Radko supported his colleague and confirmed that more than 50% of the population of the Russian Federation consumes water that does not meet sanitary and hygienic requirements and lives in environmentally unfavorable areas.

More than 20% of samples of municipal and departmental plumbing do not meet hygienic standards for chemical indicators, and 10-15% of samples are microbiological.

Thus, the Leningrad region is one of the last places in Russia in terms of the quality of drinking water consumed.

According to scientists, it is necessary to create new technologies that mitigate the negative consequences for water systems and provide safe living conditions for the population, overcome the systemic crisis in the water sector, and check the rules for construction near water.

Like A.A. Rarely, in St. Petersburg, only in Suzdal Lake, more than 100 violations of building codes were identified.

In addition, the professor said that the water safety system created in Soviet times is now in a depressed situation.

Of the 10 billion rubles allocated for these purposes annually, only 1.5 are developed. This is due to the fragmented nature of the fund management system and the ownership of water structures for different forms of ownership. Rarely. Thus, about 2,000 buildings belong to the state, 7.6 thousand belong to non-state buildings, and 4,000 buildings are usually considered orphans. According to the speaker, every year there are 60 accidents with damage ranging from 2 to 10 billion.

ruble, the maximum damage could be up to 300 billion rubles. According to the Deputy Head of the Supervisory Board of Rosneft St. Petersburg A.V. Meltser, the unfavorable situation with the quality of drinking water in St. Petersburg and Leningrad is associated with microbiological indicators of the Neva water, which are sometimes worse than other water sources in the Russian Federation.

This is due to the unsatisfactory situation in coastal areas, the presence of direct domestic, domestic, industrial and waste water, and the failure to take into account the sanitary protection of water supplies outside the city.

At the same time, the St. Petersburg region is implementing a targeted program aimed at preventing the consequences of pollution, and one of its main advantages is the introduction of ultraviolet disinfection systems that help citizens protect themselves from virus contamination.

However, the lack of control over the activities of housing services leads to the fact that the consumer does not receive high-quality drinking water due to the deterioration of the water supply network, since the city has about 71%, he adds. So, due to control of the quality of drinking water in 2009 and 9 months of 2010, which were in St. Petersburg, more than 1000, 307 fines were issued and several criminal offenses were committed. There is one more problem, A.V.

Meltzer - weak mineralization of Neva water. After the absence of micro- and macroelements, it causes an increase in cardiovascular diseases and diseases of the musculoskeletal system.

Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the composition of water for residents of St. Petersburg.

Violations are not decreasing

Representatives of law enforcement agencies discussed violations in the field of water legislation at a round table. Thus, Deputy Prosecutor of the Leningrad Region, Senior Adviser of Justice P.F. Panfilov noted that in addition to the large number of companies that threaten environmental protection located in the Leningrad region, conditions are affected by unregulated recreation areas for citizens and the construction of water protection zones.

He also noted that the number of environmental violations is increasing every year.

60 percent of violations in the field of environmental protection are caused by violations of water law, 90 percent of violations are mediated by them, said the prosecutor of the Environmental Prosecutor's Office in St. Petersburg. Petersburg, southern legal adviser Yu.V.

Pikhtyreva. She said that without testing water samples from enterprises, she approved the discharge of wastewater into the Neva (66 companies - 90 issues) and the Nevsky Bay of the Gulf of Finland (18 companies - 60 issues), did not produce the results of the relevant rules. Moreover, the acceptable standards were disastrous.

The Environmental Prosecutor's Office in St. Petersburg, together with the Nature Conservation Committee, has introduced a program to register all wastewater discharges.

As a young justice adviser said, “Today there are many unreported problems and it is not known what is happening in this.” Although the implementation of these measures requires high labor costs and financing, the prosecutor believes that they will definitely be implemented.

The problem of discharging untreated wastewater from factories is further complicated by the fact that fines for such violations are very low and environmental protection measures are expensive.

Today, about 95% of wastewater treatment plants located in city enterprises are ineffective and require repair. “Now the environmental prosecutor’s office will file a lawsuit to restore these structures,” the expert said.

