Language as a social phenomenon. Language functions

The relationship between language, thinking and reality. Syncretism of thinking is characteristic. Man is part of nature and part of society. Man = world. A person has a mind. Man = thinking. World = thinking. You can understand the world through words. The unity of language and thinking resulted in the identity of language and thinking. Thinking could only be in verbal-logical form. This identity existed because the linguistic and mental content did not differ. Logos is what the gods use to enter into conversation with people. Logos is both a thought adequately expressed in a word and a word adequately expressing a thought.

Different representations of a language sign(see pictures separately).

Plato. The most important thing is the world of ideas. Things are shadows in the world of ideas. But things exist. The reason for naming d.b. thing. Is there some more image of a thing(eidos). He's in charge. There is an idea, an image of a name. A name (sign) appears. It is a sensory object. So, a quadrilateral: a thing, the idea of ​​a thing (eidos), a sensually perceived name-sign, an idea, an image of a name.

Stoics accept these elements. They are just named incorrectly, because... do not reveal the nature of the linguistic sign. There is a thing. D.b. zvuk (sound) = denoting. A name is a thing. But then they realized that there was no direct connection. D.b. and doing things. It is in the psyche (i.e. mental representation). She moves towards the idea of ​​a name (lekton). Lecton is a designation in relation to sound. This is an image of a word. For the Stoics, the beginning is from the thing itself, and not from its idea. Then only the signified and the signifier remained, because only this belongs to language, but the thing and the image of the thing do not. The sign turned out to be double-sided.

Aristotle. 3 worlds: the world of things (real), the world of ideas (rational) and the world of language.

Triangle: object (thing), representation in the soul, symbol (sounding or written name). The idea in the soul is more than a concept. But not as vague as the idea of ​​a thing. The idea in the soul is unchanged for all times.

The question of the truth of naming. See summary.

Three interlocutors take part in the dialogue "Cratylus": Socrates, Hermogenes and Cratylus. The immediate problem of this dialogue is whether it is possible to understand the essence of a thing if you know its name, in other words, whether names can be tools for knowing things.

Grammar and logic Port-Royal

Linguistics of the 17th century. basically went in the field of theory in two ways: deductive and inductive, associated with an attempt to identify the general properties of actually existing languages. The most famous and popular example of the inductive approach is the so-called grammar Port-Royal, first published in 1660 without indicating the names of its authors Antoine Arnault and Claude Lanslot. Although it combines both 1) and 2).

Grammar entered the history of science under a name that did not belong to the authors (“General and Rational Grammar” is the beginning of a very long real name). Convent Port-Royal in those years it was the center of advanced thought; a circle of scientists was associated with it, which included the authors of the grammar.

The authors of the grammar considered a purely descriptive approach to language insufficient and sought to create explanatory grammar. The authors of grammar proceeded from the existence of a general logical basis of languages, from which specific languages ​​deviate to varying degrees. The orientation towards the Latin standard was not yet completely overcome in grammar. But many languages ​​are involved.

Let us note one more feature of the "Grammar" Port-Royal", which also influenced its further reputation. Like the linguistic works of the previous time, it was purely synchronic. The “rational basis” of all languages ​​is considered as something unchangeable, and the factor of historical development is simply not included in the concept. Latin and French are considered in the book as two different languages, not as an ancestor language and a descendant language.

Tasks:

1) Explain the mechanisms of thought, as well as

2) rules of linguistic expression, everyday life, use.

B I part of the Grammar we are talking about signs (about what they are by nature), i.e. the material side is considered. And in II parts are considered meanings, i.e. the way people use them to mean their thoughts. To speak means to explain one's thoughts using signs invented by people for this purpose. The most convenient for these signs are sounds and voice.

Words are articulate sounds that people use as signs to indicate their thoughts. Our mind can perform 3 operations: contemplate, judge and conclude [Zubkova and Krasina identify 4 operations: + arrange].

As a result of contemplation - an idea cast in a word - a representation (but not a concept).

Correspondence between language and logical units:

1. Contemplation – concept – word

2. Judgment - judgment - proposal

3. Inference - inference - complex sentence

4. Arrangement -- text

The theory of the origin of language is conditional (by agreement).

Language has corporeal and extended matter. An accident appears in the language, which is called UZUS.

Language ¹ thinking. But thinking is inseparable from language. 2 worlds exist in parallel. Ideas are innate. We can think without language. The core of language is in ideas and acoustic images. It happens that there is no thing, but there is a name (love). Sometimes a thing exists, but it is not named (taboo vocabulary). Language is an intermediary between a person and ready-made thoughts and acquired knowledge.

thing represented

idea of ​​the thing represented

idea of ​​a thing representing

thing representing

The sign is double-sided.

Johann Gottfried Herder

(1744 – 1803)

Herder is a pre-romantic. Formulated the main theses of romanticism. This I historical concept of language.

Height national self-awareness. Europe was not united. Who is cooler? This stimulated the ideas of Romanticism. The idea of ​​development. The principle of historicism is used. Development is required with a "+". Herder proves that language is not of divine nature, but of human nature. Reasoning: first about the natural, then about the mind. Language has a sound nature. The sounds of human language occupy a special place in nature. They are articulate. Nature has been creating the human speech apparatus for a long time. And it varies depending on natural conditions. In birds and animals that can imitate human speech, the apparatus is not so developed. A person develops. Life line: baby – child – youth – adult – elderly. Each age has its own position in the world and its own view of the world.

The child has intelligence, thanks to which he understands what he can do.

The young man is already able to contribute to the life of his family and society. They are starting to teach him. He is reasonable.

An adult can teach himself. He is independent. His mind arises. Although he continues to study.

Old man. This is the period of philosophical age. He no longer just has intelligence, but intelligence. He is wise.

Thinking becomes more abstract. Man is naturally given internal and external language. External language - sound. The internal language is silent. This is the need for language, the need to say something. The inner language stimulates the outer. Nature has endowed man with a speech apparatus. Upright walking also played a role. Consequences: hands freed, outlook changed. Development of hands as a universal tool. Human started cooking hot food Þ human internal organs have become rebuild. External language is needed in order to organize activities.

The category of the people, the spirit of the people (this term appeared later). The development of peoples occurs unevenly (depending on conditions). We must distinguish between civilized and uncivilized peoples. Only Europeans are civilized. These are not evaluative terms, but different stages of development. Primitive peoples are natural and spontaneous in language. Their language is figurative, poetic. Civilized peoples use the language of prose.

Childhood and youth are the language of primitive, uncivilized peoples. Figurative language.

Maturity and old age are the language of civilized peoples. Maturity is the language of fiction. Old age is the language of philosophical prose.

All these languages ​​are connected by evolutionary relationships. (Many writers started with poetry, and then moved on to prose, and then to philosophical prose)

Languages ​​differ in the presence of more or less rational component.

Wilhelm von Humboldt

Objects of linguistics:

1) language in itself;

2) the human race in general in its progressive development;

3) individual peoples;

4) individual/person.

Language is integrated into culture, i.e. through language you can study culture, thinking, and the world.

Language as an activity. Language is a dynamic unit, activity, process (since it has a reason and purpose). Language is directed towards sound and thought. Through language, thought is clothed in sounds. Thought is not equal to sound. There are a finite number of sounds and an infinite number of thoughts. We formulate thoughts with the help of sounds. Language is a form, not a product. Language is not equal to thinking and is not equal to sound. But as a result of language as an activity, at some point it turns out that language is equal to thinking and sound (as well as man and the world). Language is not a product of activity ( ergon), and activity ( energeia ).

The purpose of language is to express thoughts and express oneself (social orientation and mutual understanding: we express thoughts in order to be understood). Language is a uniform activity (otherwise people will not understand each other). A person addresses his interlocutor as an equal. There is "language from the speaker", "language from the listener" and "language from the object" (message). With successful communication, I and YOU use, as it were, the same language. We need to clarify the message so that we are understood. The formalized message no longer relates only to the speaker. Roles are constantly changing. Subjectivity increases (understood as multi-subjectivity), people feel their unity.

Language is a creative activity. It manifests itself in 2 processes: 1) synthesis of the internal form of language with external sound matter, and therefore with the external form of language; 2) synthesis of idea and material object (as well as ideal object).

Language as reflection and sign. Language is a subjective image of the objective world. Language is a form of reflection of the world. The knowledge that a person receives through the senses is empirical. When they are converted into generalizations, we get a theory. The word is first a reflection of what is sensed, and then a reflection of the mind. As a result, we get a sign. The mind cannot comprehend that which has no feelings. But the feeling is not fully realized if there is no conceptual basis. The word is not a copy of a thing, an idea, but a reflection of an idea. Therefore, a word has the ability to reflect a thing from different sides (polysemy). The word arises as an individual act of cognition. The concept is secondary to the word. Without a word we cannot imagine a concept. A word is not just a sign for a thing independent of it. It is a sign insofar as and as long as it is used instead of a thing.

Language and thinking. Thinking without language is formless, dark, unformed. Thinking with language. Thinking is not the same as language. “Thinking does not simply depend on language in general, because to a certain extent it is determined by each individual language.” A person can neither think nor develop without language: “The creation of language is due to the internal need of humanity. Language is not just an external means of communication between people and maintaining social connections, but is inherent in the very nature of man and is necessary for the development of his spiritual powers and the formation of a worldview, but This can only be achieved by a person when he puts his thinking in connection with social thinking.” Thinking is impossible without language: " Language is an organ that forms thought. Intellectual activity, completely spiritual, deeply internal and passing in a certain sense without a trace, through sound materializes in speech and becomes accessible to sensory perception. Intellectual activity and language therefore represent a single whole. By necessity, thinking is always connected with the sounds of language; otherwise thought will not be able to achieve distinctness and clarity, the idea will not be able to become a concept."

Thinking influences language because... language is a creation of the human mind. This is an intellectual instinct. As thought develops, words acquire ever deeper meanings, i.e. As thinking improves, language also improves. According to the laws of thinking, grammatical categories are formed.

Language and reality. Language is a mediator between the world and man. The world: material and ideal. Man is part of the world. W. von Humboldt rejects the idea that a person’s ideas about the world are independent of his language. The different division of the world by different languages, as the scientist noted, “is revealed by comparing a simple word with a simple concept... Of course, it is far from indifferent whether one language uses descriptive means where another language expresses it in one word, without resorting to grammatical forms. .. The law of division will inevitably be violated if what is represented as unity in the concept does not appear as such in expression, and the whole reality of the individual word disappears for the concept that lacks such expression.”

Language and spirit. The primary and indefinable concept for W. Humboldt is “human spiritual power,” specifically manifested in the form of the “spirit of the people.” Just as “language in general” is inextricably linked with “human spiritual strength,” so each specific language is connected with the “spirit of the people”: “A language... with all the finest threads of its roots has grown together... with the strength of the national spirit, and the stronger the influence of the spirit on language, the more natural and rich the development of the latter, in all its strict interweaving, it is only a product of the linguistic consciousness of the nation, and therefore the main questions about the origins and internal life of the language cannot be properly answered without rising to the point of view of spiritual strength and national identity." . W. von Humboldt does not give either a definition of a people or a definition of a separate language, but he constantly points out their inseparability: a language, in contrast to a dialect, on the one hand, and a language family, on the other, is the property of an individual people, and a people is a multitude of people speaking the same language.

The spirit of the people and the language of the people are inseparable: “The spiritual identity and structure of the language of the people are in such close fusion with each other that as soon as one exists, then the other must necessarily follow from this... Language is, as it were, an external manifestation of the spirit of peoples: the language of a people is its spirit, and the spirit of a people is its language, and it is difficult to imagine anything more identical ". With this unity, the spirit of the people is still primary. At the same time, the spirit of the people is completely inaccessible to observation; we can learn about it only by its manifestations, primarily by language: "Among all the manifestations through which the spirit and character of the people is known “Only language is capable of expressing the most original and subtle features of the people’s spirit and character and penetrating their innermost secrets.”

