All linguistic terms in Russian. Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary

This dictionary of terms used in standard school courses of the Russian language is a thesaurus-type dictionary, or ideographic. Originally the term thesaurus As a rule, dictionaries were designated that gave an idea of ​​the lexical system of a language with maximum completeness. Maximum - both in the sense that they included all the words of a given language, and in the sense that these words were accompanied by examples of their use in the texts. A thesaurus, by definition, is a dictionary with an unlimited selection, which is why the following naming was used for it: thesaurus translated from ancient Greek means ‘treasure, treasury’ , that is, a complete collection of information about all the words of a particular language.

Currently thesaurus called a dictionary in which it does not necessarily have to be presented all vocabulary of a given language, but in it all words are grouped by thematic headings. The position of a lexical unit of a language (word or phrase) in a thesaurus is determined by its meaning in that language. And, accordingly, knowledge of the types and system of semantic relations into which a given word enters allows us to judge its meaning.

In some works (and not only philological ones), the thesaurus is understood quite broadly: it is interpreted as a certain representation and description of a system of knowledge about reality, which is possessed either by an individual carrier of information or by some group of such carriers.

The term is also used in linguistic literature ideographic dictionary(from Greek idéa ‘concept, idea, image’ and gráphō ‘I write’). This is a dictionary in which words are not arranged in alphabetical order, but based on their semantic proximity. In such a dictionary, each word occupies a certain cell of some pre-built classification of concepts, although within the framework of a particular semantic group, words can appear one after another and alphabetically. The main purpose of an ideographic dictionary is to provide a semantic picture of the environment of a particular concept and a picture of the entire vocabulary of a given language as a whole. This kind of dictionary comes not from the word as a unit of language, but from the concept expressed by this word.

Within ideographic dictionaries we can distinguish:

. ideological dictionaries, which are based on the logical classification of the conceptual space of the language;

. analogous, or associative dictionaries based on psychological associations of those objects and phenomena of non-linguistic reality that are named by the central word;

. thematic dictionaries, where words are grouped according to certain topics;

. picturesque dictionaries in which the meanings of thematically grouped words are revealed through the use of pictures and other types of visual illustrations.

We offer an option ideological ideographic dictionary, or dictionary-thesaurus in the modern sense of the word. This dictionary-thesaurus contains linguistic terminology used in the Russian language school course.

Today in secondary schools there are several lines of textbooks and educational kits “Russian language”, recommended by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation for secondary schools.

In all sets, educational material is structured by levels from phonetics to syntax, including sections on spelling, punctuation and speech development. At the same time, there are certain discrepancies in the presentation of the theory (in particular, there is no uniform approach to transcribing, isolating parts of speech, describing phrases and types of subordinate clauses, etc.), there is no uniform order of sections and topics, and there is obvious discrepancy in the terminology used. All this creates tangible difficulties both for the student (especially when moving from one school to another) and when forming the requirements for applicants to a humanitarian university.

It is known that in a number of schools the Russian language is studied using alternative and experimental curricula, which offer a significantly modified course. In addition, the introduction of the Unified State Exam in secondary schools has contributed to the fact that most of the time in Russian language lessons is now allocated to training and consolidating the spelling and punctuation skills necessary to complete test tasks. A teacher of Russian studies practically does not have the opportunity, within the framework of the school curriculum, to fully and deeply present the Russian language as a complex, hierarchically organized system with its own internal logic.

The main objectives of this dictionary are systematization, unification, description and interpretation of modern school linguistic terminology, which is common to all(or for the vast majority) school textbooks and manuals on the Russian language. But in some cases, we prefer a more in-depth look at a particular section of the course, when this contributes to the creation of a coherent and logically consistent picture and a more detailed development of individual groups of concepts.

Thesaurus-type dictionaries help to structure, classify and model concepts and connections related to a particular scientific field. A coherent terminological system is a kind of model of knowledge in a particular field of science, reflecting its internal logic. As a rule, it has a complex organization and is a multi-level system, and individual terms are not just included in the system of concepts of the corresponding branch of knowledge, but also structure it in a certain way. This is exactly what we see relevance and practical value proposed school dictionary.

This work is the first experience in integrating and systematizing the basic composition of linguistic concepts and terms used in secondary schools, but we would like to note that when working on this dictionary we tried to follow the tradition established in the 1980-1990s. Head of the Department of General and Comparative Historical Linguistics, Faculty of Philology, Moscow State University. M.V.Lomonosov Academician Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky, who rightly considered teaching the native language to be the most important part of applied linguistics.

In the 1990s, under the leadership of Yuri Vladimirovich Rozhdestvensky, a preliminary version of the dictionary-thesaurus of school education terms “Circle of Knowledge” was conceptually developed and compiled, which he worked on until his death. He saw such a system of concepts, built on the principle “from the general to the particular,” as a systematized set of information of various kinds necessary for schoolchildren and school teachers - from mathematical and biological concepts to physical education exercises. This kind of dictionary-thesaurus was considered by Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky to be the main book for both schoolchildren and school teachers.

Unfortunately, during the life of Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky, no parts of the thesaurus he conceived were published, and after his death, only two small editions of this dictionary were published: Rozhdestvensky Yu.V. Glossary of terms (General education thesaurus): Morality. Moral. Ethics. M.: Flinta, Nauka, 2002; Rozhdestvensky Yu.V. Glossary of terms (General education thesaurus): Society. Semiotics. Economy. Culture. Education. M.: Flinta, Nauka, 2002. Our project, of course, arose as a tribute to the memory of Yuri Vladimirovich.

Separately, we consider it necessary to stipulate the following. It is impossible to reduce linguistic terminology in general and school terminology in particular to a single denominator. In linguistics and in the school practice of teaching linguistic disciplines (Russian language, foreign languages, and in some schools - classical ancient languages ​​and the foundations of linguistics), there is a variety of approaches and concepts, and therefore a variety of terms and concepts behind them. We pay special attention to the fact that:

the proposed definitions of terms are not considered by the authors as some kind of alternative to those definitions that are presented in existing dictionaries, encyclopedias and textbooks;

since this dictionary is not encyclopedic, the examples given in a number of dictionary entries (in particular, on the various uses of certain forms of the verb or on different types of dictionaries in the “Lexicography” section) do not pretend to be complete and are not considered by the authors as all-encompassing and exhaustive.

Formally, work on the dictionary text was distributed as follows. I.I. Bogatyreva wrote the following parts: “Main sections of the science of language”, “Morphemics”, “Word formation” and “Lexicology” (in full), as well as parts of the section “Morphology” (starting from the article “Declension” to the end of the first subsection and within the subsection “Parts of Speech” - from its beginning to the article “Complex Numerals” inclusive) and the first part of the section “Syntax” (from its beginning to the article “Improper Direct Speech” inclusive). O.A. Voloshina wrote the following parts: “General Questions”, “Phonetics”, “Writing” and “Lexicography” (in full), as well as parts of the section “Morphology” (from the beginning of the section to the article “Case” inclusive and inside the subsection “ Parts of speech" - from the article "Pronominal words" to the end) and the second part of the section "Syntax" (from the article "Sentence" to the end of the section).

In conclusion, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to our reviewers A.A. Volkov, O.V. Nikitin, N.A. Borisenko for their attentive and friendly reading of this dictionary and for the valuable constructive comments they expressed. We are grateful to M.Yu. Sidorova, whose critical comments helped us eliminate certain shortcomings that were in the handwritten version of the text. Special words of gratitude and appreciation go to the editorial board of the newspaper “Russian Language” of the Publishing House “1 September” represented by L.A. Gonchar and E.A. Ivanova, without whose participation and support it would be difficult for us to imagine writing this text.

All terms in the dictionary are divided into groups depending on the thematic sections of the Russian language school course in which this concept is used. The dictionary has the following structure:

Main branches of the science of language

General issues

Phonetics

Morphemics

Word formation

Morphology

Syntax

Lexicology

Lexicography.