The prosecutor also indicated that companies that issued rights to use water bodies must install meters at all water levels and discharges, but a September inspection showed that “rare companies have them installed.”

Those who do not equip their devices with such devices will receive claims from the Yu.V. Prosecutor's Office. Pikhtyreva.

A very sad situation at the facilities of the Leningrad Military District was described by the Deputy Military Prosecutor of the Leningrad Military District, Colonel of Justice S.

S. Skrabets. Thus, of the 45 integrated processing facilities located at the LVO location, only 9 are in satisfactory condition. He also noted that 11 processing enterprises are required for major repairs, 18 need reconstruction, and 16 more buildings. Today, about 73% of wastewater has been dealt with without compliance. According to the deputy. The military prosecutor will transfer at least 1.5 billion rubles to transfer these items to the appropriate state.

One pollutes one and the other pays for it

Municipal sewer systems are not designed to handle some contaminants.

Industrial companies are expected to treat wastewater of such substances themselves and then send the wastewater to the municipal sewer system. Unfortunately, this does not always happen. About 2,000 Vodokanal subscribers violate the requirements for wastewater treatment and discard them without clarification, said Yu.V., director of contracts with subscribers of the State Unitary Enterprise Vodokanal in St. Petersburg.

V. Artemyev.

At the same time, Vodokanal does not have the right to pursue industrial enterprises that discharge wastewater into sewers, she added.

And since effective mechanisms influence performers who do not exist at hydraulic structures in St. Petersburg or on water canals in other cities, water management companies bear responsibility for the pollution of water bodies.

At the same time, real pollutants usually do not react to the state of the polluted environment. So, there is a situation where someone pollutes and someone else pays for it.

This does not lead to an improvement in the quality of wastewater, nor to a reduction in pollution of water bodies.

St. Petersburg Vodokanal and its colleagues from the National Union of Watercourses believe that the “polluter pays” principle should be legally defined.

As director of legal assistance of the State Unitary Enterprise "Vodokanal of St. Petersburg" M.

B. Gass, now a working group of the Ministry of Regional Development of the Russian Federation (participation in it, including experts VODOKANAL, National Association of Plumbers, Russian Water Association), draft federal law “On Water Supply and Sewerage”. It proposes a clear definition of the responsibility of water supply and sewerage organizations (WSS) for the discharge of pollutants into water bodies.

In this case, water treatment organizations will be responsible for meeting standards for a clearly defined list of indicators for which municipal wastewater treatment plants are designed. In this case, the discharge of pollutants into water bodies with a centralized sewer system must be recognized as a negative impact on water bodies - by identifying the subscribers responsible for the excessive quality of wastewater.

Water resources and problems of their rational use

Water resources and their use. Water occupies a special position among the natural resources of the Earth. The famous Russian and Soviet geologist Academician A.P. Karpinsky said that there is no more precious mineral than water, without which life is impossible.

The basis of Russia's water resources is river flow, which averages 4262 km3 per year, of which about 90% falls in the basins of the Arctic and Pacific oceans. The basins of the Caspian and Azov Seas, where over 80% of Russia's population lives and its main industrial and agricultural potential is concentrated, account for less than 8% of the total river flow.

Currently, the availability of water per person per day varies in different countries of the world. In a number of countries with developed economies, the threat of water shortages is imminent. The shortage of fresh water on earth is growing exponentially. However, there are promising sources of fresh water - icebergs born from the glaciers of Antarctica and Greenland.

A person cannot live without water. Water is one of the most important factors determining the location of productive forces, and very often a means of production. The increase in water consumption by industry is associated not only with its rapid development, but also with an increase in water consumption per unit of production. For example, factories spend 250 m3 of water to produce 1 ton of cotton fabric. The chemical industry requires a lot of water. Thus, the production of 1 ton of ammonia requires about 1000 m3 of water.

Modern large thermal power plants consume huge amounts of water. Only one station with a capacity of 300 thousand kW consumes up to 120 m3/s, or more than 300 million m3 per year. Gross water consumption for these stations will increase approximately 9-10 times in the future.