But in order to understand how the spirit of the people is realized in language, one must correctly understand what language is. As W. von Humboldt notes, “language appears before us in an infinite variety of its elements - words, rules, all kinds of analogies and all kinds of exceptions, and we fall into considerable confusion due to the fact that all this variety of phenomena, which, as it no matter how we classify it, it still appears to us as a discouraging chaos, we must lead to the unity of the human spirit." We cannot limit ourselves to fixing this chaos; we must look for the main thing in each language.

System and structure of the language . Language consists of matter (substance) and form. “The real matter of language is, on the one hand, sound in general, and on the other, the totality of sensory impressions and involuntary movements of the spirit that precede the formation of a concept, which is accomplished with the help of language.” It is impossible to say anything about linguistic matter in abstraction from form: “in the absolute sense, there cannot be any unformed matter in language”; in particular, sound "becomes articulate by giving it form." It is the form, and not the matter that plays only an auxiliary role, that constitutes the essence of language.

As W. von Humboldt writes, “what is constant and uniform in this activity of the spirit, which elevates articulate sound to the expression of thought, taken in the totality of its connections and systematicity, constitutes the form of language.” The scientist opposed the idea of ​​form as “the fruit of scientific abstraction.” Form, like matter, exists objectively; form “represents a purely individual impulse through which a particular people embodies its thoughts and feelings in language.” The form cannot be cognized as a whole; it is given to us to observe “only in specific individual manifestations.” On the one hand, everything in language in one way or another reflects its form. On the other hand, different phenomena have different significance: “in each language one can find many things that, perhaps, without distorting the essence of its form, could be imagined in another way.”

Form should not be understood narrowly only as grammatical form. We see form at any level of language: in the area of ​​sounds, in grammar, and in vocabulary. Form 1) formalizes the designations of concepts of individual objects (vocabulary); 2) defines the designations of general relations applicable to the mass of individual objects (grammatical and lexical categories); 3) determines the laws of speech construction (syntax). The form of each language is separate and unique, but the forms of different languages ​​have certain similarities. But we can also talk about the general form of all languages, “if we are only talking about the most general features.” “Language combines the individual with the universal in such a wonderful way that it is equally correct to say that the entire human race speaks one language, and each person has his own language.”

Speaking about the sound side of the language, W. von Humboldt proceeded from the not very developed state of phonetics of his time and even mixed sound with letters. Among the units of language, V. von Humboldt primarily singled out the word. Along with the words of W. von Humboldt, he also emphasized roots. He distinguished between roots “as a product of frequent reflection and the result of word analysis,” that is, “as a result of the work of grammarians,” and real roots existing in a number of languages, needed by speakers in connection with “certain laws of derivation.”

Language and speech. “It is impossible to imagine that the creation of a language began with the designation of objects by words, and then the combination of words took place. In reality, speech is not built from the words that precede it, but, on the contrary, words arise from speech.” At the same time, any speech is divided into words; “words should be understood as signs of individual concepts”; “the word forms the boundary up to which language acts independently in its creative process.” That is, words are already given to the speaker by the language, while “for sentence and speech, language establishes only regulatory schemes, leaving their individual design to the will of the speaker.”

Internal and external form of language, their synthesis . The external form is sound. Language is an activity aimed at transforming thought into sound. External form is sound that has become articulate.Language form is far from being reduced to external, sound form. Of even greater importance is the internal form of language, dividing “sensory impressions and involuntary movements of the spirit.” The internal form, specific to each language, is manifested both in the division of the world in the field of vocabulary and in the system of grammatical categories. In connection with the internal form of language, W. von Humboldt touches on a problem that later began to be interpreted as a difference in the meaning and meaning of a word; from the point of view of the formation of the concept, “a word is not the equivalent of a sensually perceived object, but the equivalent of how it was comprehended by the speech-creative act at a specific moment of the invention of the word. It is here that the main source of the variety of expressions for the same object is found. Truly, language does not represent itself to us objects, but always only concepts about them."

Neither the sound nor the internal form of a language create language on their own; their synthesis is necessary: ​​“The combination of the sound form with the internal laws of language gives completeness to languages, and the highest stage of their completeness is marked by the transition of this connection, always renewed in simultaneous acts of the linguistic creative spirit, into their true and pure interpenetration. Starting from its first element, the generation of language is a synthetic process, synthetic in the true sense of the word when synthesis creates something that was not contained in any of the combined parts as such.” This process is completed only when the entire structure of the sound form firmly and instantly merges with the internal formation. The beneficial consequence of this is the complete consistency of one element with another." In fact, here we are talking about what was later called the two-sidedness of the sign, and once again here W. von Humboldt emphasizes the systematic nature of language, the interconnectedness of its elements.

Language classifications. Distinguishes between perfect and imperfect languages. If a language is perfect, then its internal organization corresponds to the maximum extent to the organization of thinking.

Language development. Humboldt believes that there was a favorable period in the history of mankind when all languages ​​and human language in general arose. But he cannot say when it was. This happened when a synthesis of sensory and rational knowledge appeared. A contrast between subject and object arose.

August Schleicher

The name of A. Schleicher (1821-1868)1 is associated not only with the formation of Indo-European studies into a special science, but also with the use of the natural scientific method in language research and the foundation of the naturalistic trend in linguistics, which is also called linguistic naturalism. His main works: “Morphology of the Church Slavonic language” (1852), “Guide to the study of the Lithuanian language” (1855-1857), “On the morphology of language” (1859), dedicated to the morphological classification of languages, “Compedia of comparative grammar of Indo-European languages” (1861- 1862), “Darwin's Theory as Applied to the Science of Language” (1863, Russian translation, 1864) and “Anthology of Indo-European Languages” (1868).

Like Humboldt, Schleicher believed that the study of linguistic form and the typological and genealogical taxonomy of languages ​​constitute the main content of linguistics (“glottics”), which studies the origin and further development of these forms of language. Glottika is a natural science, and philology is historical. The syntax does not belong here or there. But still closer to philology.

The Organism of Language and Natural Science . Schleicher believed that language should be considered as a natural organism that lives in the same way as the organisms of nature. The natural scientific principle on which linguistics should be based presupposes the recognition of the following postulates:

1) language as a natural organism exists outside of human will, it cannot be changed (“Languages ​​are natural organisms that arose without the participation of human will, grew and developed according to certain laws and, in turn, age and die”). Language does not serve as an expression of feelings, sensations, desires, expression of will; it is only an expression of thinking;

2) the “life of language,” like the life of nature, is development, not history; therefore, there was growth only in the prehistoric period, and the true life of a language is manifested in dialects, while the historical period is characterized by the decay of forms, aging and death of language forms and the languages ​​themselves (just as rocks weather and organisms decompose in nature), and literary and written forms are artificial formations;

3) linguistics must be based on accurate observation of organisms and the laws of their existence, on the complete subordination of the researcher to the object of study. “From natural scientists one can learn to realize that for science only a fact established through reliable, strictly objective observation, and a correct conclusion based on such a fact, matters.” Methods of linguistics - methods of natural sciences.

Morphological classification of languages . Learned Schleicher called this about linguistic types morphology, borrowing this term from natural science, where it denoted the science of the structure and morphogenesis of plants. The morphology of languages ​​should study the morphological types of languages, their origin and mutual relationships. Depending on the completeness of the synthesis of meaning and relationship, the type of language as an organism is determined.

The morphological type (class) of a language is determined by the structure of the word, which can express meaning (“root”) and relationship (“suffix”). Three types of value combinations are allowed and relations:

1) isolating (monosyllabic) languages ​​have only meanings (roots); relationships are expressed using word order and supersegmental means; - crystal

2) agglutinating languages ​​express meaning and relation (roots and prefixes); Schleicher considered polysynthetic (incorporating) languages, identified by Humboldt, as a variant of the agglutinating form of language. - plant

3) inflected languages ​​form a unit in a word that expresses meaning and attitude. - animal

Morphological types of language are a manifestation of three stages (stages) of development: the monosyllabic class represents the oldest form, the beginning of development; agglutinating - this is the middle stage of development; inflected languages, as the last stage, contain in a compressed form the elements of the two previous stages of development.

2 periods of language evolution: prehistoric and historical. All language is formed in the prehistoric period. During the historical period, humanity receives a ready-made language. This is the only thing we can study.

Afanasy Afanasyevich Potebnya

Synthesizes Herbert's associative theory and the ideas of the comparative historical method.

Genetic determination of language . Language is a form of thought. At the same time, this is a transition from unconscious to consciousness and to self-awareness.

Language functions. Language is a means of man’s knowledge of the world and himself, and therefore a means of communication.

Form and existence of language - This is an activity aimed at knowledge. Language is complete creativity.

By devicelanguage is a system of signs capable of limitless expansion.

Linguistics. Language is understood as form (borrowed from Humboldt). Distinguishes external and internal forms. Internal form - content. Potebnya takes a step forward compared to Humboldt. Linguistic content, method of its presentation. The method of presenting extralingual content is the linguistic form. We get different pictures of the world. Potebnya tried to formulate Humboldt's propositions more specifically. He distinguished linguistic and extralingual (mental) content. Thinking does not necessarily have a linguistic form. Linguistic content is formalized mental content. Extralingual and linguistic contents interact with each other. Linguistic content has its own form - articulate sound. Linguistic content is a form in relation to extralingual content. The form is meaningful, and the content is formalized. Not everything that is in extralingual content is formalized by linguistic content. That which is not formalized is a “thing in itself” (more correctly, “a thing for itself”).

2 categories: sound and meaning. There must be 2 disciplines (as they say in Port Royale): about the external side (phonetics) and about meaning (the study of the internal form of language). He distinguished 2 aspects: the doctrine of material meaning (lexical) and grammatical form.

He divides both disciplines into historical and descriptive.

Linguistics is a humanities science (since it involves a person and his history). He also gave a new term - this is basic (basic) science, because describes the basic forms of thought. The second main science is mathematics. Linguistics more more elementary than mathematics, because mathematics without language is impossible. Linguistics is a historical and genetic science.

Linguistics and logic . Logic is the science of the laws of thinking. Linguistic units are not identical to logical ones. A proposition is not the same as a judgement. Language e units are not identical to logical ones, because:

1) the word in the course of thought precedes the concept and differs in content (as in Humboldt);

2) grammatical and logical correctness are completely different and can exist separately, without each other;

3) there are more grammatical categories than logical categories;

4) individual differences between languages ​​cannot be understood from a logical-grammatical point of view at all. Logical grammar proclaims the universality of grammatical categories, and they are popular and temporary.

5) logics as a science is not interested in hypothetical history. And linguistics is a genetic science. The data of language are comprehended only by history.

6) logics judges thought from the point of view of its identity with itself. In linguistics - from the point of view of identity with language.

Those. linguistics is no closer to logic than any other science.

Language and thinking. Language is not equal to thinking. Language is capable of compressing an endless stream of impressions into thoughts. The linguistic sign is capable of endless expansion. A sign in a word is a necessary replacement for the speed of thought for the corresponding image or concept. A sign is a hint. It is not equal to the concept. There is thinking before language and without language, but it already carries the need for a concept.

The device of the word . A verbal sign is a two-sided entity: sound/meaning. There is sound matter that is diffused in nature. Sound matter is quite formless; we cannot list all the sources of sounds. Sound is a sensory reaction (reflection of feelings). Under the influence of thinking, these sounds become articulate. Potebnya is a supporter of the onomatopoeic theory.

h whine as a sensual reaction

ß

articulate sounds

ß

formalized sound articulate matter = mental image of sound (phoneme)

ß

external sound form (mental content)

ß

internal form (mental content)

The sound is outside the verbal sign, but it is mandatory. We have a sound (acoustic) image of the word.