These sections basically correspond to the levels of language structure. Terms are collected into nests according to their meaning and grouped around a basic concept, with which they are most often connected by genus-species or cause-and-effect relationships. Nests, in turn, are combined into subsections, etc.

At the beginning of each part there is a list of terms included in it, without interpretation: so that you can see the logic of their succession to each other and the relationships into which they enter. After this, interpretations of the same terms given in the same order are offered. Combining an ideographic dictionary with an explanatory one helps to develop optimal interpretations of the meanings of words. After all, the semantic content of a term is better and more fully revealed by determining its place in the structure of concepts of the corresponding field of knowledge.

To find the desired term in the dictionary, you need to refer to the Alphabetical Index, which is a list of terms in alphabetical order indicating the page on which the interpretation of the term you are looking for is provided.

The heading word of a dictionary entry is given in bold, while for borrowed terms their etymology is given in brackets. A dictionary entry contains a definition of a term and a detailed explanation of the corresponding linguistic concept.

Many dictionary entries are provided with examples. As examples, individual words, phrases and entire sentences are given (often quotations from works of fiction), clearly illustrating various aspects of the characterized linguistic phenomenon. All illustrations are in italics. If it is necessary to highlight a single word, morpheme or sound in the quoted text, then bold italics are used.

In a dictionary entry devoted to the interpretation of a term, there are often references to other dictionary entries, since each term does not appear in isolation, but is closely related to other terms of the same conceptual area. Such references are given in bold type and enclosed in parentheses.

Readers' attention should be drawn to the fact that almost all terms from the first section are presented in subsequent sections of the dictionary, but with different meanings, since they are used in scientific and educational literature to designate both a certain section of linguistics and one or another subsystem of the language itself , For example:

Morphemics 1- a branch of linguistics that studies the structural features of morphemes, their relationships to each other and to the word as a whole, the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

Morphemics 2- part of the language system, which is a set of morphemes isolated in words, their types and techniques for connecting with each other within a word.

The tables, diagrams and drawings used in the text of the dictionary help to compactly and clearly illustrate the phenomena being explained.

For the convenience of readers, a minimum number of generally accepted abbreviations are used, which are easily deciphered and widely used in any scientific and educational literature.

Main branches of the science of language

Phonetics(from the Greek phōnētikós - sound, voice) - a branch of linguistics that studies the sound structure of language. The subject of phonetics consists of such material linguistic units as speech sounds, syllables, word stress, phrasal intonation.

Since the sound matter of a language can be studied from different sides, it is customary to distinguish between acoustic, articulatory, perceptual and functional phonetics.

Acoustic phonetics studies the sounds of human speech as physical phenomena and describes their characteristics such as pitch (depending on the frequency of vibrations), loudness or strength (depending on the amplitude), duration and timbre of the sound. Articulatory phonetics examines the anatomy and physiology of the human speech apparatus, describes which speech organs are involved in the pronunciation of certain types of sounds. Perceptual Phonetics studies the features of perception and analysis of speech sounds by the human hearing organ - the ear. Functional phonetics (phonology) considers sound phenomena as elements of the language system that serve to form morphemes, words and sentences.

One can also distinguish descriptive, historical and comparative phonetics. Item descriptive phonetics - features and general conditions for the formation of sounds characteristic of a given language in a certain period of its existence (most often the phonetic structure of a modern language is taken), patterns of changes in sounds in the flow of speech, general principles of dividing the sound flow into sounds, syllables and larger pronunciation units. Historical phonetics traces the development of the sound structure of a language over a long period of time (sometimes from the moment the language appeared). Comparative phonetics compares the sound structure of the native language with other languages, which allows not only to better see and assimilate the features of a foreign language, but also to understand the patterns of the native one.

Orthoepy(Greek orthoépeia, from orthós - correct and épos - speech) - a section of phonetics dealing with pronunciation standards, their justification and establishment.

The concept of orthoepy includes both the pronunciation of individual sounds, including taking into account the specific conditions of their implementation, and the sound design of entire words or statements. For example, for the Russian language, the place of stress associated with the formation of grammatical forms is of great importance.

The orthoepic norms of the Russian language developed in their most important features back in the first half of the 17th century. as the norms of the Moscow dialect, which over time began to acquire the character of national norms. They were finally formed in the second half of the 19th century, although in a number of cases there were fluctuations. Modern pronunciation norms of the Russian literary language include both features of Moscow and Leningrad (St. Petersburg) pronunciation.

The orthoepic norm, unlike the orthographic one, does not always affirm as the only correct one of the pronunciation options, rejecting the other as erroneous. In some cases, the coexistence of several equal options is allowed, where, as a rule, one is leading or more desirable. So, the correct pronunciation is considered e[zh’zh’]u, in and[zh’zh’]at, [zh’zh’]e with a soft long sound [zh’], and e[lj]y, in and[zhzh]at, [zhzh]e- with a hard long; Right before[zh’zh’]i And before[zh']i, ba[s’]ein And ba[s]ein, [door And [door, P[o]esia And P[a]esia.

Orthoepic norms are established by linguists - specialists in the field of phonetics, who take into account a variety of factors: the prevalence of the pronunciation variant, its compliance with the objective laws of language development, connection with tradition, etc.

Graphic arts(Greek graphikḗ, from gráphō - I write, I draw) - a section of the science of writing that defines the inventory of signs used in a given writing system (these signs are usually called graphemes), and the rules and methods of designating sound units in writing.

The graphic system of Russian writing is based on the Cyrillic alphabet and is arranged quite rationally: the number of phonemes of the Russian language is slightly greater than the number of letters of the Russian alphabet. In 1928, N.F. Yakovlev derived and substantiated a mathematical formula for constructing the most convenient and economical alphabet, and Russian graphics almost correspond to this formula.

The rationality of Russian graphics is determined primarily by its syllabic principle, which manifests itself in the transmission of soft consonants and the phoneme j “yot” in writing.

It should be understood that both graphics and spelling are related to the rules for using graphemes, but in different ways. Graphics studies and formulates rules for the correspondence of letters to phonemes only in cases where the choice of letter is determined solely by the sound environment (or sound context) and prescribes the use of certain letters regardless of what words they are included in. Spelling is a system of rules for writing significant units of a given language.

Spelling(Greek orthographía, from orthós - correct and gráphō - I write) - a section of the science of language that deals with spelling standards and prescribes the choice of one of the spelling options allowed by graphics.

The central section of spelling establishes a set of rules and principles for designating speech sounds with letters in writing. Modern Russian orthography uses several principles: morphological, phonetic and traditional.

Other sections of spelling establish rules for the continuous, separate or hyphenated spelling of words and their parts; determine the rules for transferring parts of words from one line to another (taking into account both syllabic division and the morphemic structure of the word); formulate rules for the use of uppercase and lowercase letters, as well as the design of graphic abbreviations. The principles of rendering borrowed words (mainly proper names) are separately defined. Typically, either a transcriptional orthographic method is used, or a transliteration method, i.e. Foreign words are written taking into account their pronunciation or letter by letter, taking into account their spelling, using a different alphabet.

The theory of Russian orthography and the definition of the principles of its construction originate from the works of V.K. Trediakovsky and M.V. Lomonosov (mid-18th century). In the history of Russian writing, there were two reforms (1708-1710 and 1917-1918), which contributed to both the streamlining of the alphabet and the improvement of spelling rules. But the historical changes that are constantly occurring in the language, the enrichment of its vocabulary, require regular work to improve the set of spelling rules. For this purpose, a Spelling Commission was created at the Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1904. Nowadays, the Spelling Commission works at the Russian Language Institute. V.V. Vinogradov RAS, both theoretical linguists and practicing teachers take part in it.

Lexicology(from the Greek lexikós - relating to the word and lógos - teaching) is a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language, or vocabulary.