One of the most significant water consumers is agriculture. It is the largest water consumer in the water management system. Growing 1 ton of wheat requires 1,500 m3 of water during the growing season, 1 ton of rice requires more than 7,000 m3. The high productivity of irrigated lands has stimulated a sharp increase in the area worldwide - it is now equal to 200 million hectares. Constituting about 1/6 of the total crop area, irrigated lands provide approximately half of agricultural products.

A special place in the use of water resources is occupied by water consumption for the needs of the population. Household and drinking purposes in our country account for about 10% of water consumption. At the same time, uninterrupted water supply, as well as strict adherence to scientifically based sanitary and hygienic standards, are mandatory.

The use of water for economic purposes is one of the links in the water cycle in nature. But the anthropogenic link of the cycle differs from the natural one in that during the process of evaporation, part of the water used by humans returns to the atmosphere desalinated. The other part (which, for example, makes up 90% for water supply to cities and most industrial enterprises) is discharged into water bodies in the form of wastewater contaminated with industrial waste.

According to the State Water Cadastre, the total water intake from natural water bodies in 1995 amounted to 96.9 km3. More than 70 km3 was used for the needs of the national economy, including for:

industrial water supply – 46 km3;

irrigation – 13.1 km3;

agricultural water supply – 3.9 km3;

other needs – 7.5 km3.

Industry needs were met by 23% by drawing water from natural water bodies and by 77% by a system of recycling and re-sequential water supply.

Drinking water supply. The basic principles of drinking water supply are:

state guarantees of priority provision of drinking water to citizens in order to meet their vital needs and protect their health;

state control and regulation of drinking water supply issues, accountability of organizations responsible for drinking water supply to executive authorities and local governments, as well as state supervision and control authorities, civil defense and emergency authorities within their competence;

ensuring the safety, reliability and controllability of drinking water supply systems, taking into account their technological features and the selection of a water supply source based on uniform standards and regulations in force in the Russian Federation, priority use of underground sources for drinking water supply;

accounting and payment for drinking water supply;

state support for the production and supply of equipment, materials for drinking water supply, as well as chemicals for water purification and disinfection;

classifying drinking water supply systems as important life support facilities.

It is of great importance to meet the needs of the population for drinking water in their places of residence through centralized or non-centralized drinking water supply systems.

In the Russian Federation, centralized water supply systems operate in 1,052 cities (99% of the total number of cities) and 1,785 urban-type settlements (81%). However, in many cities there is a lack of water supply capacity. In Russia as a whole, the shortage of water supply capacity exceeds 10 million m3/day, or 10% of the installed capacity.

The sources of centralized water supply are surface water, the share of which in the total volume of water intake is 68%, and groundwater – 32%.

Almost all surface water supplies have been exposed to harmful anthropogenic pollution in recent years, especially rivers such as the Volga, Don, Northern Dvina, Ufa, Tobol, Tom and other rivers of Siberia and the Far East. 70% of surface waters and 30% of underground waters have lost their drinking value and moved into the categories of pollution - “conditionally clean” and “dirty”. Almost 70% of the population of the Russian Federation consume water that does not comply with GOST “Drinking water”.

Over the past 10 years, the volume of financing for water management activities in Russia has been reduced 11 times. As a result, the conditions of water supply to the population worsened.

The processes of degradation of surface water bodies are increasing due to the discharge of contaminated wastewater into them by enterprises and facilities of housing and communal services, petrochemical, oil, gas, coal, meat, forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries, as well as ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, sewerage collection - drainage water from irrigated lands contaminated with toxic chemicals and pesticides.

The depletion of river water resources continues under the influence of economic activities. The possibilities of irreversible water withdrawal in the basins of the Kuban, Don, Terek, Ural, Iset, Miass and a number of other rivers have been practically exhausted.

The condition of small rivers is unfavorable, especially in areas of large industrial centers. Significant damage to small rivers is caused in rural areas due to violation of the special regime of economic activity in water protection zones and coastal protective strips, leading to river pollution, as well as soil loss as a result of water erosion.