I element of a word mark – sound image. This image is subjective, it is personal, individual, based on the personal associations of each person. One individual image and one individual meaning arises.

Based on 1 meaningful feature, a performance. The meaning of the performance arises here and now. The sound image is meaningless. Representation may also be b without meaning (if it is not identified). If we stop here, the sound image is the sign, and the representation is the meaning. But they may not understand us, because... meanings are individual. It can be expressed differently. You can explain what else this meaning is connected with. Several meanings arise.

Then there arises closest value. It already appears as linguistic. It breaks down into lexical and grammatical. Grammatical meaning is very abstract, it represents a grammatical category. And in the lexical meaning there is a certain set of features. You may not know the lexical meaning, but understand the grammatical meaning. From here the most general thing can be understood (process, subject). The immediate meaning should be understood by everyone. This is the minimum information accessible and understandable to a naive native speaker. It is indicated in the dictionary.

Further meaning – the number of meanings tends to infinity. This is the subject of other sciences. This is encyclopedic knowledge. Extra-linguistic content (as well as an object as a cognizable object).

d highest value

closest value

performance

sound image

sound

Word mark norm:

closest value

sound image

The representation may disappear (borrowed words turn out to have no representation at all; Russian words may be replaced by another). But in all newly formed words it is necessary. Representation is the sign of the sign of meaning. If the idea is lost, syllables may drop out, the word may change.

The sound form is twice a sign of meaning (proximal) and three times a sign of further meaning. Sound and acoustic image are external form. Articulate sound is an artificial apparatus, not a word. We can pronounce this complex of sounds in isolation, but we pronounce it in a certain environment (if not verbal, then in communicative). A word in speech each time corresponds to only one act of thought. Therefore we have only 1 value each time. There are no polysemantic words, there are monosounding words.

Internal form is the closest meaning and representation.

The connection between sound and meaning. For the first words: sound symbolism No. There is an indirect connection. Language reflects the world not as a copy, but as a symbol. Interjections are mediated by emotions (emotion is an internal form). Secondary words: more indirect connection. Communication by tradition.

Sound becomes articulate only because it is permeated with thought. The sound indicates meaning not in itself, but according to tradition (because it meant something else). Sound is a sign of a sign. Without internal form, the sound will not be articulate.

The closest meaning is a specific word class sign. The categories of thought must be of a generalized nature. The category of thought must correspond to a linguistic category (parts of speech). Part of speech characteristics:

1. Categorical meaning behind which there is a category of thought. Categorical meaning is not linguistic! Very high degree of abstraction. (meaning)

2. Particular categorical meanings – conceptual and linguistic meaning. Grammar (morphology) and vocabulary. (form)

3. Syntactic function is a function beyond the word form. (function)

The general meaning (according to Potebne) is a fiction, because Even if there are the same number of word classes that are similar in their logical categorical content, there will always be numerous differences in the specific content of each class in each individual language.

Meaning is formal meaning. Area of ​​closest value.

Potebnya contrasts:

1) lexical meaning<>grammatical meaning

2) significant words<>function words

3) grammatical meaning<>word-formation meaning

The choice of meaning is not determined by form. With all changes in meaning, the form may. Same. And vice versa: when the form changes, the meaning can remain unchanged. Context – the desire to eliminate differences. The best formal grammatical context, pr.vr. So, Potebnya brought the syntactic function to an important place.

G. Paul and A.A. Potebnya came to the conclusion that it is possible to distinguish some categories of words, regardless of taking into account all 3 parameters, but primarily based on the original criterion.

Potebnya:

1) real value

2) formal meaning

Corollary: 1) If the real values ​​are the same, we will have related words (with a common root). They will belong to different parts of speech. This range of words will be very limited.

2) If there is a general formal meaning, then the series will be open. Derived words.

Paul:

1) real words

2) formal words

1) includes all changes characteristic of one c.r. (all cases, all changes by gender, etc.). Word formation is not included.

2) includes words with a general formal criterion (all Names, etc.).

Language as a sign system. Language is a system of signs capable of limitless expansion. The need for signs appears in the course of joint activities. Language is an activity during which language is not just used, but is constantly created and improved. The need for information compression is provided by signs. Further meaning is more capable of expansion. Compression occurs in the presentation area. Then the role of representation is taken over by the nearest meaning.

Members of a sentence and parts of speech are different views on the same problem. The members of a sentence are compression, and the parts of speech are expansion.

The most significant element is the closest meaning.

A sign is a representation of this or that (objects of cognition) in current affairs of thought (i.e., in the process of cognition).

The sign is tertiumcomparisonis(third element of comparison, basis for comparison) between what was and what will be. This is a relation to the previous meaning and a hint of the subsequent one.

Potebnya has his own view of the abstract and concrete in language. He denies that at the modern stage of development, syntactic forms acquire greater syntactic abstraction and complexity. Complex content can be expressed in simple form. With the development of languages, the decrease in forms does not lead to a decrease in the formality of the language.

Language functions. The tongue has a dual function:

1. Language is a means of compressing a huge number of features that make up the world of human knowledge and the meanings of words.

2. Language is capable of limitless expansion. Provides communication and understanding. The number of combinations with available elements is unlimited (as in numbers and chess).

Ivan Aleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay

The development of a systematic approach to language is associated with it. He called himself an autodidact. He took the initial principles from Leibniz, Humboldt, Herbert, Darwin. Historicism and psychologism manifested themselves in his concept. He sees primarily a mental factor in language. He distinguished between the phonetic and spiritual (mental) sides of language. Each given moment of language must be examined in connection with the complete development of language. Language is constantly evolving in time and space.

Language is a manifestation of the life of humanity. Language is a social and mental manifestation of a person; it is one of the functions of the human body. Genetically, language is one of the forms of thought; it is a universal reflex of the spirit to external irritation. The human psyche reflects the world, social phenomena, and human life in society. Language helps and allows these reflections to be carried out. By function: language, taken in the broadest sense of the word, is a way and means of communication between people. This refers to both language and speech. Language, in addition, is also a means of knowledge. By structure: language is one of the complexes of representations of the mental and social world.

I tried to separate my tongue and speech. Tries to present language as something holistic. There is also speech here.

As a system, language is present only potentially, although the elements are in close connection with each other, in close interaction. Speech as a psychophysical phenomenon, on the contrary, is always present.

Language competence and language use. We know more than we use (if it is our native language). Functions of potency and implementation. “Language is not just a tool, a complex of component parts, but also a continuously repeating process based on the social nature of man and his need for communication.”

“The linguistic ability that manifests itself in speech is the ability to associate extra-linguistic representations with linguistic ones, one’s own and someone else’s.”

Structure of linguistics. Linguistics is a mental (psychological) science. 2 sides: mental and physiological.

I linguistics

pure application

learning ready-made languagesbeginning languages

grammarsystematics (language as a whole)

describe .(synchronous)historical . structures.classification. ist.class.

external .from Torah. internal side .external side language . internal side

unitsunits

(associat .Byсх-ву (associat. on adjacent)

semasiology etymologypsychophonetics morphology syntax

(lexical .with semantics)

Baudouin said that he professed the monistic method, like Leibniz. The object and subject of all sciences is reality. There are general scientific methods, and there are specific scientific ones. They distinguish objects. Linguistics is an inductive science. He strives to generalize all phenomena and derive categories. We need to look at the forces that operate in language, and at the laws by which development in language takes place. The idea of ​​evolution and progress. Baudouin assigns a special role to analysis. Analysis is the beginning of all sciences. Analysis is the decomposition of units into their components. Linguistics is a human science. There is a constant “humanization” of language. Linguistics is a psychological-historical science. History is development, not chronology. In terms of methods, linguistics is a natural science. Linguistics stands on the border of the natural and human sciences (animal sciences - in which there is an animate being).

Language as a system. Language is a holistic and independent system. The integrity of the system is ensured by hierarchical connections of units (4 abstract units; hier.: consists of, one of, component part).

Independence: individual. lang., lang. n tribal, national.

2 sides of the tongue: external and internal. Internal, mental - cerebration. This is a brain process, this is language. External, physiological - phonation. This is purely pronunciation. This is the final sign of cerebration. It is necessary as a connecting link between the cerebrations of individual individuals. Phonation is only possible on the basis of cerebration. Cerebration is the leading side. Phonation is peripheral. Within cerebration, he distinguished 1) perception; non-linguistic picture of the world; 2) linguistic forms.

In the process of cerebration, the reflection of the internal and external properties of the world is recorded; what is in the human soul. At this stage of cerebration there are no linguistic forms. Attributing a linguistic form to the reflection - at stage II. It's all like Humboldt's. The language itself is viewed a little differently. 3 aspects of language: 1) external side (phonetic, physiological); 2) semantic representations; 3) morphology (structure): linguistic forms.

1 and 2 lie outside linguistic forms, they are extra-linguistic and universal.

“Human language is characterized by a unique, strictly linguistic morphology that is not repeated in other areas of existence. Morphology is the way in which the sound side is connected with mental content.”

Enters method of double division of current speech. He considered this method universal for identifying all linguistic units.

I.Division into word forms (phonetic words) – phonetic division. It is based on the breathing mechanism. Anthropophonetic division.

II.Division into meaningful units. This is psychic division. Division into morphemes. The morpheme will be larger than we see (zero morphemes). Baudouin called this division semasiological-morphological. It is based on associations based on similarity.

Words don't stand out anywhere! Baudouin denied legalized word-centrism and refused the word. The main classification unit is the sentence.

Cerebration is subject semasiological-morphological division. Here we highlight significant units: syntagma (=word), morpheme, phoneme (not for everyone).

Semasiology and morphologization. Connection in the cerebral center of the 2 sides of the tongue and 2 divisions. Contrasting these two divisions, Baudouin showed the dependence of the anthropocentric division on the semasiological-morphological one. Any complex of sounds belongs to language, since it is connected with the representation of the external world and is formalized by means of language. The connection between the two divisions is manifested in the semasiologiza- tion and morphologization of the means of articulation, i.e. in their association with different meanings or forms. S. and m. make the sound articulate. The phoneme has 2 functions: p. and m. For s. The ability of sound to distinguish words is worth it. For m. – distinguish morphological forms.

Socialization. Leads to the concept of linguistic value. Language serves the purpose of communication between individuals. The more deeply the language is dissected (the deeper the process of speech and language goes), the better it is adapted to the needs of communication.

Hierarchy of linguistic units. Through s. and M. Baudouin derived a hierarchy of units: sentence, syntagma (= word), morpheme, phoneme. Any of these units is an indivisible whole, and on the other hand, it is a collection of its constituent units. These units are distinguished on the basis of associations. A sentence is an integral part of current speech.

System of linguistic units. Introduced the concept of phoneme and its components (acousma, kinema, kinokema). A phoneme is the smallest insignificant unit of the sound structure of a language. 1) The mental equivalent of sound. Generalization anthropophonetic properties. 2) Pull-out morpheme element. This is the sound semasiological or morphologized.

Baudouin introduced the concept of center and periphery. He distinguished isolating, agglutinating, inflectional, and incorporating languages. Each language belongs to one type or another due to a leading tendency. Agglut. languages ​​are more rational, more orderly with t.zr. expressions of content. All inflected languages ​​are characterized by polymorphism (which is opposed to monomorphism).

Polymorphism:

1) the presence of polysemantic morphemes (not only inflections);

2) the ability to have several suffixes and prefixes.

Classifications:

I.Genetic. Baudouin was not happy with this classification.

Common source (proto-language) > relationship of languages ​​> genetic (historical) classification > family, group, subgroup.