The main objectives of lexicology are:

Definition of a word as a unit of vocabulary;

The study of words in their relation to non-linguistic reality;

Analysis of the semantic structure of a word;

Definition and description of the main types of lexical units;

Characteristics of the lexical-semantic system of the language, that is, identification of the internal organization of lexical units and analysis of their connections and relationships;

History of the formation of vocabulary, patterns of its functioning and analysis of trends in the development of the modern lexical system of the language;

Principles of functional-stylistic classification of words.

Lexicology also explores ways to replenish and develop vocabulary, based both on the use of internal resources of a given language, and on attracting resources from the outside (borrowings from other languages).

We can distinguish historical, comparative and applied lexicology. Historical Lexicology studies the history of words, including in connection with the history of the concepts named by these words, changes in various groups of words - both in the literary language and in dialects, processes in the semantic structure of words, etc. Comparative Lexicology studies the vocabulary of different languages, and both individual words and groups of words, or semantic fields (for example, kinship terms, color terms) can be compared. To the sphere applied Lexicology includes lexicography, speech culture, linguistic pedagogy, theory and practice of translation.

Phraseology(from the Greek phrásis - expression and lógos - word, doctrine) - a section of linguistics that studies the semantic, morphological-syntactic and stylistic features of phraseological units in their modern state and historical development.

The main objectives of phraseology are:

Study of the sign nature of phraseological units of language;

Establishing the specifics of words and their meanings, implemented as part of phraseological units;

Determination of the syntactic roles of phraseological units and features of their functioning in speech;

Studying the formation of new meanings of words based on phraseological context;

Determination of the systematicity of phraseological composition and, in connection with this, a description of synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy and variability of phraseological units.

The most important problem of phraseology is the delimitation of phraseological units from combinations of words formed, and not reproduced, in speech, and the determination on this basis of the characteristics of a phraseological unit. The issue of including in the scope of phraseology communicative units such as proverbs, sayings and combinations formed according to a standard model with a related meaning of words (such as fly into a rage evil takes).

Phraseology as an independent linguistic discipline arose in Russian linguistics in the 40-50s. XX century

Etymology(Greek etymología from étymon - truth and lógos - word, teaching) - a branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words and reconstructs the lexical system of the language of the most ancient (including preliterate) period.

Etymology as a scientific discipline originated in Ancient Greece, and in antiquity the purpose of etymological analysis was to search and determine the original, original, or “true” meanings of words. At the present stage of development of linguistics, the subject of etymology is to find out at what time, in what language, according to what word-formation model and with what meaning this or that word appeared, and then - to determine the phonetic and semantic changes that occurred with this word in the history of the language and thus predetermining its current appearance.

To clarify the origin of words and restore their history, etymology must take into account data from a number of scientific disciplines - both philological disciplines proper (comparative historical linguistics, dialectology, semasiology, onomastics) and other humanitarian and social disciplines (logic, history, archeology, ethnography).

Lexicography(from the Greek lexikós - related to the word and gráphō - I write) is a section of linguistics that deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries and their study.

It is customary to distinguish between theoretical and practical lexicography. Item theoretical lexicography - the whole complex of problems associated with the development of the macrostructure (selection of vocabulary, volume and nature of the dictionary, principles of arrangement of material in the dictionary) and microstructure of the dictionary (structure of the dictionary entry, types of dictionary definitions and interpretations, the presence of different types of information about the word, types of linguistic and other illustrations, etc.). Practical Lexicography performs extremely important social functions, since it ensures the normalization of language, teaching languages ​​(both native and foreign), and makes interlingual communication possible.

Lexicography represents a word in the totality of all its properties, gives us an idea of ​​its semantic structure, the grammatical and stylistic features of individual lexical units, and therefore a dictionary is not only an indispensable language guide, but also an important tool for scientific research. Moreover, modern linguistics strives to embody in dictionary form various aspects of existing knowledge about language, so the object of description of lexicography becomes not only words, but also other linguistic units - morphemes, phraseological units, phrases, quotations.

Morphemics(from the Greek morphḗ - form) - a branch of linguistics that studies the structural features of morphemes, their relationships to each other and to the word as a whole, the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

Subject descriptive morphemics is to consider the following issues:

Phonological structure of different types of morphemes;

Various morphonological processes occurring at the junctions of morphemes, or morphemic seams;

Rules for combinability of morphemes with each other and restrictions imposed in the language on these combinations;

Conditions for varying morphemes in speech;

Semantic properties of morphemes;

Numerous types of relationships between roots and affixes - synonymous, homonymous, antonymous, etc.;

Defining criteria for the classification of morphemes and establishing different types of morphemes;

Systematization of words according to their morphemic composition, as well as the development of principles and procedures for morphemic analysis;

Study of the morphemic composition of various parts of speech, as well as different categories of words within a particular part of speech.

Descriptive morphemics are contrasted historical, which studies the features of the formation and development of the system of morphemes in the native language, the sources of the emergence of new morphemes in the language, methods of mastering borrowed morphemes and their interaction with native Russian morphemes.

Morphemics is equally closely related to both word formation and morphology. Previously, it was included in word-formation disciplines. But recently it has been distinguished as an independent branch of the science of language with a special object of study - the morpheme.

Word formation- a branch of linguistics that studies the ways and means of creating words, the rules and techniques of their production, the structure of derivatives and complex words - both formal and substantive.

Word formation solves the following problems:

Establishes and describes the basic patterns of derived (or motivated) words;

Offers their classifications;

Studies word-formation series and nests, word-formation (or derivation) processes, meanings and categories;

Defines the principles of the structure of the word-formation system as a whole.

The word-formation structure of derived words and the entire system of word-formation means of a particular language changes over time. Therefore, it is customary to distinguish between synchronous and diachronic word formation. Synchronous, or descriptive, word formation studies the motivational relationships between words coexisting in the same historical period of a given language, without taking into account the etymological situation. Diachronic, or historical, word formation studies the history of the emergence of individual words, the development and historical changes in their structure, changes in formal and semantic connections between related words.

The specificity of the subject of word formation in the structure of the language is determined by the characteristics of the derivational meanings themselves and the external means of their expression. This section of linguistics describes all the affixes presented in the words of the language, linking them with certain word-formation types - productive and unproductive. So, according to L.V. Shcherba, what is considered here is both “how words are made” (i.e., the structure of words already existing in the language), and “how words are made” (i.e., the potential possibilities of creating new words). The word-formation types themselves are studied from different angles: derivational affixes, grammatical and semantic characteristics of derived and generating words, morphonological phenomena at the junctions of morphemes in a motivated word are taken into account (alternating sounds, truncation of stems, superimposition of morphs on each other, changing the place of stress, etc.). etc.), stylistic characteristics and sphere of functioning of new words.

Morphology(from the Greek morphḗ - form and lógos - teaching) - a section of grammar, the main object of which is the grammatical properties of words and their significant parts (morphemes). Morphology, understood as the “grammatical study of the word” (V.V. Vinogradov), together with syntax, which is the “grammatical study of the sentence,” constitutes grammar.

Borders descriptive Morphologies are understood differently in different concepts. This may include:

The study of word structure (i.e. morphemics);

Information on word formation;

The study of inflection, various paradigms and inflectional types existing in language;

The study of grammatical meanings and the use of different grammatical forms and categories in texts (or grammatical semantics);

The doctrine of parts of speech;

Morphological typology.

Historical morphology deals

Description of changes occurring in the structure of the word

By studying changes in both the formal and content aspects of individual morphemes,

A study of the composition of grammatical categories and grammatical meanings in the history of language.

Syntax(from Greek sýntaxis - construction, order) - a section of linguistics that studies the processes of generation and the structure of coherent speech and includes two main parts: the doctrine of phrases and the doctrine of sentences. In a number of works, syntax, which studies the semantic side of speech, is contrasted with phonetics and morphology, which are mostly concerned with the expression of the language system

Item descriptive Syntax problems include the following:

Functioning in speech of various lexical and grammatical classes of words;

The compatibility and order of words when they are included in larger syntactic units;

Definition and consideration of different types of syntactic connections;

General properties and grammatical features of phrases and sentences;

Internal structure of syntactic units;

Classification of syntactic units of language;

Changes that a sentence undergoes when it is included in a larger unit of speech - into the text, i.e. rules for adapting a sentence to the context and to the speech situation;

Syntactic typology.