Pollution of groundwater used for water supply is increasing. About 1,200 foci of groundwater pollution have been identified in the Russian Federation, of which 86% are located in the European part. Deterioration in water quality was noted in 76 cities and towns, at 175 water intakes. Many underground sources, especially those supplying large cities in the Central, Central Black Earth, North Caucasus and other regions, are severely depleted, as evidenced by a decrease in the sanitary water level, in some places reaching tens of meters.

The total consumption of contaminated water at water intakes is 5-6% of the total amount of groundwater used for domestic and drinking water supply.

About 500 sites have been discovered in Russia where groundwater is contaminated with sulfates, chlorides, compounds of nitrogen, copper, zinc, lead, cadmium, and mercury, the levels of which are tens of times higher than the maximum permissible concentration.

Due to increased pollution of water sources, traditionally used water treatment technologies are in most cases insufficiently effective. The efficiency of water treatment is negatively affected by the shortage of reagents and the low level of equipment of water stations, automation and control devices. The situation is aggravated by the fact that 40% of the internal surfaces of pipelines are corroded and covered with rust, therefore, during transportation, the quality of water further deteriorates.

State control and supervision in the field of drinking water supply is carried out by bodies and institutions of the state sanitary and epidemiological service in interaction with state environmental control bodies and state bodies for managing the use and protection of the water fund. Accounting for the amount of water consumed from centralized drinking water supply systems is carried out by housing and communal services authorities.

Drinking water supply development programs are an integral part of the socio-economic development plans of the territories. The design, construction and reconstruction of centralized and non-centralized drinking water supply systems are carried out in accordance with the calculated indicators of master plans for the development of territories, building codes and regulations, state standards, sanitary rules and norms. At the same time, the requirements for ensuring the reliability of these systems when exposed to destabilizing factors of natural (landslides, flooding, aquifer depletion, etc.) and man-made origin must be taken into account.

The main consumer of water is the population (81%), 11% is used in industry, and the rest in the domestic sector.

The state enterprise Mosvodokanal has developed and is implementing, with the support of the Moscow government, a comprehensive program for the rational use of water. It is technically possible to reach a consumption rate of 180-200 liters per day per person. In 1997, as a result of the establishment of municipal services, water consumption per Muscovite decreased by 10%. It is planned to include funding for water saving measures in the Moscow budget.

To eliminate drinking water leaks, Mosvodokanal has developed a device with ceramic gaskets. Experiments on replacing old plumbing fixtures have shown that specific water consumption is reduced from 396 to 216 liters in houses built in 1990 and from 628 to 382 liters in 1962. Modernization and installation of all equipment using Mosvodokanal developments made it possible to reduce electricity consumption by half and almost by Reduce hot water consumption by 20%.

Classification of water uses. For water use, the following classification criteria are established: purposes of water use; water use facilities; technical conditions for water use; conditions for providing water bodies for use; nature of water use; method of using water bodies; impact of water use on water bodies.

According to the purposes of water use, they are divided into household and drinking, municipal needs of the population, for medical, resort and health purposes, agricultural needs, irrigation and water supply, industrial needs, heat power needs, territorial redistribution of surface water flow and replenishment of groundwater reserves, hydropower needs, needs water transport and timber rafting, fisheries needs, wastewater discharge, other needs, multi-purpose water use.

Based on water use objects, waters are divided into surface, underground, internal, and sea.

According to the technical conditions of water use - general and special.

According to the conditions for providing water bodies for water use - joint and separate.

By the nature of its use, water is considered as a substance with certain properties, as mass and energy potential, and as a living environment.

According to the method of using water bodies - with water withdrawal (with and without return), without water withdrawal.

According to the impact of water use on water bodies - quantitative and qualitative.

Sources of water pollution. Sources of pollution are recognized as objects from which discharge or otherwise enter water bodies of harmful substances that worsen the quality of surface waters, limit their use, and also negatively affect the condition of the bottom and coastal water bodies.

The protection of water bodies from pollution is carried out by regulating the activities of both stationary and other sources of pollution.

On the territory of Russia, almost all water bodies are subject to anthropogenic influence. The water quality in most of them does not meet regulatory requirements. Long-term observations of the dynamics of surface water quality have revealed a tendency towards an increase in their pollution. Every year the number of sites with high levels of water pollution (more than 10 MPC) and the number of cases of extremely high pollution of water bodies (over 100 MPC) increases.