II.Similarity of structure (morphology) > affinity (similarity of types of inflection) > typological (morphological, structural) classification > type.

III.Language contacts > properties (common territory and a certain time period) > areal classification > linguistic union.

Substrate, adstrate, superstrate. ?

Baudouin introduced the concepts of variant and invariant. Invariant is a sample. Option - filling. A phoneme is invariant across all possible sounds. An invariant is a representative of a morpheme, the main variant.

Ferdinand de Saussure

Founder of modern linguistics. Linguistics is a semiological science. "Language must be studied in itself and for itself." Linguistics is not a natural or historical science. Linguistics is a branch of social psychology.

general psychology

social Psychology

semiology

linguistics

external internal

linguistics of speech linguistics of language

diachronic synchronic

theory of syntagm theory of associations

External linguistics: the relationship between dialects and non-dialects, the boundaries of languages, the history of the development of society through language, etc. Sound matter - here.

Internal linguistics – the structure of language and speech, speech activity. RD=I+R

Speech and language do not exist without each other. Sometimes it emphasizes the secondary nature of language in relation to speech. But without language it’s impossible. and speeches.

1) without language speech will not be understandable;

2) Historically, speech is primary. Speech is necessary for language to develop;

3) all diachrony is due to speech;

4) Education by analogy is a consequence of the interaction of language and speech.

For us, synchrony is more significant.

Language system. Language is a system of signs. A linguistic sign is a two-way mental entity and represents an associative connection between a concept (signified) and the acoustic image of a word (signifier). But “language is not simply a collection of pre-demarcated signs, ... in reality, language is a vague mass in which only attentiveness and habit can help us distinguish its constituent elements.”

Language has neither pre-given concepts nor pre-demarcated sound segments. The choice of a certain segment of sound for a certain concept is completely arbitrary. Therefore, the signified and the signifier of the sign are determined exclusively by the present state of the elements included in the system. Consequently, both the signified and the signifier are relative quantities. They represent significances (values), which are determined by their relationships to other members of the system. The significance of each element depends only on its opposition to all other elements.

Words do not serve to express pre-given concepts. Linguistic symbols have no relation whatsoever to what they may stand for.

Language is a system of pure meanings. The entire mechanism of language is based solely on identities and differences.

So: 1) language is a system of signs; 2) language is a system of meanings; 3) language is a set of relations. Thus, the concept of a system is gradually reduced to the concept of structure as a set of relationships. He identifies 2 main types of relationships - syntagmatic and associative (later they were called paradigmatic).

Syntagmatic relations are relations of compatibility, combinatorics of linguistic units of the same rank. They include the relationships between the parts of the syntagma and their relationships to the syntagma as a whole. The significance of the whole is determined by its parts, the significance of the parts by their place in the whole.

An associative relationship connects units that are similar in one way or another outside the speech process, in absentia. They are localized in the brain, in consciousness, in memory and belong to the language itself.

The language is arbitrary in nature. Natural things have nothing to do with linguistics. Language embraces everyone who uses it. Language has the least opportunity for initiative.

Language detection. Language is a semiological system with a forced and arbitrary nature, continuity, continuity of functioning, covering all members of society, regardless of the will of the individual and the collective.

Refuses to identify language with other social institutions. The will of the speaker has nothing to do with language, but predetermines changes.

Language is not a nomenclature, because natural things have nothing to do with language.

Structure of a linguistic sign. With the removal of the thing, the traditional triangle is replaced by a two-term scheme:

concept

concept

acoustic image

signified

meaning

conceptual values

material values

a set of semantic differences between features

a set of sound differences

the result of a combination of a number of associative and syntagmatic relationships with signifieds of other signs

the result of a set of associative and syntagmatic relations with the signifiers of other signs

Language and thinking. Language is form. Thinking without language does not exist. Language is a mediator between thought and sound. Language is not material, it is mental. Before form (before language), both thought and sound are formless. We think in language. There are no two separate divisions (sound chain and thought chain). There is 1 division! Articulation is a system of differentiated signs parallel to differentiated concepts. In language it is impossible to separate either sound from thought, or thought from sound. Meanings and functions without a material shell are nothing. No language has ever reflected the mental makeup of the people, because... no language belongs once and for all to a given linguistic type.

Saussure's postulates.

1. On the arbitrariness/involuntary nature of a linguistic sign.

A sign is the basic element of language. A sign is a two-sided entity, the unity of the signifier and the signified. The signifier is linear, extended (~mental substance); material (~sound substance). The signified is unextended; intangible. The connection between the signifier and the signified is conditional, accidental.

2. About identities/differences.

There is nothing in language but identities and differences.

3. About syntagmatics/paradigmatics.

1) associations by contiguity, segmentation, syntagmatic relations.

2) associations by similarity, substitution, associative relations.

4. About language as a system.

Language is a system, all parts of which must be considered in their synchronous connection, i.e. in a static state.

synchrony

RD:diachrony

Structuralism. Louis Hjelmslev

His theory is based on the philosophy of neopositivism (theory does not depend on experience). Influences: Port-Royal, Descartes, Leibniz, Baudouin.

Language was studied transcendentally. Methods: 1) deduction (from general to specific). The unit of analysis is text. The relationship between language and text is irreversible, unidirectional. Text cannot exist without language. But a language without text can. Then language will not be a system of signs. 2) Empirical method.

Hjelmslev strives to cleanse the concept of form from the slightest hint of substance. Follows Saussure's definition of language as a set of relations. Language is not a substance. Considers language as an immanent structure. Language as a pure form is a scheme of mutual relationships, a network of syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships, in short, a network of dependencies, a network of functions, the elements of which are purely oppositional, relative and negative entities that do not have any positive properties. There is only a system and structure, nothing else. Structure is pure form and pure relationships. Language is indifferent to substance (both mental and sound).

You need to describe a language using functions. The main subject of study of linguistics is the sign function as a “constitutive quality of language.” The sign function takes place between two entities - expression and content, which necessarily presuppose each other and are determined contrastively And comparatively. The sign function forms the form of content and the form of expression. Along with form, he distinguishes:

1) material as a factor “common to all languages ​​in general,” which both in content and in expression pre-exists in the form of an amorphous mass, as an undivided essence, an undivided amorphous continuum;

2) a substance that arises by projecting a form onto a material. Unformulated material is arranged, divided, and formed differently in different languages.

Thus, the material does not seem to exist outside of form, but one form can be replaced by another.

Sign diagram. A sign is something that lies beyond the sign? A sign serves to indicate some substance. A sign is represented as a two-sided entity:

expression plan

The sign acts in two ways: it is directed outward in expression and inward, using the substance of content.

A sign is a unit consisting of a form of content and a form of expression, established on the basis of the sign function. This is the function of solidarity, which indicates the interaction between the form of content and the form of expression.

Material of expression and material of content

The actual linguistic sign:

form of expression

Material is subordinate to form as substance. Form is independent and arbitrary in relation to the material it forms into substance. Form is constant, substance is variable.

Hjelmslev calls “not signs” “figures” (amorphous material). Configuration is a complex figure.

Language can be described. And we describe only the structure. Then all languages ​​will appear as something similar.

Language and speech. I took the antinomy of language and speech. Speech is realization. The scheme is an establishment, and everything else (norm, usage, act of speech) is implementation (i.e. speech).

Norm and usage. Substance is identified with linguistic usage. That. the opposition of form and substance is the opposition of scheme and usage. This opposition correlates with the Saussurean dichotomy of “language - speech” and could replace it. Language as a pure form is a scheme, speech is a realization. Language is form and pattern, speech is substance and usage. A norm is a material form in a given social reality. Language is a set of skills accepted in a given social group and determined by the facts of observed manifestations (this is usage). The norm determines (conditions) the usage and the act of speech, but logically and practically the usage and the act of speech precede the norm. There is an interdependence between usage and the act of speech. The scheme is determined by the act of speech, the usage, and the norm. The norm is an abstraction in relation to the usage. Usus is an abstraction in relation to the act of speech. The real object is usus.

Speech act

Everything in speech is a variant, a realization of an invariant, but within limited limits.

Structuralism. Prague Linguistic Circle

Publication of PLC theses - 1929 Trubetskoy, Jacobson, Mathesius. This is a systems concept. Language is considered in many aspects. They were looking for a few. In addition to units, connections and relationships between units (structure) were found. Absorbed by form. Should have gotten to the content. All problems are with the view. functions. The concept of function that the Prague people use is quite specific. The function combines 2 elements: 1) goal setting; 2) element of the content of linguistic units. Unlike Hjelmslev, they did not try to get rid of the substance. Function in the meaning of “meaning”, not “relation” (as in Hjelmslev). Value is understood as a function. The ratio of units of a lower linguistic level to units of a higher level. They do not abandon the communicative function, on the contrary, they put it in first place. Any linguistic unit has a function. Language is 1) a function of communication (spoken language); 2) folk/literary language; 3) poetic language (expressive function).

We looked at Slavic languages. We used synchronic and diachronic methods. Synchronous analysis of modern languages. They said that it is impossible to completely distinguish between synchrony and diachrony. The principle of relative chronology (how the Czech, Russian, Ukrainian languages ​​developed). The laws and connections of linguistic evolution were revealed. Attempts to restore the proto-language were considered. They said that there was no common language. Many languages ​​strived for unity (convergence). It can be assumed that there will be a reverse process – divergence.

Phonology. Objectives: 1) describe all phonemes; 2) how they are used and combined.

Language is a functional system. Language: 1) theoretical; 2) practical; 3) poetic.

Speech– this is a specific sound stream, a physical phenomenon perceived by ear; a continuous, outwardly unordered sequence of sounds transforming into each other; this sound is infinitely diverse.

Language– these are the rules according to which the sound side is ordered; these are the norms from which the units of the signifier are composed; the number of these norms is finite, countable, limited, and they form an ordered structure.

The outer and inner taxiways were separated. The internal taxiway is richer.

General scheme of speech activity (Trubetskoy)

Abstract rules cover all levels of language and create a division into component parts of the entire range of meanings. As a result of this division, the values ​​are ordered. This is due to the distinction between lexical and grammatical meanings. Grammatical ones are more stable, more free (from the person, the conditions of communication).

A communicative unit has meaning only as a whole.

Theory of oppositions N.S. Trubetskoy. The method of oppositions was applied to the plane of expression. Oppositions are a special type of paradigmatic relationship. One-dimensional and multidimensional oppositions. The minimal one-dimensional opposition includes 2 terms (for example, b/p). Multidimensional opposition includes at least 2 features ( d/V). Proportional oppositions and isolated oppositions are considered. Isolated oppositions: R/l (r /l).

Classification of oppositions (relationships between members of the opposition are taken into account):

1) private opposition ( Mark And roved/unmarked)

2) gradual (step) opposition. Members of the opposition differ in the degree of manifestation of the characteristic (for example, A, O, I - advancement; O, U - degree of roundness).

3) equivalent oppositions (equal). Of the two private ( P/b, t/d > p /t, b/d ).

Sign. Asymmetric dualism of the linguistic sign (Kartsevsky). Homonymy and synonymy.

Homonymy

Shut up... Shut up...

(shut up on time) sign

Be silent! Silence! Silence!