Historical syntax deals with the study of general patterns of development of individual syntactic units and changes affecting the entire syntactic structure of the language.

Punctuation(Middle Latin punctuatio from Latin punctum - point) - a branch of linguistics that deals with the study and description of the system of punctuation marks and the rules for their placement in written speech.

In the history of Russian punctuation, there are three main approaches to understanding its foundations and purpose - logical (or semantic), syntactic and intonation. Theorists logical directions were F.I. Buslaev, A.B. Shapiro and others, who proceeded from the position that for greater clarity in the presentation of thoughts in writing, it is customary to separate words and entire sentences with punctuation marks, i.e., stop signs. Syntactic The direction of the theory of Russian punctuation, which dates back primarily to the works of J.K. Grot, has become widespread in teaching practice. Its representatives proceed from the fact that punctuation marks are primarily intended to make the syntactic structure of speech clear, to highlight individual sentences and their parts. Representatives intonation theories (L.V. Shcherba, A.M. Peshkovsky, etc.) believe that punctuation marks are intended to indicate the rhythm and melody of a phrase, tempo of speech, pauses, etc., i.e. What intonation does in spoken speech, punctuation does in written speech.

Language- a naturally developing sign system that serves as the main means of communication between people.

Each linguistic sign (like any other sign of the semiotic system) has conceptual content (meaning) and formal expression (sound). Thus, on the one hand, language reflects a set of concepts and ideas about the world characteristic of a linguistic community, divides the surrounding reality and represents it through the means of language. In the system of meanings it expresses, a language records the experience of the entire collective, the “picture of the world” of the people speaking it. On the other hand, language is realized, materially embodied in spoken speech. With the advent of writing, language receives a new means of material expression - written texts. Only thanks to the presence of spoken speech and written texts can we get an idea of ​​the internal organization of language, of a linguistic system that is not given to us in direct observation.

Language is an organized, strictly ordered, multi-level system, all elements of which are interconnected and interdependent. Each level of linguistic structure is characterized by an independent linguistic unit that performs a special function in the language. Traditionally, linguistic units include phoneme, morpheme, word and sentence.

Language is a fairly stable system in which a change in a single linguistic unit inevitably entails a change in the entire language system as a whole. A rapid change in language would not allow it to perform a communicative function, to serve as a means of communication between people. However, in a language, its sound structure, lexical composition, even grammatical categories and syntactic structures are constantly changing. Sounds and words are the most sensitive to various changes; the grammar of a language is more stable; a significant change in it leads to a change in the language type. The sound and meaning of a word can change significantly over a short period of time. For example, the word fish, in addition to the main meaning, it can acquire new meanings, different shades, when used in a new, unusual context: when calling a person fish, we point to his emotional coldness, restraint, lethargy.

Possessing internal integrity and unity, language is at the same time a multifunctional system. The main function of language is to serve as a means of human communication; in addition, language is a socially significant form of reflection of the surrounding reality, as well as a means of obtaining new information about the world.

Language is a social phenomenon; it belongs to the whole society as a whole, and not to an individual. It is customary to distinguish several forms of the existence of language in society:

. idiolect- individual language of a particular person;

. dialect- many close idiolects that are characterized by internal unity and are united on the basis of territorial characteristics;

. language- this is, as a rule, many dialects that may differ from each other to one degree or another. The principle of combining different dialects into a single language depends not only on the linguistic (structural) parameters themselves, but also on social parameters (the linguistic self-awareness of speakers, the presence of a single written language, the social prestige of dialects, etc.).

The highest form of existence of a language is a literary language, which is characterized by the creation of norms and the presence of a fairly wide range of functional styles.

Literary language- one of the main forms of existence of a language, which is characterized by consistent codification (establishment of norms), conscious cultivation of norms, binding norms for all speakers and high social prestige.

Literary language serves various communicative spheres, serves to express a wide variety of contents and solve many communicative problems. Literary language is used in the fields of government, journalism, science, literature, as well as in oral speech and in some forms of colloquial speech. In a situation of casual communication, there are elements of a conversational style that do not violate the norms of the literary language.

Literary language is a bookish language associated with literacy, with a special, bookish norm. It is based on an artificial norm and is opposed to a living spoken language. Every norm is associated with learning, it is taught, imposed on the individual by society. The assimilation of a norm demonstrates belonging to a particular society; it is a sign of society.

The structure of a literary language depends on the composition of the functional styles included in it (official business, church, scientific, newspaper journalistic, etc.). During the period of formation and strengthening of statehood, the need arises to form an official business style, and with the accumulation and development of scientific knowledge - a scientific style, etc. Special language tools are appearing that serve different communication areas. In order for all members of society to equally understand the language (for example, of official documents), linguistic means are consolidated and normalized. A strict, official version of the literary language emerges, serving the official business and scientific spheres.

The formation of a literary language is a national and historical phenomenon. The main processes of the formation of a literary language are associated with the development of culture and the history of society. The features of the formation of a national literary language depend on the sample texts that the literary language is guided by in its development.

For example, the functions of the Russian literary language were performed by the Church Slavonic language until the 18th century. After Peter's reforms, the Russian literary language began to move closer to folk colloquial speech. However, the centuries-old orientation towards Church Slavonic book and written culture determined many of the characteristic features of the Russian literary language.

Thus, a literary language is a standardized, bookish language, directly related to cultural tradition, designed to fit linguistic activity into the general plan of cultural, that is, socially valuable behavior.

Dialects(from the Greek diálektos - conversation, dialect, adverb) - varieties of the national language, opposed to the literary language, serving as a means of communication in speech groups distinguished on a geographical (territorial) basis. A territorial dialect is a means of communication among the population of a historically established region, characterized by specific ethnographic features.

Modern dialects are the result of centuries of development. Throughout history, due to changes in territorial associations, fragmentation, unification, and regrouping of dialects occur. Sometimes, on the border of two related languages, it is extremely difficult to determine whether local dialects belong to one language or another. The decisive factor here is ethnic: when assigning a dialect to a specific language, the self-awareness of the speakers of the dialect is taken into account.

Dialects are characterized by phonetic, lexical, and syntactic features that are revealed when comparing dialects with each other, as well as with the literary language. For example, a striking dialectal feature - tsokanie (two affricates [ts] and [ch'] of the literary language are not distinguished, pronounced as [ts]) - characterizes Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Pskov and some other dialects. Some dialects of the Oryol, Kursk, Tambov and Bryansk regions are characterized by the pronunciation [s] instead of the affricate [ts]: Kurisa laid the eggs on the street. Another teaser notes clinking glasses (the affricates [ts] and [ch’] are pronounced like [ch’]): A sheep ran past our porch.

Dialectal differences can be small, so that speakers of different dialects easily understand each other, but they can also be quite significant.

Under the influence of the literary language, dialects lose their most significant differences from it, become unified, lose their independence, partially enriching the literary language with some of their own features.

Speech- a speaking process that occurs over time, carried out in audio or written form.

Speech is usually characterized by contrasting it with language (as the particular - the general). Speech is understood as a material embodiment, the use of a language system in the process of communication. Speech is concrete and unique, as opposed to abstract and reproducible language. Speech is subjective because it is a type of free creative activity of the individual. Speech always has an author who expresses his thoughts and emotions. Individual character is the most important feature of speech. Speech behavior is an essential characteristic of personality.

Speech is material, it consists of articulated signs perceived by the senses (hearing, vision). Oral speech is characterized by tempo, duration, timbre characteristics, volume level, articulatory clarity, accent, etc.

Speech is variable, allowing elements of the disordered and random. Speech can be characterized by indicating the psychological state of the speaker, his attitude towards the interlocutor, towards the subject of the message.

Speech is linear: it unfolds in time and is realized in space. Speech is contextually and situationally determined.