The main sources of pollution of water bodies are enterprises of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries, pulp and paper, and light industry.

Land water pollution. Microbial water pollution occurs as a result of the entry of pathogenic microorganisms into water bodies. Thermal water pollution is also identified as a result of the influx of heated wastewater.

Pollutants can be divided into several groups. Based on their physical state, they distinguish between insoluble, colloidal and soluble impurities. In addition, contaminants are divided into mineral, organic, bacterial and biological.

The degree of danger of pesticide drift during the treatment of agricultural land depends on the method of application and the form of the drug. With ground processing, the risk of polluting water bodies is less. During aerial treatment, the drug can be carried hundreds of meters by air currents and deposited on untreated areas and the surface of water bodies.

Reservoirs and hydraulic structures. In the hydrographic network of Russia, artificial reservoirs - reservoirs (reservoirs of slow water exchange) are playing an increasingly important role, designed to equalize and regulate flow, as well as ensure the operation of power plants, irrigation systems, etc. In order to balance the supply of water resources, Russia has implemented a broad program of water management and hydropower construction. At the same time, the regulation of rivers with dams and the formation of reservoirs also has negative sides.

In 1997, the government of the Russian Federation adopted a resolution “On the procedure for operating reservoirs.” The Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, together with the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the federation and organizations whose activities affect the ecological state of reservoirs, ensures, in accordance with the established procedure, the development and implementation in agreement with the territorial bodies of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food of the Russian Federation, the State Committee for Environmental Protection, the Federal Service forestry, state sanitary and epidemiological surveillance authorities and other interested organizations anti-erosion, forestry and other measures to prevent water erosion of soils, pollution, clogging, siltation and depletion of reservoirs, maintaining a favorable water regime and water quality, improving conditions for water use by the population and animal habitats and plants.

Maintenance of reservoirs provided for special use in proper technical and sanitary condition is carried out by the organizations in whose use they are located.

Hydraulic structures include dams, hydroelectric power station buildings, drainage, drainage and water outlet structures, tunnels, canals, pumping stations, shipping locks, ship lifts, structures designed to protect against floods and destruction of the banks of reservoirs, banks and river bottoms, structures (dams), enclosing storage facilities for liquid waste from industrial and agricultural organizations, anti-erosion devices on canals, as well as other structures for using water resources and preventing the harmful effects of water and liquid waste.

On the territory of Russia there are 3 thousand reservoirs and several hundred reservoirs of industrial wastewater and waste, belonging to different forms of ownership, belonging to various ministries and departments. Up to 12% of them have been in operation without reconstruction for more than 50 years

The deterioration and aging of fixed assets in the water sector, the liquidation of a number of management bodies, the emergence of various forms of ownership, and the lack of proper supervision over safe operation make it increasingly possible to break through reservoir dams and wastewater storage tanks, which can lead to catastrophic consequences and threaten the natural basis of human life.

Based on the statistics of accidents at dams (1% of their total number), it can be assumed that in the coming years, due to wear and tear of fixed assets, up to 10-15 accidents with catastrophic consequences may occur at hydraulic structures. According to Roskomvod, about 12% of pressure hydraulic structures of reservoirs and about 20% of liquid industrial waste storage tanks are in emergency or pre-emergency condition. First of all, this applies to the Krasnodar hydroelectric complex, Shershnevsky, Argazinsky, Dolgobrodsky, and Kyshtym hydroelectric complexes in the Chelyabinsk region, Pravdinsky in the Kaliningrad region, Kuzminsky hydroelectric complex on the Oka in the Moscow region and a number of other similar structures.

Many tailings and sludge dumps are filled above design levels, which can lead to serious consequences. The task is to neutralize toxic substances in industrial waste entering these storage facilities and to ensure systematic control over the purity of water discharged from tailings storage facilities into open water bodies.

In the last two or three years, due to financial problems, repair and maintenance work on a number of reservoirs listed on the balance sheet of metallurgical plants has practically ceased. Meanwhile, they are in a pre-emergency and emergency condition and require complete restoration and major repairs.