Silent

Synonymy

Descriptivism

Leopold Bloomfield(1887-1949). He received his education at the University of Leipzig. Ideas of neogrammarians and ideas of comparative studies. In 1933 - “Language”. Makes attempts to present the language as a system with a new terminological apparatus. Present a new T.Z. into word classes. The idea of ​​speech production, behavioral theory. A complex associated with field research of languages. Involvement of informants (those who speak in tongues). Basic principle: language is a signaling system. Pavlov said that language is the second signaling system. The signal requires a response. There is no identity between the signaling system and the sign system. The reaction (response action) can be in linguistic and non-linguistic form. Language reaction: interjection, expressive expressions. Non-linguistic: facial expressions, gestures, specific action. Theme – least significant unit (minimum signal). Consists of a taxeme (grammatical unit) and a phoneme (lexical unit). Taxonomy is a special kind of classification. It is distinguished by metalanguage. Based on the original term. For example: there is a noun. Noun M.B. from public/public . Associated with genus-species relationships.O distinctive Bloomfield's trait is an attempt to escape content. All languages ​​are structured the same. “What is not in actions is not in language.” Everything happens as if in a dialogue. The speaker takes an active position. Sends stimuli to the listener. If there is a reaction and a stimulus, then the reaction can become a stimulus and give rise to a reaction. And so on ad infinitum. Or everything can be confined within the framework of stimulus-reaction, if the reaction is in a non-linguistic form. Language is not needed as a means of communication. He substantiated that the expressive function is the main function of language. Chomsky. Antimentalism. Recognized the universality and primacy of logic. All language elements must be described in 2 aspects. If we are talking about surface structure, there will always be syntagmatic relationships. The surface structure is opposed to the deep one. It's hidden. Deep structure is born as a result of activity. It is not linear, it is organized hierarchically. Deep structure is always semantic. It is paradigmatic in nature. Parallelism. I'm linguistic competence and language use. The idea of ​​analysis by direct components. D John can take my book. This sentence (S). There is a subject ( Subj.)and predicate ( Praed.). Subj=N ( P ) – with a predicate. Aux - remember., bunch. Model is a modal word. V (P) – 1 of the verb forms.

SubjPraed

aux

N(P)modelV(P)

Obj(P)

John can borrow my book

Tenier proposed the same scheme in the late 50s (before Chomsky). He referred to 2 Russian authors of a textbook with exercises.

N V aux V inf Pron atrib N

John can take my book.

This is practically a double division of the current speech.

Ethnolinguistics

Edward Sapir is characterized by an interdisciplinary approach. Ethnopsychology, cultural anthropology, cultural studies (linguoculturology and interlingual communication). The relationship between language and thinking. Language is the outer limit of thinking. Distinguishes between the mental, or cognitive, sphere, the volitional side and emotions in the human consciousness. In the mental sphere, he distinguishes 2 planes: pre-rational and rational. The first operates with images, the second with meanings (as if they coincide with concepts). Language moves mainly in the mental sphere. In language, thinking dominates, and will and emotion act as secondary factors in it. The primacy of thinking is explained by the goals and needs of communication, as well as the predominantly cognitive nature of language. Does not recognize the identity of language and thinking (he attributes the functioning of language to a large extent to unconscious).

Multidimensional typology of language.

1. [Schlegel > Humboldt] Distinction and identification of similarities in analytical, synthetic, polysynthetic (incorporating) languages.

2. The degree of cohesion of elements within a word (isolation, agglutination, fusion, symbolism).

3. Language meaning type:

1) Basic specific meaning. The carriers of meaning are the roots of words, the words themselves.

2) Derivative (word-formative) meaning (motivating derivative words).

3) Concrete-relational meaning (it was given to the most formal words: pronouns, articles).

4) Purely relational meaning (syntactic role, word position).

He distinguished 4 types of languages ​​according to these characteristics (1, 2 – polar characteristics; 3, 4 – intermediate).

Language development. Drift - "drift" (Sapir's term).

The most important function of language is sociologization. Language is a powerful factor in sociologization (inclusion in public life).

Sapir-Whorf linguistic relativity hypothesis. The basis of the linguistic system of any language (grammar) is not just a tool for reproducing thoughts. On the contrary, grammar itself forms thought, is a program and guide for the mental activity of an individual, a means of analyzing his impressions and their synthesis. Forming thoughts is not an independent process. And part of the grammar of a particular language differs among different peoples. We dissect nature in the direction suggested by our native language.

Descriptivism ... 27

Ethnolinguistics.. 28

The term “language” has at least two interrelated meanings: 1) language in general, language as a certain class of sign systems; 2) a specific, so-called ethnic, or “idioethnic” language - some really existing sign system used in a certain society, at a certain time and in a certain space. Language in the first meaning is an abstract idea of ​​a single human language, the focus of the universal properties of all specific languages. Specific languages ​​are numerous implementations of the properties of a language in general.

Language in general is a naturally (at a certain stage of development of human society) arose and naturally developing semiotic (sign) system (see Semiotics, Language sign), which has the property of social purpose - it is a system that exists primarily not for an individual, but for a certain society (see Language and society). In addition, restrictions are imposed on this sign system related to its functions and the substantial (sound) material used.

It is essential that language, having internal integrity and unity, is a multifunctional system. Among its functions (see Functions of language), the most important can be considered those that are associated with basic operations on information (human knowledge about reality) - the creation, storage and transmission of information.

Language is the main socially significant (thought-mediated) form of reflection of the reality surrounding a person and himself, i.e., a form of storing knowledge about reality (epistemic function), as well as a means of obtaining new knowledge about reality (cognitive, or cognitive, function). The epistemic function connects language with reality (elements of reality, isolated, displayed and processed by human consciousness, are fixed in units of language in the form of epistemological images), and the cognitive function connects language with human mental activity (in units of language and their properties the structure and dynamics of thought are materialized, see Language and thinking), i.e. linguistic units are adapted both for the nomination of elements of reality (and, further, for storing knowledge) and for meeting the needs of the thinking process. At the same time, language is the main means of human communication (communicative function), a means of transmitting information from the speaker to the listener (addressee). Due to this, the properties of language are naturally consistent with the needs and conditions of human communicative activity, which constitutes the most important aspect of his social behavior, since social, including human labor activity, is impossible without the exchange of information.

Substantial material - the sound (acoustic) nature of language also imposes significant restrictions on the general properties of language, in particular, it predetermines the presence of non-sign units (phonemes - sounds) and the linear organization of sign units (morphemes, words, phrases, sentences).

The following main social forms of existence of specific languages ​​are distinguished: idiolect - the individual language of one specific native speaker; dialect - a set of structurally very close idiolects serving one small territorially closed group of people, within which no noticeable (territorially characterized) linguistic differences are found; dialect - a set of dialects (in a particular case - a single one), in which significant intra-structural unity is preserved (unlike a dialect, the territorial continuity of the spread of a dialect is not its obligatory feature); a language is, as a rule, a set of dialects, the permissible differences between which can vary significantly and depend not only on purely linguistic factors, but also on social parameters (linguistic self-awareness of language speakers, the presence or absence of a single written language, the social prestige of dialects, the number speakers of individual dialects, traditions, etc.).

At a certain stage of national and/or social development, some spontaneously existing and developing languages ​​enter the highest form of their existence - the form of a literary language, characterized by socially regulated normalization and the presence of a more or less wide range of functional styles.

If at a given point in time the number of individual implementations of a language - idiolects - is no less (and, taking into account bilingualism, more) than the number of people speaking on the globe (counted in billions), then living languages ​​in the socially recognized sense number from three to seven thousand (fluctuations are related not only with the incompleteness of the inventory of specific languages, but also with differences in the principles of their delimitation).

The plurality of human languages ​​cannot be considered accidental. Regardless of the solution to the problem of the origin of language, the immutable tendency of language to change requires explanation. In the absence of special normative activities aimed at preserving the linguistic state (cf. classical Arabic), languages ​​constantly undergo changes in all parts of their structure, and their continuous historical development occurs. The specific reasons for this process have not been fully identified, but there is no doubt that they are embedded, firstly, in the principles of the language structure itself and, secondly, in the functional mechanism of its use (see Laws of language development). In the era of the scientific and technological revolution, the plurality of languages ​​continues to successfully resist the growing social need for a single language. Moreover, in the modern era, there is a strengthening and revival of many languages, when this is supported by certain national and state processes (for example, in Africa), along with the long-known process of disappearance of some small languages ​​that do not have a written language and a sufficient level of social prestige.

All existing and previously existing human languages ​​can be divided into groups based on the principle of kinship, i.e., origin from a certain linguistic tradition, the so-called proto-languages ​​(see also Genealogical classification of languages). Close kinship is often obvious to the native speakers themselves (for example, the kinship of Russian, Bulgarian and Polish), distant kinship requires special scientific evidence (see comparative historical method). It is customary to talk about related languages ​​(the relationship of which has been proven) and unrelated languages ​​(the relationship of which cannot be proven). The relativity of this opposition is demonstrated by the Nostratic hypothesis, according to which a number of separate language families are united at a deeper stage of reconstruction into one Nostratic “superfamily” (see Nostratic languages).

The internal structure of language (i.e., language itself) is not given in direct observation, and it can only be judged by its manifestations and indirect evidence, namely by observing the products of linguistic (or, in other words, speech) activity - texts, i.e. by examining the use of specific languages ​​in specific speech situations (see Speech). The path of learning language through speech often led either to a failure to distinguish between language and speech, or, on the contrary, to ignoring speech itself (speech activity) and its fundamental influence on language itself. Meanwhile, understanding the fundamental contradiction between the finitude of language (as a device, mechanism, system) and its endless use in infinitely diverse speech situations has far-reaching consequences for a correct understanding of the nature of language, since this contradiction is overcome primarily in the language itself, in the principles of its structure: all elements of the language structure are adapted to their use in speech.

The semiotic essence of language consists in establishing a correspondence between the universe of meanings (all conceivable mental content of all possible utterances) and the universe of sounds (the totality of potentially possible speech sounds).

Sound matter is the primary substance of human language, in relation to which all other existing substantial systems, in particular writing systems, are secondary. The repertoire of sounds and their constituent features, for all their richness, is limited by the capabilities of the human speech apparatus. In each language, to one degree or another, a fairly representative part of sound features is used, but only a limited number of them are included in systemic sound oppositions (the so-called distinctive features - the building material of the phoneme inventory). Combinations of sound features that are stable for a given language define the set of sounds (and phonemes) acceptable in a given language, from which the set of admissible sound sequences (shells of sign units) is constructed.

The universe of meanings, in turn, is divided in a certain way by each language into standard, typical semantic blocks for this language. Each such semantic block is internally complexly organized, i.e., a decomposable semantic object, however, by entering into a sign-forming connection with the signifier, it can be used by the speaker as a single elementary entity, the source material for constructing more complex semantic structures. Semantic blocks to which relatively integral and independent signifiers (verbal shells) correspond are called lexical meanings; semantic blocks whose signifiers lack integrity and/or independence are called grammatical meanings (in the broad sense of the word). Typical carriers of lexical meanings are words (lexemes) and semantically non-free combinations of words (phraseologisms), typical carriers of grammatical meanings are service morphemes, syntactic constructions (phrase, sentence), as well as all kinds of operations on these units (grammatical rules).

The semantic blocks of one language are not equivalent to the semantic blocks of another (in particular, the volumes of meanings of the grammatical categories of the same name and, moreover, almost any pairs of words correlated in bilingual dictionaries do not coincide); languages ​​differ even more in the ways of dividing the universe of meanings into lexical and grammatical meanings.

However, with all the amazing diversity of lexical and grammatical meanings, in specific languages ​​their amazing repetition is also revealed. Languages ​​seem to rediscover the same elements of meaning, giving them different design, which allows us to speak, when applied to different languages, about certain fixed semantic blocks of the universe of meanings (ultimately predetermined by the properties of the person reflected in the thinking and independently of it the existing world of objects, events, relationships, etc.): about the categories of parts of speech, nominal classes, number values, referential correlation, about the causative connection between pairs of events, about the typical roles of participants in the situation (cf. cases), about ways to implement the typical events (cf. type, method of action), about the meanings of time, cause, condition, effect (cf. the corresponding types of complex sentences), etc. Therefore, the incomparability of the semantic divisions of natural languages ​​should not be exaggerated. Firstly, when turning to the data of many languages, it is discovered that the degree of coverage of the universe of meanings and the principles of its division are not arbitrary and not infinitely diverse, and, secondly, and more importantly, in real speech activity this non-equivalence of divisions is in most cases situational is removed, which creates, in particular, the fundamental possibility of translation from language to language (if we lower the requirements for the identity of the aesthetic functions of speech works, most clearly represented in poetic speech).