The result of speech is text. It represents one or more sentences related to each other, arranged in a certain sequence and united into a single whole by a common theme. Different semantic relationships are established between sentences in the text: opposition, explanation, purpose, condition. To connect sentences in a text, special syntactic means can be used: parallelism (several sentences have the same structure in terms of the order of sentence members), ellipsis (omission of a text element that can be restored in a given context), etc.

Speech as one of the forms of human activity is of interest not only to philologists, but also to philosophers, psychologists, speech therapists, sociologists, and specialists in communication and information theory. The role of speech in the formation of consciousness and manifestations of the subconscious is explored, the processes of development of children's speech, the mechanisms of speech formation, the occurrence of speech errors and various speech disorders are studied.

Thus, speech is the realization of language, which only through it can fulfill its main function - to serve as a means of communication between people.

Speech styles(from Latin stilus, stylus - pointed stick for writing, manner of writing) - systems of linguistic means within a literary language, delimited by the conditions and tasks of communication.

There are usually five styles of speech: four bookish - scientific, official business, journalistic and artistic - and a conversational style. Sometimes different styles of a literary language can differ significantly from each other, but in some languages ​​they turn out to be quite homogeneous: stylistic differences have not yet been developed and consolidated. The depth and certainty of stylistic differentiation depends on the “age” of the language.

Each style is characterized by certain linguistic means: special words, special combinations of words (formulas, cliches), forms of words, features of syntactic structures, etc. Speech styles are realized in certain forms, or types of texts, called speech genres.

Scientific style- one of the book styles that is used in scientific works, textbooks, oral presentations on scientific topics (lectures, reports at conferences, etc.). In addition, the scientific style can be used in popular science works, the purpose of which is to familiarize a wide audience with interesting scientific facts and theories.

The scientific style is used in an official setting and is characterized by logic, consistency, and objectivity. The purpose of the scientific style is to communicate information, explain a scientific theory, providing a system of evidence.

The scientific style is characterized by the indispensable use of appropriate scientific terminology. The term, unlike a word in common language, accurately and quite fully reflects a scientific concept. Scientific texts usually lack means of figurative and emotional presentation, exclamatory and interrogative sentences, hints, appeals, etc. If a rhetorical question is used in a scientific speech, then an immediate reaction from the audience is unlikely to be expected. As a rule, the author himself intends to answer this question in the course of further presentation of the material.

The scientific style is characterized by the use of complex syntactic constructions, participial and participial phrases. Frequent quotations and references to other scientific works are also a striking feature of the scientific style.

In scientific works, it is very important to structure the text, consistently present the theory, presenting all the necessary evidence, and draw a reasonable conclusion, therefore the texts use various pointers to the sequence of presentation and cause-and-effect relationships: firstly, therefore, so, let us now turn to... and so on.

In addition, special linguistic means used in scientific texts help to perceive the author’s scientific research as quite objective, removing a pronounced authorial element. For example, in scientific speech personal pronouns of the first and second persons are almost never used, but constructions without a subject (such as It is known that…). Impersonal constructions also create the effect of the author’s detachment and the opportunity to refer to previous research. The scientific style is characterized by the use of cliches, standard phrases that organize the course of scientific reasoning.

Formal business style- one of the book styles that serves the sphere of business relations. This style is typical for business papers: laws, documents, regulations, orders, protocols, etc.

The task of the official business style is to regulate business relations: convey information, orders, issue instructions, conclusions, etc. The official business style is characterized by accuracy, unambiguity, standardization and mandatory construction of the text according to the model. Often, when drawing up a document, such a sample is attached; sometimes special forms are prepared for writing official papers. Thus, the main feature of an official document is a standard form, thanks to which you can easily find the necessary information in the document: to whom the paper is addressed, from whom it is, from what date, what exactly is stated in the document.

In order for what is written to be accepted as an official document, it is necessary to follow strict rules for the design of the text, including a standard set of language tools. When drawing up a document, it is necessary to indicate the exact date, indicate the full last name, first name and patronymic (often also passport details) of the persons who appear in the official document.

For an official business style, it is typical to use standard phrases - clichés: please provide, after the deadline, in the prescribed manner and so on. Elements of conversational style, expressive and evaluative vocabulary, and familiar address are inappropriate in the document.

In the language of the document, personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons are almost never used, which also makes the language of the document official, official. Business style does not allow the author to express his emotions or personal point of view on the issue. The syntax of the document is characterized by a large number of subordinate clauses, ponderous and confusing constructions, unnatural in colloquial speech.

Journalistic style- one of the book styles that is used in social and journalistic activities, in the media, in newspapers, and in public speaking situations.

The task of this style is to influence mass consciousness, the desire to impose one’s vision of the situation on the audience. Characteristic features of the journalistic style are imagery, emotionality, evaluativeness, appeal. In public speeches, various means of artistic expression are often used: epithets, hyperboles, comparisons, metaphors, “catchphrases”. Elements of language games, puns, appeals to the audience, appeals, interrogative and exclamatory sentences, and rhetorical questions are also used. In the speaker’s speech, which is always emotionally charged and intense, a personal assessment of the situation is heard, therefore the first person pronouns of both numbers are often used as linguistic means.

Thus, in the journalistic style, linguistic means are used that allow one to influence the emotional state of the audience and form the listener’s attitude to individual events and to the world as a whole.

Art style - functional style of speech, which is used in works of fiction and belongs to book styles.

The task of this style is to draw an artistic image, express the author’s attitude towards what is depicted, and influence the feelings and imagination of the reader. Language here performs not so much a communicative as an aesthetic function; it forms a special figurative world using special expressive means. These include trails(metaphors, metonymies, epithets, hyperboles, litotes, comparisons, etc.) and figures of speech(anaphora, gradation, inversion, rhetorical question, parallelism, etc.).

For example, metaphor is a means of artistic expression, in which the name of one object is used to name another on the basis of similarity : The garden is on fire fire of red rowan (S.A. Yesenin). Or litotes is a figurative expression consisting of downplaying the size of an object or the significance of the depicted phenomenon: Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, no more thimble (A.S. Griboyedov), etc.

A poetic work uses means of rhythmic organization of text - rhythm and rhyme.

The storm covers the sky with darkness,

Whirling snow whirlwinds

Then, like a beast, she will howl,

She will cry like a child.

Then on the dilapidated roof

Suddenly the straw will rustle,

The way a belated traveler

There will be a knock on our window(A.S. Pushkin).

In the language of fiction, in addition to the artistic style, elements of other styles, mainly colloquial, can be used. The use of colloquial speech does not violate the norms of the literary language (unlike colloquial speech, which is outside the literary norm). In a work of art, colloquial speech is “literalised”; elements of colloquial style - expressive, expressive - against the background of neutral and bookish means of literary language are marked as elements of reduced stylistic coloring. In the speech of the characters, clericalisms, occasionalisms, dialect words and even profanity are possible. The purpose of this deliberate violation of the norms of literary language is mainly the speech characteristics of the characters.

Conversational style-functional style of speech, which is opposed to book styles and is used in a situation of casual conversation, more often in an informal setting. The main form of existence is oral, but the conversational style can also be implemented in written form (notes, private letters, recording the speech of characters, etc.).

Conversational style characterizes the ordinary, relaxed oral speech of people who speak a literary language. The task of colloquial speech is communication, exchange of news, opinions and impressions of loved ones in an informal setting.

The general properties of conversational style are manifested in the specific characteristics of colloquial speech: informality, unpreparedness, spontaneity, linear character, leading to both economy and redundancy of speech means. With an accelerated rate of speech, phenomena of increased reduction of unstressed vowels and simplification of consonant groups are observed.

Speech uses colloquial and colloquial vocabulary, expressive and evaluative vocabulary, first-person pronouns, particles, interjections and addresses. The speaker strives to express his personal opinion, to make speech figurative and lively.

Participial and adverbial phrases and complex syntactic constructions are rarely found in colloquial speech. The technique of dismembering the syntactic whole is often observed; interrupted structures, repetitions, contractions, and non-union composition are used. Conversational style is characterized by a free word order, which is associated with the possibility of logical selection of words by intonation.