The Federal Law “Law on the Safety of Hydraulic Structures” regulates relations arising during the design, construction, commissioning, restoration, conservation and liquidation of hydraulic structures; establishes the responsibilities of public authorities, owners of hydraulic structures and operating structures.

Self-purification of reservoirs. Each body of water is a complex system inhabited by bacteria, higher aquatic plants, and various invertebrate animals. Their combined activity ensures the self-purification of water bodies. One of the environmental tasks is to support the ability of self-purification of water bodies from impurities.

Factors of self-purification of water bodies can be divided into three groups: physical, chemical and biological.

Among the physical factors, dilution, dissolution and mixing of incoming contaminants are of paramount importance. Good mixing and reduced concentrations of suspended particles are ensured by the fast flow of rivers. The self-purification of reservoirs is facilitated by the settling of insoluble sediments to the bottom, as well as the settling of polluted waters. In zones with a temperate climate, the river cleans itself after 200-300 km from the place of pollution, and in the Far North – after 2 thousand km.

Water disinfection occurs under the influence of ultraviolet radiation from the sun. The disinfection effect is achieved by the direct destructive effect of ultraviolet rays on protein colloids and enzymes of the protoplasm of microbial cells, as well as spore organisms and viruses.

Among the chemical factors of self-purification of reservoirs, oxidation of organic and inorganic substances should be noted. The self-purification of a reservoir is often assessed in relation to easily oxidized organic matter or by the total content of organic matter.

The sanitary regime of a reservoir is characterized primarily by the amount of oxygen dissolved in it. It should be at least 4 mg per 1 liter of water at any time of the year for reservoirs of the first and second types. The first type includes reservoirs used for drinking water supply to enterprises, the second type includes those used for swimming, sporting events, and those located within populated areas.

Biological factors of self-purification of a reservoir include algae, mold and yeast. However, phytoplankton does not always have a positive effect on self-purification processes: in some cases, the massive development of blue-green algae in artificial reservoirs can be considered a process of self-pollution.

Representatives of the animal world can also contribute to the self-purification of water bodies from bacteria and viruses. Thus, the oyster and some other amoebas adsorb intestinal and other viruses. Each mollusk filters more than 30 liters of water per day.

The cleanliness of water bodies is unthinkable without protecting their vegetation. Only on the basis of deep knowledge of the ecology of each reservoir and effective control over the development of the various living organisms inhabiting it can positive results be achieved, transparency and high biological productivity of rivers, lakes and reservoirs ensured.

Other factors also adversely affect the self-purification processes of water bodies. Chemical pollution of water bodies with industrial wastewater, nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, etc.) inhibits natural oxidative processes and kills microorganisms. The same applies to the discharge of thermal wastewater by thermal power plants.

A multi-stage process, sometimes extending over a long time, is self-purification of oil. Under natural conditions, the complex of physical processes of self-purification of water from oil consists of a number of components: evaporation; settling of lumps, especially those overloaded with sediment and dust; sticking together of lumps suspended in the water column; floating of lumps forming a film with inclusions of water and air; reducing the concentrations of suspended and dissolved oil due to settling, floating and mixing with clean water. The intensity of these processes depends on the properties of a particular type of oil (density, viscosity, coefficient of thermal expansion), the presence of colloids, suspended and transportable plankton particles, etc. in water, air temperature and solar illumination.

Sanitary conditions for wastewater discharge. Reservoirs and watercourses (water bodies) are considered polluted if the composition and properties of water in them have changed under the direct or indirect influence of industrial activities and domestic use by the population and have become partially or completely unsuitable for one of the types of water use. The suitability of the composition and properties of surface waters used for domestic and drinking water supply and cultural and everyday needs of the population, as well as for fishery purposes, is determined by their compliance with the requirements and standards at the same time. If a water body or its section is used for various needs of the national economy, more stringent standards for the quality of surface water should be used when determining the conditions for wastewater discharge.

The composition and properties of water and water bodies must be monitored at a site located on watercourses 1 km above the nearest downstream water use points, and on stagnant reservoirs and reservoirs - 1 km on both sides of the water use point.