The world of lexical meanings is fixed in the significant vocabulary of the language (see also Word). A word is the simplest linguistic means of nominating a fragment of reality (object, property, phenomenon, event), since it itself carries out the connection between the signified (lexical meaning) and the signifier (sound shell). However, language would hardly fulfill its purpose if it had only lexical means of nomination, since it would require as many words as there are different fragments of reality that can be thought about. The mechanism for repeated application of the nomination procedure is provided by the grammar. Grammar, in contrast to a static dictionary, is a dynamic mechanism consisting of grammatical meanings and a system of rules that build complex semantic structures from elementary semantic blocks and at the same time assign certain sound sequences to these structures.

Vocabulary and grammar are two closely related and consistent components of the structure of a language. Their consistency is determined by the commonality of their basic functions, and their differences, in addition to the differences in structure noted above, are associated primarily with the difference in the storage of semantic units in linguistic memory: vocabulary units are stored as ready-to-use, automatically reproduced bilateral entities, while units in the formation of which grammatical rules are involved, are not in ready-made form in memory and are specially constructed in accordance with some communicative task. The consistency of vocabulary and grammar contributes to the constant emergence in speech of units of an intermediate nature, for example, those in which a transition is made from a free, grammatically organized combination of words to a stable phrase equivalent to a word (reproduced from memory, and not according to rules, see Phraseologism). In a similar way, word-formation processes that create new words by means of grammar in one or another fragment of the vocabulary gradually fade away as the new word is routinely (see Uzus) consolidated in the dictionary and its final transformation into a unit of vocabulary.

The grammatical rules that establish the connection between meaning and sound differ in the final result of their application. Prescriptive rules are the best known and studied. They are applied necessarily and effectively if certain conditions are met (conditions of applicability). For example, in the Russian language, the rule-prescription is the rule of agreement in the attributive syntagma (“new house”, but “new building”) or the rule of marking a noun by number, regardless of the countability/uncountability of its semantics (“milk” - singular, “ cream" - plural, "opinion" - singular, "opinions" - plural). The application of these rules necessarily leads to some positive result (to the formation of some linguistic form).

In addition, in the language there is a significant number of permissive rules, rules-advice, which establish not a real, but a potential correspondence between meaning and sound. The specificity of these rules is that the formation of a connection between meaning and sound is ensured not by one such rule, but by a system of rules. Permissive rules operate in those parts of the grammar where the same linguistic form serves as a signifier for many heterogeneous signifieds that are not in complementary distribution. A typical example of such a situation is the choice of one of the actants of the predicate to be the subject. This system includes resolving rules such as “Agent can be a subject”, “Theme can be a subject”, “A concrete-referential noun phrase is more likely to be a subject than a non-referential noun phrase”, etc. These rules form a set of actants-candidates for the role of the subject, but in themselves do not predetermine the final form of the statement (cf. “The director issued an order” - “The order was issued by the director”).

A system of permissive rules presupposes the existence of a procedure for choosing from a set of allowed alternatives, which creates a situation of uncertainty and conflict, i.e., a situation where several permissive rules can be applied simultaneously. Conflict-resolving rules are based on the pragmatic principle of priority, in which the choice in a conflict situation is made in favor of the highest priority alternative. The principle of priority, along with the principle of economy, is borrowed by language from the practice of speech and, more broadly, mental activity and demonstrates the ontological connection of language with thinking.

Most grammatical rules are directly used in forming the meaning of the utterance being constructed, i.e., they carry certain information. In particular, the rule of agreement between adjectives and nouns in the attributive syntagm demonstrates the presence of an attributive connection and is not purely formal. There are, however, formal grammatical rules aimed at bringing the sound sequence to a standard form. These are mainly morphological and phonetic rules such as all kinds of sandhi, reduction of pre-stressed vowels, etc.

Not all significant linguistic entities correspond to a certain segmental sound shell. A significant portion of the meaning of an utterance is expressed by suprasegmental means (see Prosody, Intonation, Speech Rate, Rhythm, etc.). There are also zero signs in the language that do not have a signifier, for example, the zero connective in Russian. In some cases, the signifier is not a sound, but some grammatical rule, for example the conversion operation, which transfers a word from one part of speech to another. The phenomenon of compression is especially common, when several signifieds are merged into one signifier. The inflectional morphology of inflectional languages ​​is organized according to this principle (for example, the service morpheme “u” in the Russian language corresponds to the meanings “1st person”, “singular”, “present tense”). The syntactic division of a sentence (in those languages ​​where there are sentence members) also serves to compress several signifieds into one signifier (sentence member).

The so-called presuppositions, which form an essential part of the meaning of any statement, do not have a special external formal expression.

All such “deviations” from a simple correspondence between meaning and sound provide the language with the greatest efficiency in performing its basic functions, although at the same time they significantly complicate the process of the linguist’s research activities. But these research difficulties should not be identified with the complexity of the object itself. On the contrary, the simpler an object is structured (i.e., the more directly its structure reflects its functions), the more difficult it is to know it (especially if the functional aspect is underestimated).

In linguistics, a fairly large number of integral concepts (models) of language coexist, describing its structure with varying degrees of specificity, detail and, ultimately, reliability (see Model in linguistics). These models are largely opposed to each other and exist as alternative hypotheses, but often the idea of ​​language is equated to one or another model, although the number of common properties attributed to language by all its various models is relatively small. In general, almost all existing models of language, both static (classical traditional grammar of language, the concept of F. de Saussure, L. Hjelmslev and others) and dynamic (generative grammar, the “Meaning-Text” model and others), suffer from underestimation of functional predetermination language, its derivative from speech activity and pragmatic conditions of its use.

Specific representatives of the same unit (phonemes, morphemes, etc.) are in paradigmatic (see Paradigmatics) and syntagmatic (see Syntagmatics) relationships. Paradigmatic relations are relations in the inventory, in the system, that distinguish one unit of a given type from all other similar ones. Syntagmatic relations are combinatory (grammatical) relations established between units of the same type in a speech chain. Units of different types are in hierarchical relationships (a morpheme is an ordered sequence of phonemes, a word is an ordered sequence of morphemes, etc.). In the process of speech production, paradigmatic relations are used mainly at the stage of nomination - the choice of alternative ways of meaning fragments of reality; syntagmatic and hierarchical relations are involved in the process of verbalization and linearization - in the construction of a semantic structure and the corresponding correct linear sound sequence.

In view of the presence of a single universal base that predetermines the boundaries of possible diversity in the structure of specific languages, it is natural that the internal structures of specific languages ​​have a greater or lesser number of similar or identical features. Languages, the structure of which reveals structural commonality in relation to certain characteristics, form one structural group (typological class). Classification of languages ​​into types (see Typology) can be carried out on different grounds, depending on what characteristics of the linguistic structure underlie the comparison. In accordance with this, the same language can be included in different classifications into different types (and, accordingly, groupings of languages). Thus, from the point of view of formal morphological classification, the Russian language falls into the inflectional type, in contrast to the analytical type of the English language, while syntactically they are included in one type of nominative languages, opposed to languages ​​of the ergative, active, neutral type.

Although a typological classification, unlike a genetic one, does not always reflect the real connections between specific languages, it is one of the creatures. tools for inductive-deductive study and representation of the essential properties of language in general.

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Introduction

1. About the concepts of “language” and “national language”

2. Language as a reflection of national thinking

2.1 Relationship between language and thinking

2.2 Language and way of thinking of the people

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Language is the beginning of everything. When starting a task, we first comprehend it in words. The beginning of the 21st century is characterized in linguistics by significant changes and new directions in the study of language at various levels.

In particular, the problem of the relationship between culture, language and consciousness is comprehensively discussed: all kinds of studies are carried out on the linguistic picture of the world among native speakers of a certain language, associative dictionaries of different languages ​​are created, providing rich material for studying the peculiarities of the perception of reality within a particular culture, a linguocultural direction in the study is being formed language as an exponent of a special national mentality.

The problem of the relationship and interconnection of language, culture, and ethnicity is an interdisciplinary problem, the solution of which is possible only through the efforts of several sciences - from philosophy and sociology to ethnolinguistics and linguoculturology.

For example, questions of ethnic linguistic thinking are the prerogative of linguistic philosophy; the specifics of ethnic, social or group communication in the linguistic aspect are studied by psycholinguistics, etc.

A characteristic feature of the development of modern humanities is the turn of the problems of fundamental research towards anthropocentrism, which is manifested, in particular, in the growing interest in the problems of the relationship between language and thinking, including the national language and national thinking.

In a word, the idea expressed at the beginning of the last century by L.V. Shcherba becomes relevant that “the world that is given to us in our direct experience, while remaining the same everywhere, is comprehended in different ways in different languages, even in those spoken peoples representing a known unity...". In this work we will consider language as a reflection of national thinking.

1. About the conceptI"language" and "national language"

First of all, let’s consider what “language” and “national language” are.

Language, a system of discrete (articulate) sound signs that spontaneously arose in human society and is developing, intended for communication purposes and capable of expressing the entire body of human knowledge and ideas about the world.

The sign of spontaneity of origin and development, as well as the limitlessness of the scope of application and possibilities of expression, distinguishes language from so-called artificial or formalized languages ​​that are used in other branches of knowledge (for example, information languages, programming languages, information retrieval languages), and from various signaling systems created on the basis language(for example, Morse code, traffic signs, etc.).

Based on the ability to express abstract forms thinking(concept, judgment) and the property of discreteness associated with this ability (internal division of the message) language qualitatively different from the so-called languageanimals, which is a set of signals that convey reactions to situations and regulate the behavior of animals in certain conditions.

Language is an integral and most important part of any national culture, a full acquaintance with which necessarily involves not only the study of the material component of this culture, not only knowledge of its historical, geographical, economic and other determinants, but also an attempt to penetrate into the way of thinking of the nation, an attempt to look at the world through the eyes of the bearers of this culture, from their “point of view”.

It is language that is the main unifying feature of a nation, since no common ideas, cultural values ​​and joint economy can exist without a common understanding of the verbal signs used in communication.

Language arises simultaneously with the nation, is its creation, and also the organ of the nation’s original thinking. As the founder of linguistics W. Humboldt wrote, “language is breath, the very soul of a nation.”

Most of the circumstances accompanying the life of a nation - habitat, climate, religion, government, laws and customs - can be to a certain extent separated from the nation itself. And only language exists as a living, native language only in the consciousness of a nation. It is in language that the entire national character is imprinted; in it, as a means of communication of a given people, individuality disappears and the common appears.

The presence of a single national language provides society with ease of communication in a variety of areas of activity - from the domestic sphere to the industrial sphere.

The national language, first of all, creates convenience for the everyday life of every person. In whatever city a person finds himself, he can easily ask any question and understand the answer, without resorting to knowledge of other languages, without experiencing difficulties due to differences in pronunciation or meaning of words, which would be inevitable when communicating in a dialect.

The national literary language has uniform standards for all speakers of it, no matter in what region they live. The presence of a single national language creates great convenience for official business correspondence between institutions and enterprises and ensures clear interaction between central and local authorities.

A common language is necessary for the rapid dissemination of technical achievements, the development of production, and the economic integrity of the country. The highest level of unity of terminology is required from technical documents, so it is fixed by special standards. A true and deep understanding of works of literature is impossible without a good knowledge of the national language.