Conversational style differs sharply from book style in the rules for the arrangement of words and parts of sentences. Words of one phrase in colloquial speech can be separated by other words: Need it today of bread buy fresh . It happens that the members of the main and subordinate clauses are intertwined with each other: You doctor saw, when did you arrive? and so on.

Genres of speech- a set of texts united by the same use of stylistic means of language. A group of speech genres is combined into a specific functional style.

The scientific style has the following speech genres: article, monograph, textbook, abstract, abstract, review, lecture, scientific report, etc.

Speech genres of official business style include: law, resolution, interrogation protocol, certificate, statement, order, etc.

The journalistic style distinguishes such speech genres as articles, interviews, sketches, reports, etc.

Genres of artistic style are novel, short story, poem, poem, etc.

Speech genres of colloquial speech include story, dialogue, family conversation, etc.

Linguistics, T. l. is particularly difficult to study due to the consubstantiality of the language-object and metalanguage, i.e. due to the fact that the language-object and metalanguage completely coincide in terms of expression and are outwardly the same language. T.l. includes: 1) terms themselves, i.e. those words that are either not used at all in the target language, or acquire a special meaning, being borrowed from the target language; 2) peculiar combinations of words and their equivalents, leading to the formation of compound terms included in T. l. on the same rights as fully formed units.

It is necessary to delimit the concept of T. l. as a system of general linguistic concepts and categories from another component of the metalanguage of linguistics - nomenclature- systems of specific names that are used to designate specific linguistic objects. So, for example, “agglutination”, “inflection”, “phoneme”, “grammar” are terms that serve to express and consolidate general linguistic concepts, and “Saxon genitive in s”, “Arabic “ayn””, etc. are nomenclature signs, names of private objects, the number of which is immeasurably large. However, the boundary between nomenclature units and terms is fluid. Any nomenclature sign, no matter how limited in its use, can acquire a more general character if similar phenomena are discovered in other languages ​​or if a more general universal content is discovered in the initially narrow names, then the nomenclature sign becomes a term expressing the corresponding scientific concept . Thus, the term is the final stage of research into a real linguistic object.

T. l., like the terminology of any scientific field, is not just a list of terms, but a semiological system, that is, the expression of a certain system of concepts, in turn reflecting a certain scientific worldview. The emergence of terminology in general is possible only when science reaches a sufficiently high degree of development, that is, a term arises when a given concept has developed and taken shape to such an extent that it can be assigned a completely definite scientific expression. It is no coincidence that the most important means of distinguishing a term from a non-term is the test for definitiveness, i.e., deciding whether the term is amenable to a strict scientific definition. A term is part of a terminological system only if a classifying definition is applicable to it per genus proximum et differentiam specificam(through the nearest genus and species difference).

T.l. how the semiological system develops throughout the history of linguistics and reflects not only the change in views on language, not only the difference in linguistic word usage in different schools and areas of linguistics, but also different national linguistic traditions. A metalanguage is always assigned to a given national language system. Strictly speaking, there is not one system of terminology, but a large number of terminological systems for linguistics, which in different languages ​​have their own plan of expression, inseparable from the plan of expression of a given language. Therefore, those patterns that exist in human language in general are also represented in any historically developed system of linguistic literature. The absence of a one-to-one correspondence between the plane of expression and the plane of content, which is the reason for the existence in natural language of both synonymy and polysemy, in terminological systems gives rise to the existence, on the one hand, of doublets, triplets, etc., i.e. two, three and more terms that are essentially correlated with the same referent, on the other - the polysemy of terms, when the same term has not one scientific definition, but several. This expresses the inconsistency of not only the term, but also the word. “Dictionary of Linguistic Terms” by O. S. Akhmanova lists 23 “synonyms” for the term “phraseological unit”, registered in the scientific use of Soviet linguists by the 60s. 20th century, 6 “synonyms” for the term “sentence”, etc. Polysemy of terms, for example “speech” (3 meanings), “form” (5 meanings), “phrase” (4 meanings), reflected in the same dictionary , clearly shows not so much the presence of different concepts called by the same term, but rather different approaches, different aspects of studying the same linguistic object.

Since T. l. is not a rationally organized, semiotically flawless system; in linguistics there is always a problem of ordering terminology. Some researchers believe that in T. l. it is necessary to overcome the violation of the laws of sign characteristic of natural languages ​​and build it on a purely rational basis, finding access to “pure, ideal objects.” Others rightly believe that, since it is impossible to suspend the development of science while creating new terminology, the task of streamlining T. l. should be reduced to 1) the study of real linguistic word usage, 2) the selection of terminology and its description in dictionaries of linguistic terms, 3) the comparison of national terminological systems in bi- and multilingual terminological dictionaries. When comparing identified doublets, triplets, etc., it is necessary to strive for a clear identification descriptors, i.e., such words or phrases that would most adequately represent this concept, would most accurately reveal the nature of this particular phenomenon, designated by this term. The identification of descriptors (for example, “phraseological unit” in relation to parallel functioning doublets, triplets and other correspondences of this term) in itself plays a normalizing role in a given terminological series. In the presence of doublets and “synonyms,” there may be a desire to differentiate them, which makes it possible to terminologically reflect different aspects of the object (cf. differentiation of the concepts “subject - subject”).

Since the T. l. system is an open system, constantly updated due to the need to reflect new noticed properties and aspects of an object with new monolexemic and polylexemic terms; when modeling this system, it is desirable to give preference to motivated terms that have a transparent semantic structure.

The viability of a particular terminological system is determined primarily by its orderliness and consistency in the relationship between content and expression. A terminological system that meets these requirements, for example the so-called alloemic terminology, can survive the scientific direction that gave birth to it (in this case, descriptive linguistics) and enter the modern metalanguage of this science.

• Akhmanova O.S., Dictionary of linguistic terms. Preface, M., 1966;
• Ganieva T. A., On the system of phonetic terminology, in the book: Modern Russian Lexicology, M., 1966;
• White V.V., Basic groups of linguistic terms and features of their production, in the book: Continuity in teaching Russian to foreigners, M., 1981;
• his, Structural and semantic characteristics of terms in the modern Russian language (based on linguistic terminology). Abstract of Ph.D. dis., M.; 1982 (lit.);
• Akhmanova O., Linguistic terminology, , 1977(lit.);
• hers, The methodology of metalinguistic lexicography, in the book: Sprachwissenschaftliche Forschungen. Festschrift für Johann Knobloch, Innsbruck, 1985;
• see also the literature under the article Metalanguage.

Linguistic terminology is a set of words and phrases used in linguistics to express special concepts and to name typical objects of a given scientific field. As an integral part of the metalanguage of linguistics, linguistic terminology is the object of attention of a number of researchers (O.S. Akhmanova, N.V. Vasilyeva, B.N. Golovin, R.Yu. Kobrin, S.D. Shelov, S.E. Nikitina, I.S. Kulikova and D.V. Salmina, Kh.F.