The composition and properties of water in reservoirs or watercourses at points of drinking and cultural and domestic water use must comply with the standards in all respects.

It is prohibited to discharge into water bodies: a) wastewater containing substances or products of transformation of substances in water for which MPCs have not been established, as well as substances for which there are no analytical control methods; b) wastewater, which can be eliminated by organizing waste-free production, rational technology, maximum use in recycling and reuse water supply systems after appropriate treatment and disinfection in industry, urban agriculture and for irrigation in agriculture; c) untreated or insufficiently treated industrial, household wastewater and surface runoff from the territories of industrial sites and populated areas.

It is prohibited to discharge wastewater containing pathogens of infectious diseases into water bodies. Wastewater hazardous in terms of epidemics can be discharged into water bodies only after appropriate treatment and disinfection.

It is prohibited to allow leaks into water bodies from oil and product pipelines, oil fields, as well as the discharge of garbage, untreated sewage, sludge, ballast water and leakage of other substances from floating water transport vehicles.

It is prohibited on water bodies used primarily for water supply to the population, moth rafting of timber, as well as rafting of wood, in bundles and bags without ship traction.

It is not allowed to discharge wastewater into water bodies used for water and mud treatment, as well as into water bodies located within the sanitary protection districts of resorts.

The wastewater discharge point should be located downstream of the river from the border of the populated area and all places of water use by the population, taking into account the possibility of reverse flow during surge winds. The location of wastewater discharge into stagnant and low-flow water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, etc.) should be determined taking into account sanitary, meteorological and hydrological conditions in order to eliminate the negative impact of wastewater release on the water use of the population.

Discharge of wastewater into water bodies within a populated area through existing outlets is permitted only in exceptional cases with an appropriate feasibility study and in agreement with state sanitary control authorities.

It is prohibited to accept into operation facilities with deficiencies, deviations from the approved design that do not ensure compliance with standard water quality, as well as without approbation, testing and checking the operation of all installed equipment and mechanisms.

Water protection zones. According to the Water Code of the Russian Federation, to maintain

water bodies in a state that meets environmental requirements, water protection zones are established to prevent pollution, clogging and depletion of surface water, as well as to preserve the habitat of flora and fauna. Within water protection zones, coastal protective strips are established where it is prohibited to plow the land, cut down and uproot forests, place livestock farms and camps, and conduct other activities.

– river flow. Its defining value is its constant renewal. Water reserves in lakes and, in addition, are of great importance. Our country has significant reserves. At the same time, per unit area, the provision of the territory of Russia with a runoff layer is almost 2 times lower than the world average. However, the water problem in our country is caused not so much by the general shortage of water resources, but by the natural characteristics of the objects, as well as the characteristics of human activity.

Uneven distribution of water resources

Most of Russia's water resources (9/10) are concentrated in the and basins, where less than 1/5 of the country's population lives. At the same time, most of the country’s economic potential is concentrated in the Black basins, and, to a lesser extent, the. These territories account for less than 10% and here the shortage of water resources is most clearly manifested.

Seasonal fluctuations in river flow

In Russia, constant monitoring of the quality of surface and groundwater is carried out. There are about 4.5 thousand special tracking points at 1,300 water bodies. Despite this, the water quality in most rivers, lakes and reservoirs does not meet the relevant standards. A significant portion of pollutants enters rivers and lakes with precipitation and melted snow water. They carry particles of dust, salt, petroleum products, mineral fertilizers, and pesticides from fields and city streets. In addition, about 60 cubic meters are discharged into reservoirs annually. km of wastewater without the proper degree of treatment. They also contain a huge amount of harmful substances. The water in all of Russia's largest rivers - the Volga, Don, Ob, and Yenisei - is assessed as "polluted", and in some of their tributaries as "very polluted". At the same time, the degree of river pollution increases from the upper reaches to the lower reaches. For some consumers of water resources (river transport, electric power), the quality of consumed water is not of decisive importance. But in most cases, it is the quality of water that limits its use. Of particular concern is that more than half of the Russian population is forced to drink contaminated water.