The national language is a means of development of all types of art, its unity is of great importance for education, for the media, in a word, for the entire life of the nation.

Summarizing what has been said, we note that in relation to the nation, language plays a consolidating role, i.e. maintains its unity, serves as a means of creating a national culture and transmitting it to next generations.

2. Language as a reflection of national thinking

The language of a people is the most important component of its national culture, which is formed together with the formation of an ethnic group, being a prerequisite and condition. The vast number of languages ​​in the world reflects the endless variety of ways of thinking.

2.1 Relationship between language and thinking

language thinking sound communication

Acquaintance with any culture and its study will always be incomplete if the field of view of the person who turns to this culture does not include such a fundamental component as the mindset of the nation, the national logic of worldview and worldview.

Each person belongs to a specific national culture, including national traditions, language, history, and literature. As E. Sapir wrote: “Language is a guide that is becoming increasingly important as a guiding principle in the scientific study of culture.” Sapir E. The position of linguistics as a science. - In the book: V.A. Zvegintsev. History of linguistics of the 19th and 20th centuries in essays and extracts, part II. - M., 1960. - P.177 and 186.

Language is closely related to the thinking and consciousness of a person as a whole. Thinking, which, although it may occur in figurative or intuitive form,as its highest and universal form it has a verbal, linguistic form.

By necessity, thinking is always associated with units of language; without them, thought cannot achieve distinctness and clarity, and representation cannot become a concept. The word arises on the basis of a person’s subjective perception of objects in the external world; it is an imprint not of the object itself, but of its image created by this object in our consciousness.

A thought perceived by language becomes an object for our soul and therefore produces an influence on it from the outside. Thought, becoming a word, comes into contact with the outside world. Thus, language connects the external world of a person with the internal one in both directions.

Language is one of those phenomena that stimulates human spiritual power to constant activity. The need of thinking for a concept and the resulting desire to understand it must precede the word, which is an expression of complete clarity of the concept. Therefore, the rules of verbal communication recommend that a person first clearly understand his thoughts, make sure the words he chooses are accurate, and only then speak out loud. You should not take part in the discussion of topics on which a person does not have sufficient knowledge. Also, one should not use words in one’s speech whose exact meaning one is not sure of.

Thinking develops and is updated much faster than language, but without language thinking is only a “thing for itself”, and a thought not expressed in language is not that clear, distinct thought that helps a person comprehend the phenomena of reality, it is, rather, foresight, and not actual knowledge.

If thinking cannot do without language, then language without thinking is impossible. We speak and write thinking, we try to express our thoughts more accurately and clearly in speech. Even a reciter reading someone's work, or a newscaster reading the latest news, does not just make sounds like parrots, but speaks. The same applies to quotes, the use of proverbs and aphorisms in ordinary speech; they are not invented by the speaker, but their choice, the meaning put into them, is a trace and consequence of the speaker’s thoughts.

The thinking of a person (both an individual and the entire human race) is in constant development, opening up more and more new aspects of the surrounding world. The increasing complexity of knowledge about the world requires language to be increasingly flexible in denoting new concepts about objects, properties of objects, phenomena and relationships.

In order to provide thinking with the proper linguistic means, the language has to improve its vocabulary and grammar. Therefore, new meanings of words are formed in the language, new words are created, words that are similar in sound are differentiated in meaning, and the stylistic differentiation of vocabulary is consolidated. In grammar, a language can give new meanings to syntactic constructions, fix some phrases as stable phrases, turning them into phraseological units or analytical forms of expressing morphological meanings.

The success of all verbal and mental activity depends on how quickly, flexibly and successfully the language responds to new needs of thinking.

The success of a person’s verbal thinking depends on how well that person speaks his native language and how well he understands the meaning of words and grammatical structures. An individual always has a good opportunity to develop his linguistic ability by turning to the collective experience of the nation through penetration into the depth of the meanings of words, into the riches of his native language.

The success of a nation's speech thinking depends on the level of culture in a given society, on the degree of processing of the literary language and the degree of prevalence of the literary language in the speech of individual members of the linguistic community, on the level of mutual understanding of the intelligentsia and other social groups.

A language that quickly responds to the needs of thinking contributes to an even greater flowering of thought, makes it possible to make major intellectual discoveries and spread high culture in wide public circles. If a language fails to find convenient and generally understandable ways to express more complex thoughts, it becomes a brake on the path of understanding the world and the dissemination of knowledge in this society. The fault for this, of course, is not the language, but the attitude of the speakers towards it, disrespect for the classical literary tradition, philological science and the humanities in general, indifference to issues of speech culture, the cultivation of idle, aimless chatter, a frivolous, thoughtless attitude to the word. Thus, thinking is the source of the development of language, and language, in turn, influences the course of development of thinking. This is the thought-forming role of language.

2.2 Language andway of thinking people

Based on the fact that every language is a means of thinking, and these means turn out to be different for people speaking different languages, we can assume that the “picture of the world”, i.e. The mentality of representatives of different human communities is different: the greater the difference in language systems, the greater the difference in “pictures of the world.”

If we talk about language as a way of national worldview, then it should be noted that a word is not an image of a thing, it is distinguished by its ability to represent a thing from different points of view in that it has its own sensual image. This quality of the word makes language not just a sign system, but a special, universal form of worldview for a particular nation.

Language reflects the way of life and the characteristics of the character of the people, their thinking. Here's a simple example. In the minds of most Russians, life in Europe is a complete fairy tale. Europe is an earthly paradise and everyone lives there like Hollywood stars - in pleasure and luxury. Therefore, girls from Russia willingly marry Europeans. But very often life together with a foreigner does not work out. Why? It seems like I went to courses and mastered a foreign language. She studied a foreign language, but did so, guided only by the desire to master new communicative capabilities, unaware of the connection between language and the culture and character of the people. Language is the way of life and culture of a person, the style of his behavior. Yes, Europe has a high standard of living, but nevertheless, luxury, unjustified expenses, and the desire for idleness are alien to Europeans. They live in abundance, but economically. In an international family, it is much more difficult to achieve mutual understanding: very often cultural differences, stereotypes of behavior and thinking, and the lack of a common language pose an insurmountable wall.

Language plays a special role in the development of personality. A person, his spiritual world, is largely determined by the language in which he grew up. American researcher of Indian languages ​​Benjamin Whorf put forward a hypothesis according to which a person dismembers and cognizes nature in the direction suggested by his native language. Indeed, how do we, residents of the middle zone, designate types of ice? Strong and weak. But in the language of the Sami, who live on the Kola Peninsula, there are about 20 names for ice and 10 for cold!

Undoubtedly, language reflects both the way of life and the way of thinking of the people. A Russian wife sees the world differently than a French husband, because she thinks in Russian. The language we speak not only expresses our thoughts, but also largely determines their course. Language influences the content of human thinking. Two people of different nationalities can become eyewitnesses of the same phenomenon, but what they see is only a kaleidoscope of impressions until consciousness organizes it. Ordering occurs through language. Therefore, observing the same phenomenon, a Russian and a Frenchman see different things and give different assessments.

People who speak different languages ​​look at the world with different eyes. A Frenchman cannot perceive and feel the world the same way as a Russian, because he has different linguistic means. As the Russian writer Sergei Dovlatov said, “90% of a person’s personality consists of language,” and one cannot but agree with this.

In the era of active interethnic communication, the problem of the relationship between language and thinking, language and culture, and the spirit of the people becomes especially acute. Issues such as the essence of language, its functional palette, historical purpose and fate are closely intertwined with the fate of the people. Unfortunately, until now, studies of linguistic phenomena in linguistics are, as a rule, very narrow in nature. In general, language continues to be viewed only as a tool for exchanging information. Aspects of the relationship between language and thinking, language and national culture have not yet become the subject of study by our linguists. The complexity of the language problem is caused by its breadth - it has, as we see, not only linguistic, but also cognitive, and through them moral and political aspects. The problem of language is not limited to issues of linguistics and extends to philosophy and politics, since language is organically connected with national culture, psychology and spirituality; language is an exponent of the worldview or mentality of a people, its system of values, traditions, and customs.

Since the meanings of words are associated with concepts, a certain mental content is fixed in the language, which turns into a hidden (internal) part of the meaning of words, to which speakers do not pay attention due to the automaticity of language use. Language could not serve as a means of communication if the meaning of each word in each case of its use became a matter of dispute. At the same time, language is a national means of communication, and does not reflect the worldview of any social group, but the general features of the perception of the world by the entire speaking group, i.e. nation. Thus, the languages ​​of different peoples reflect their national culture, their national view of the world.

W. Humboldt wrote that “various languages ​​are for nations the organs of their original thinking and perception” and that “a large number of objects are created by the words denoting them and only in them finds their existence.” Humboldt V. Selected works on linguistics. - M., 1984. - P.324. Those. objects of the real world do not themselves become objects of thinking, they cannot get inside thought, they are presented to thinking in a language that, although it develops itself by the power of thought, inevitably has a form and represents the world in a certain form. The perception and understanding of not only abstract phenomena, but also concrete objects depends on which of the many possible ways the language has designated them.

Language always acts as an intermediary between the world and man, painting a person a certain linguistic picture of the world. All this does not mean that a person is a prisoner of the national language. Above the linguistic worldview is built the social worldview of social groups, the individual worldview of a person. The linguistic picture of the world is complemented by the cultural, religious, philosophical, scientific picture of the world. However, creating these paintings requires intellectual effort from a person. “The path from the real world to the concept and further to verbal expression is different among different peoples, which is due to differences in history, geography, the peculiarities of life of these peoples and, accordingly, differences in the development of their social consciousness.” Ter-Minasova S.G. Language and intercultural communication. - M., 2000. - P.40. It turns out that language reflects reality not directly, but through two stages: from the real world to thinking and from thinking to language. And although thinking was ahead of language, its results, taking shape in language, are somewhat modified (thought cannot be entirely reflected in words). Therefore, language becomes a separate participant in communication and the further development of thinking; it cannot be a simple casting mold for thought, it can simultaneously hide part of the thought and supplement the thought with linguistic associations.

Thus, the language of a people is the most important component of its national culture, which is formed together with the formation of an ethnos, being a prerequisite and condition for its existence.

The above has practical significance.

Firstly, it is necessary to take care of the native language, which preserves the national cultural tradition and passes on the moral values ​​of the people to new generations.

Secondly, only knowing well the riches of your native language can you easily navigate the new information that constantly comes to a person, distinguish between words and the content behind them. Sometimes seemingly brilliant, attractive words carry emptiness or even harmful advice for a person. On the other hand, seemingly simple, ordinary words can be filled with deep and intelligent meaning.

Conclusion

Thus, language is an integral part of national culture. Language is closely related to the thinking and consciousness of a person as a whole.

National characteristics of thinking and behavior are recorded in the signs of the language and are thereby reflected in it. Language, in turn, influences the understanding of the world and in the process of organizing the process of learning, education, and development, it is necessary to rely on these characteristics of the students.

Being connected with the thinking and psychology of a person, his life and social consciousness, the history of peoples and their customs, reflecting the national specifics and culture of peoples, being a form of expression for literature and folklore as forms of art, being the main source of knowledge about the inner world of people, having a certain sensual perceived form language is a source of obtaining indirect data for the humanities and natural sciences: philosophy, logic, history, ethnography, sociology, law, psychology and psychiatry, literary criticism, computer science, semiotics, theory of mass communication, brain physiology, acoustics, etc.

Bibliography

1. Bogus, M.B. Language and mentality in the educational process / M.B. Bogus // Fundamental Research. - 2008. - No. 1 - P. 86-88.