Linguistic terminology can be described from various positions and classified on different grounds, which are in a complementarity relationship. We propose a classification of Crimean Tatar linguistic terms, which is based on the provisions put forward by N.V. Vasilyeva:

1) according to the designation of general or specific phenomena of linguistics, universal terms are distinguished, denoting general categories characteristic of many languages ​​( benzeshme'assimilation', Tamyr'root', jumla'offer', etc.), and unique, i.e. designations of phenomena specific to a language or group of related languages ​​( Mulkiyet Yalgamasy'affix of belonging', khaberlik yalgamasy'predicate affix', etc.);

2) according to their internal form, linguistic terms are divided into motivated ones, in which there is a semantic and structural correlation of their constituent morphemes with the morphemes of a given language (terms dudakly (ses)'labial sound)' ← dudak+ly; manadash'synonym' ← mana+dash etc.), and unmotivated, which are represented mainly by borrowed vocabulary ( zarf< араб. ’наречие’, fiil> Arabic ‘verb’, etc.);

3) according to genetic characteristics, primordial terms are distinguished ( sayy'numeral', ayırıjı'definition', sez cheshiti'part of speech', etc.), borrowed ( name> Arab. 'spelling', sonor > lat.'sonorant', graphics > greek'graphic arts' , phrase > Greek'phrase', etc.) and terms created on the basis of Greco-Latin elements ( phonetician'phonetic' ← phonet+ik, Omoshekil'homoform' ← omo+shekil and etc.);

4) monolexemic terms differ in composition, i.e. single-word, including composites ( isim'noun', yalgama'affix', syfatfil'participle', etc.), and polylexemic, i.e. terms consisting of two or more words ( bash jumla'main sentence', og cheese sesi'front row sound', kechken zaman fiili'past tense verb', etc.);

5) according to the method of formation, the following are distinguished: a) terms created in a lexical-semantic way - by terminology of a commonly used word ( Tamyr'root', al'circumstance', etc.); b) affixations ( ben + zesh + me'assimilation', ses+dash'homophone', etc.); c) addition of bases and reduplication ( ohshav-kuchultiw (affix)'diminutive (affix)', dudak-dudak sesi'labial-labial sound'); d) lexico-syntactic way - by forming terms according to models of various types of phrases ( vastasyz kechken zaman fiili'obvious past tense of verb', ayirijy tabili murekkep jumle‘complex sentence with attributive clause’, etc.).

Linguistic terminology develops “throughout the entire history of linguistics and reflects not only changing views on language, not only the difference in linguistic usage in different schools and areas of linguistics, but also different national linguistic traditions.” A study of the linguistic terminology of the Crimean Tatar language of different historical periods shows that, having moved away from Arabic linguistic traditions, it began to be formed taking into account the achievements of European and Russian linguistics, which manifested itself in changes in the genetic, word-formation and other characteristics of the Crimean Tatar term.

According to some researchers (O.S. Akhmanova, N.V. Vasilyeva, etc.), in linguistics there is a problem of streamlining linguistic terminology, since it is a constantly changing open system, replenished with new elements. However, it cannot be standardized. It can only be systematized and unified. Dictionaries of linguistic terms of various types should serve these purposes. Analysis of terminographic material shows that currently there are only two dictionaries of linguistic terms in the Crimean Tatar language. One of them, “Til ve til bilgisi terminleri” (“Russian-Tatar terminological dictionary of language and linguistics”), was published in the pre-war period (1941) and is a translated Russian-Crimean Tatar dictionary. The other, “Kyrymtatar tili tilshynaslyk termlerinin lugaty” (“Dictionary of linguistic terms of the Crimean Tatar language”), published in 2001, is a dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. Since the linguistic terminology of the described language is not an impeccable system, one of the tasks of Crimean Tatar linguistics is a more complete selection and description of linguistic terms in dictionaries. E.R. Tenishev, analyzing scientific and educational literature. published after 1925 in the Crimean Tatar language, notes that “there is a need for more than one type of dictionary: what is needed are academic, normative-literary, translation, explanatory dictionaries, the language as a whole or the literary language, or dialects, or terminologies, or highly specialized."

A special subsystem should be distinguished from linguistic terminology - nomenclature. On the need to distinguish between the term itself and the nomen, terminology and nomenclature, following G.O. Vinokur is indicated by many terminologists (A.A. Reformatsky, O.S. Akhmanova, N.V. Vasilyeva, B.N. Golovin, R.Yu. Kobrin, T.R. Kiyak, V.M. Leichik, A.V. Superanskaya, A.V. Lemov, etc.). However, the views of researchers on understanding the essence of a nomenclature name differ. Some scientists call nomen an “abstract and conventional symbol” (V.G. Vinokur), others consider them as a special type of terms correlated with individual concepts and actualizing subject connections (B.N. Golovin, R.Yu. Kobrin). According to V.M. Leichik, nomenclature “is an intermediate, connecting link in a series of nomenclature units - between terms and proper names.” As noted by A.V. Lemov, summarizing opinions on this issue, the following can be revealed: “The term has a predominantly significative meaning, the nomen has a denotative meaning, since it is associated with a more specific concept. The term performs both nominative and definitive functions, while nomen performs only nominative functions.”

We tend to adhere to the views of O.S. Akhmanova and N.V. Vasilyeva on this issue, and we accept the definition according to which nomenclature is “a system of specific names that are used to designate specific linguistic objects.” So, N.V. Vasilyeva distinguishes the concepts of “linguistic term” and “linguistic nomenclature” in this way: suffix – is the term diminutive suffix– specific term, diminutive suffix of the Russian language -ushk-- this is a nomen. Consequently, nomenclature designations are names of more specific objects. In relation to the Crimean Tatar language, this relationship of linguistic concepts will look like this: yalgama'affix' is a term sez yapiji yalgama'derivational affix' is a specific term, isim yapydzhy - dash / - desh yalgyamasy'affix-dash / -desh, forming a noun' – nomen. A large number of linguistic nomen of the Crimean Tatar language are described in the work of Usein Kurkchi “Kyrymtatar tili imlyasyna dair teklifler” (“Proposals for Crimean Tatar orthography”).

The distinction between term and nomen is determined by their semantics. Nomenclatural names do not have the definitive function characteristic of terms; their meaning is “denotative, objective, while the semantics of the term behind which there is an abstract concept is significative.”

Researchers also note the shifting boundaries between nomenclature units and terms (O.S. Akhmanova, N.V. Vasilyeva, etc.). “Any nomenclature sign, no matter how limited it is in its use, can acquire a more general character if similar phenomena are discovered in other languages ​​or if a more general universal content is revealed in the initially narrow names,” points out O.S. Akhmanova.

Thus we will distinguish linguistic terms– words and phrases used in linguistics to express special concepts, and linguistic nomenclature as a specific name to designate specific elements in the language system.

Due to the fact that the number of nomenclature designations is unlimited, the object of our attention will be linguistic terms.

Lecture No. 3

Subject: Linguistic terminology and its specificity.

Plan:

1. Linguistic terminology and nomenclature.
2. Main groups of linguistic terms.
3. Genetic characteristics of linguistic terms of the Crimean Tatar language.
4. Derivational aspect of linguistic terminology.
5. Semantic processes in the scientific terminology of the Crimean Tatar language.

Literature:

1. Ganieva E.S. From the history of linguistic terminology of the Crimean Tatar language // Culture of the peoples of the Black Sea region. – Simferopol, 2004. – No. 47. – P. 9-12.

2. Ganieva E.S. System of linguistic terms in the Arabographic grammar of the early 20th century “Sarf-i Turkiy” // Culture of the peoples of the Black Sea region. – Simferopol, 2005. – No. 68. – P. 45-48.

34. Ganieva E.S. Types of systemic relations in Crimean Tatar linguistic terminology (synonymy and antonymy) // Culture of the peoples of the Black Sea region. – Simferopol, 2006. – No. 86. – P. 91-94.

5. 6. 7. Ganieva E.S. Structural and grammatical design of linguistic terms in the Crimean Tatar language // Culture of the peoples of the Black Sea region. – Simferopol, 2007. – No. 120 – P. 71-74.

weather "bad weather" weather "fine weather" About Kanye vocabulary
discrimination after hard consonants in an unstressed position of sounds corresponding to stressed [o] and [a]. Usually, when okana in the 1st pre-stressed syllable, the sounds [o] (or [o y]) and [a] are distinguished: [water] [grass]. Less often, [b] appears in place of [o]: [vda] [grass]. With complete okanye [o] and [a] differ in all unstressed syllables, with incomplete only in the 1st pre-stressed syllable (see commentary on card 12). Ocaña opposed. Yekanye (ekanye) is characteristic of many Central Russian and some Northern Russian dialects. It, along with hiccups, is an orthoepic norm of the Russian literary language. Yekanye is a type of yakanya. akanyu Spelling ortho s"correct" and
grа phō“I’m writing”) spelling, a system of rules for writing words in a given language. akanyu Orthoe pia (Greek"correct" and e pos"speech") section
phonetics consona ns (see), studying the norms of literary pronunciation; compliance with the rules of literary pronunciation. Perfe CT perfectum “perfect”) tense verb form denoting an action carried out in the past, before the moment of speech, and the result of this action is preserved in the present. For example, in English the perfect I have written a letter “I wrote a letter (and it, for example, lies in front of me)” is contrasted in meaning to the simple past tense I wrote a letter “I wrote a letter (and, for example, already sent it).” In Russian dialects, perfect forms like
he arrived simple past tense forms he arrived. Linguistic (dialectological) language
Proto-Slavic language the original, oldest form of the word. Proto-forms are the forms of proto-languages ​​(for example, forms of the Proto-Slavic language serve as proto-forms for Russian words). Proto-forms are very rarely attested (for example, proto-forms are forms of the Latin language for Romance languages); they are usually reconstructed (restored using special methods) based on a comparison of the forms of individual languages ​​that go back to a given prototype. Comparative historical linguistics deals with the reconstruction of proto-languages.
Productive suffix“geography”) is a science whose task is to clarify the territorial boundaries of the distribution of individual linguistic phenomena. console) actively used in the language to form words. For example, the suffix -ik is productive because it is widely used to form diminutives from new words: jeans from jeans.
Derived word a word formed, derived from another word. This new word contains the basis or part of the basis of the word from which it is derived, and is connected with it in meaning. For example, lunch dining, table table, sun sunflower, run run.
Vowel reduction(lat. reductio“reduction, decrease”) change in vowel sounds, consisting in their less distinct articulation, shorter duration of sound.
Reduced the conventional name of the Proto-Slavic sounds, depicted in the Old Slavonic and Old Russian languages ​​with the letters ъ (er) and ь (er). They were pronounced very briefly compared to other vowels. The sound ъ, apparently, was similar to the English [u] in the words to look, book, sound ь into English [i] in words bit, to sit. In Russian, ъ and ь either developed into full vowels [o] and [e]/["о], respectively, or dropped out (for example, they always dropped out at the end of words): mъхъ moss, R. p. mokha moss; ps dog , R. p. dog dog e And O. So-called fluent vowels
in Russian they come from reduced ones. Letters And ъ b in Russian dialectological transcription they are used for special vowel sounds, similar to those denoted by these letters in Old Church Slavonic and Old Russian: m [ъ] loco , [p"b] stop
. See comments to cards 12 and 13 for more details.. Yekanye (ekanye) is characteristic of many Central Russian and some Northern Russian dialects. It, along with hiccups, is an orthoepic norm of the Russian literary language. Yekanye is a type of yakanya. Semantics semantiko s “denoting”) meaning of a word, figure of speech, grammatical form or Linguistic (dialectological) language
morphemes“I’m writing”) spelling, a system of rules for writing words in a given language. Syntax syntaxis
“composition, combination”) 1) a section of linguistics, the subject of study of which is phrases and sentences; 2) the system, structure of phrases and sentences in the language their types, meaning, etc. Slavic languages . Family of closely related(see) languages. Modern Slavic languages ​​are divided into three groups: South Slavic (Slovene, Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian and Bulgarian languages), West Slavic (Polish, Kashubian, Czech, Slovak, Upper and Lower Sorbian languages) and East Slavic (Belarusian, Ukrainian, Russian languages). Slavic languages ​​go back to a single Proto-Slavic language(cm.). Of the Indo-European languages, the closest to the Slavic languages ​​are the Baltic (Lithuanian, Latvian, dead Prussian languages).
Word formation the formation of new words by combining roots (stems) with prefixes and suffixes, as well as connecting stems with each other according to certain models, including the rules for alternating sounds in a given language.
Sonorous consonants(lat. sonorus"sonorous"), or sonants, consonant sounds, in the formation of which the voice (musical tone) prevails over noise, for example [m], [n], [l], [r], [th].
Spir nts consona ns spirans“blowing, exhaling”) the same as fricatives or fricative consonants.
Old Slavonic language(another name Old Church Slavic) the conventional name of the language of the most ancient Slavic translations of liturgical books from Greek, which were completed in the middle of the 9th century. The first translations from Greek into Slavic were made by the great enlighteners, the creators of Slavic writing and literary language, Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius.

The language of their translation was based on the Slavic dialect of the Macedonian city of Thessaloniki (Soluni), close to modern Bulgarian and Macedonian dialects.

Let's talk about what linguistics is and what its main branches are.

Definition of linguistics

Linguistics is a science that studies language, its development, phenomena, elements and units that make up a particular language. The term comes from the Latin lingua - "language". The original Russian term linguistics is considered a synonym for linguistics.

Most linguistic disciplines are studied at universities in philological faculties, and we become acquainted with the basics of linguistics in elementary school during Russian and foreign language lessons.

Classical branches of linguistics

So, we have found out what linguistics is, and now we can talk about its main sections. The main or classical sections of linguistics, which each of us becomes familiar with throughout our schooling, are phonetics, graphics, morphology, syntax, lexicology and phraseology, as well as stylistics.

Learning any language begins with phonetics and graphics.

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound structure of a language, sounds and syllables. Graphics deals with the study of letters and their relationship with sounds.

The next section of linguistics that is taught at school is grammar. This is a science that studies the structure of language. Consists of two sections: morphology and syntax. Morphology studies the parts of speech of a language and their word formation and inflection. Syntax studies phrases and sentences. Note that syntax is closely related to punctuation, which studies the rules for using punctuation marks.

Periodically, while studying a language, schoolchildren study other branches of linguistics: lexicology and phraseology, stylistics.

Lexicology is a science that studies the vocabulary of a language, establishing the meaning of words and the norms of their use. Lexicology examines synonyms and antonyms, paronyms, the lexical composition of a language by origin and social use.

Phraseology is a section that studies phraseological units, that is, stable expressions of a particular language.

Stylistics is the science of speech styles and means of linguistic expression. At school, students are constantly exposed to artistic, journalistic, scientific, and epistolary styles of language. They learn not only to recognize them, but also to independently create texts in one style or another.

Special sections

When entering the university at the Faculty of Philology, students continue their acquaintance with linguistics, learn what linguistics is and how many sections and sciences it actually contains.

Thus, linguistics is divided into theoretical, which deals with the problems of linguistic models, and applied, aimed at finding solutions to practical problems related to the study of language and its use in other fields of knowledge. In addition, there is practical linguistics, which deals with the problems of transmission and cognition of language.

Theoretical linguistics includes the previously mentioned sections of linguistics, such as morphology and syntax, lexicology, stylistics and others.

Applied branches of linguistics

Applied branches of linguistics include cognitive linguistics, dialectology and history of language, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, ethnolinguistics, lexicography, linguodidactics, terminology, translation, and computer linguistics.

Each of these sections deals with the study of one or another area of ​​the language and its application.

Thus, ethnolinguistics deals with the study of language in its connection with the culture of the people.

Psycholinguistics is a science at the intersection of psychology and linguistics. She studies the relationship between language, thinking and consciousness.

Cognitive linguistics deals with establishing connections between language and human mental activity, his attention and memory, and language perception.

Computational linguistics deals with problems of machine translation, automatic text recognition, information retrieval and even linguistic expertise.

Lexicography is also quite interesting - the science that deals with compiling dictionaries.

The history of language studies the development of language, and in this it is significantly helped by another linguistic discipline - dialectology.

As you can see, this is not a complete list of sections and disciplines that modern linguistics studies. Every year more and more new linguistic disciplines appear, more and more new language problems related to the development and improvement of language are studied.

conclusions

Linguistics is a science that deals with the study of languages ​​and their structure. It has many language sections, and every year there are more and more of them. We become acquainted with some linguistic disciplines at school, but the bulk of them are studied in philological faculties.

Now you know what linguistics is and what main sections it consists of.