2. Ilyenkov, E.V. On the relationship between thinking and language / E.V. Ilyenkov // Almanac “East”. - 2003. - No. 9.

3. Kornilov, O.A. Language pictures of the world as derivatives of national mentalities / O.A. Kornilov. - M.: KDU, 2002. - 350 p.

4. Maslova, V.A. Introduction to cognitive linguistics / V.A. Maslova. - M.: Flinta, 2007. - 296 p.

5. Melnikova, A.A. Language and national character. The relationship between the structure of language and mentality / A.A.Melnikov. - St. Petersburg: Rech, 2003 - 237 p.

6. Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary - Ed. E.F. Gubsky. - M.: Publishing house Tsifra, 2002. - P.263.

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The essence of sign representation in language. The difference between linguistic signs and “natural signs”, typology, types of meanings. Glossematic theory of language. The random, conditional nature of the connection between the signified and the signifier. Representation of a sign as a sign system of language.

abstract, added 12/21/2013


Philosophical foundations of Humboldt's linguistic concept. Definition of the essence of language. The doctrine of the internal form of language. The problem of the relationship between language and thinking. The doctrine of the origin and development of language. Morphological classification of languages. Antinomies of language.

abstract, added 03/31/2008


The single language of the Russian nation, the language of international communication in the modern world. The increasing influence of the Russian language on other languages. A wonderful language of the world in terms of the variety of grammatical forms and the richness of its vocabulary, rich fiction.

Human consciousness is organically connected with tongue as a way of their existence. Animals have the first signaling system, on the basis of which they form conditioned reflexes. In humans, in addition to the first signaling system, there is second signaling system – speech, language, a specifically human system of communication, communication, and information transfer. In comparison with the sound and gestural ability of animals to transmit information, a distinctive feature of language is that the processing of signs (for example, speed of reading, speaking, writing, etc.) is not inherited, but acquired in the process of human socialization. As a way of existence of consciousness, speech is in a complex functional relationship with it. They do not exist without each other: consciousness reflects reality, and language designates and expresses what is essential in this reflection. Language combines the ideal basis (information) and the way it is transmitted through material carrier. The development of consciousness, the enrichment of its information richness develops speech, but, on the other hand, the development of speech as an improving way of existence of consciousness develops consciousness. Language influences the style of thinking, its manner, techniques and methods.

Language is more conservative than consciousness: the same linguistic shell, word, concept can express different contents of thought, which hinders its development and gives it some compulsion. By improving his language, a person improves his consciousness, and, conversely, by disdaining the operation of linguistic symbols, using a limited vocabulary, we conserve thinking and limit it to the available intellect.

There are different types of speech: oral, written and internal. The thought process is always carried out through one type of speech or another, even if this speech does not find direct, sensorily observable expression. Complex neurophysiological processes of mutually coordinated activity of the brain and speech apparatus are at work here. Each nerve impulse entering the speech apparatus from the brain reproduces in it a concept or a corresponding series of concepts adequate to the signal. It is concepts that are the primary elements of speech, and since concepts are formed as a result of certain generalizations, then thinking and consciousness are always a process of generalized reflection of reality. That is, thinking is always conceptual and this is what fundamentally differs from earlier forms of reflection, including complex psychological forms. It is language as a way of existence of consciousness, as the “immediate reality of thought” that characterizes the special quality of consciousness as the highest form of reflection of reality, irreducible to its pre-conscious forms.

But information circulating at the level of consciousness functions not only through oral or written speech, i.e. natural language. Consciousness also realizes itself in other sign systems, in various artificial and symbolic languages ​​(musical, mathematical, Esperanto, cybernetic, dance, colors, gestures, etc.).

Signs – these are material objects, processes and actions that play the role of a “substitute” for real things and phenomena. They are used to acquire, store, transform and transmit information . A sign system can be called a human language if it satisfies the following requirements:

It must have semantics and grammar, contain meaningful elements and rules for their meaningful connection;

It must constantly develop, not only under the influence of improving human activity, but also as a result of self-development, i.e. expand consciousness according to certain rules based on final semantic units, create an unlimited number of informative messages;

Messages formed in a particular language should not depend on the presence of the designated objects.

Sign systems arose and are developing as a special material form in which thinking is carried out and information processes in social life are recorded, for example in science and technology.

Natural language is the most common sign system. Among non-linguistic signs there are: copy signs; sign signs; signs-signals; signs-symbols. Sign systems of artificial languages ​​have become widespread at the modern level of development of consciousness: code systems, formulas, diagrams, diagrams, etc. Moreover, any sign has meaning and significance only in one system or another.

The special intensification and information density of modern development of society not only gives rise to new languages ​​and sign systems, but also sciences about them. In the last century, a new scientific discipline has emerged on the principles of the structure and functioning of sign systems - semiotics.

A reflection of the extreme intensification of information connections in the functioning of society and the need to master new forms and methods of obtaining, processing, storing and transmitting it was the emergence of a scientific direction - computer science. But, in any case, the key measure of the existence of consciousness remains the system of concepts of natural language, which has been formed over millions of years.

Concepts not only denote phenomena, but also express thoughts about objectively existing objects, their connections and relationships. The word is both the bearer of our knowledge about the world, and the “mediator” between thought and subject. From here, concretizing the special role of language in consciousness and its relative independence, we can identify a number of basic functions of language.

1. Denoting. By its content, a word is always connected with an object. Only if this connection exists can it serve as a means of coordinating actions in the process of cognition and practice. It is with the help of words that ideal images are differentiated and concepts are formed. It becomes possible to abstract from specific things, their properties and relationships by operating with concepts and words. The word, in essence, “replaces” the object in consciousness.

2. Cumulative. Language makes it possible to “abbreviated”, “condensed” ideal reproduction of reality, as well as storage, transmission and practical use of the information contained in it. The word reflects in a condensed form what is essential in the phenomenon. In this generalizing function, language acts as an accumulator of knowledge and consolidates (materializes) the social memory of humanity.

3. Communicative. In this function, language acts as a means of communication between people. Information can only be used by society in the form of language (natural or artificial). The communicative function of language in the history of society has changed qualitatively twice, and in each case this led to a more effective consolidation of social experience, increased activity and material and spiritual culture. The first such qualitative leap was the invention of writing. The second is happening before our eyes on the basis of the rapid development of computer technology, information science, and cybernetics.

4. Expressive. Everything reflected in a person’s consciousness by means of language is, to one degree or another, connected with his interests and needs. Hence, his certain emotional and sensory attitude towards surrounding phenomena is inevitable, which is impossible to express otherwise than with the help of language.

5. Interactive.. This function is due to the fact that with the help of language a person always addresses himself or another person, and explicitly or implicitly his speech contains a question, proposal, request, complaint, order, threat, etc., that is, speech always has an impact a certain impact on the listener encourages one or another action.

Language is the most common way of social functioning of the mind. Animals can also use the signs of the second signaling system, but sounds and gestures that denote various phenomena and states and are used by animals to transmit information to their relatives do not form a language in the proper sense of the word. Taking into account the fact that a person is surrounded by things and phenomena, as a rule, created or transformed by him, they can also be considered as certain signs or thoughts that act as an objectified form of ideal existence.

So, the world of man is the world meanings, often hidden from a person and inaccessible to his direct perception. The task of consciousness is to reveal meanings, to reveal the content and meaning of signs coming from the outside world, to transform them into a meaningful, informational image. As a result of this process, a person’s thought ceases to be his subjective, individual property and begins to live according to its own laws, acquiring relative independence. Characterizing the relative independence of consciousness, it should be noted: 1) Consciousness does not develop as a mirror image of the material world, it is a transformed reflection, including all previous experience. 2) Consciousness, existing through concepts, goes beyond the framework of concrete sensory images. Within the framework of consciousness, reflection moves from sensations and perceptions to concepts, judgments and conclusions, which are characterized by creative reflection, analysis and synthesis of sensually given material. 3) The relative independence of consciousness is also manifested in the fact that it reveals a certain conservatism in relation to developing social practice. Firstly, consciousness in materialized ideal forms (monuments of literature, architecture, art) preserves the memory of the spiritual culture of past generations. Secondly, certain ideas, beliefs, ideological and ethical predilections, etc., which no longer correspond to the changed reality, are consolidated, reproduced and stored in the consciousness. On the other hand, especially in scientific thinking, consciousness is capable of getting ahead and anticipating real events, and on the basis of creativity, forming fundamentally new combinations of the interrelations of reality that mobilize human activity and are realized in it.

A comparative analysis of the qualitative characteristics of human consciousness and the psyche of animals confirms the thesis about the socio-historical, socially transformative nature of consciousness and language, both in the genetic and functional aspects. Human consciousness can neither arise nor function outside of society. Cases known to science of the discovery of human cubs, isolated by chance from society and “raised” among animals, indicate the impossibility of forming consciousness outside of society, outside of communication and the exchange of social information.

Thus, the system within which consciousness arises and develops is the practical activity of people aimed at transforming reality. To regulate relations between people during work and in other types of interaction, it took means created by people themselves, not given to them by nature: traditions and customs, norms-imperatives and norms-taboo, forms of social inheritance and family regulation, expressed through language. Thus, people create a “second nature”, a special social environment of life - means of production, social relations, spiritual culture. The experience of this creative activity is reflected in consciousness, determining its consistent development along with the historical enrichment of this experience itself.

Since people carry out their activities together, each new generation assimilates the ideas, concepts, views, etc. already established in society. It is with the advent of consciousness that humanity acquires a means of consolidating and developing its historical and individual experience, while in animals, species experience is transmitted hereditarily, and individual experience is lost for subsequent generations. Consciousness thus turns out to be a universal, necessary and universal way of organizing and expressing a person’s relationship to the world, another person and himself.

Consciousness not only arises historically as a social phenomenon, but also becomes possible only as a product of joint labor activity. The interweaving of the actions of each individual person into joint collective activity at each historical stage of the development of society leads to the fact that the individual’s consciousness acquires a transpersonal, supra-individual character. Formed public consciousness– a set of ideas, concepts, teachings, mass psychological processes that have their own logic of functioning and development, different from individual consciousness.

Lecture No. 2

I. Social essence of language.

II. The difference between language and other social phenomena.

III. Functions of the language.

IV. Language and speech.

V. Language and thinking.

I. The question of the essence of language has several mutually exclusive solutions in the history of linguistics:

1. language is a biological, natural phenomenon that does not depend on humans. This point of view was expressed, for example, by the German linguist A. Schleicher.

Recognizing language as a natural (biological) phenomenon, it should be considered on a par with such human abilities as eating, drinking, sleeping, etc. and consider it inherited, inherent in human nature itself. However, this contradicts the facts. Language is acquired by a child under the influence of speakers.

2. language is a mental phenomenon that arises as a result of the action of the individual spirit - human or divine.

A similar opinion was expressed by the German linguist W. Humboldt.

This statement is hardly correct. In this case

humanity would have a huge variety of individual languages.

3. language is a social phenomenon that arises and develops only in a community. This position was substantiated by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure. Indeed, language arises only in a collective due to the need for people to communicate with each other.

Different understandings of the essence of language gave rise to different approaches to its definition: language is thinking expressed by sounds(A. Schleicher); language is a system of signs in which the only essential thing is the combination of meaning and acoustic image(F. de Saussure); language is the most important means of human communication(V.I. Lenin); language is a system of articulate sound signs that spontaneously arises in human society and develops, serving for the purposes of communication and capable of expressing the entire body of knowledge and ideas about the world(N.D.Arutyunova).

Each of these definitions emphasizes different points: the relationship of language to thinking, the structural organization of language, the most important functions, etc., which once again demonstrates the complexity of language as a system that works in unity and interaction with consciousness and thinking.

II. From the point of view of the science of society, language has no analogues. It is not only unique, but in a number of significant ways it differs from all social phenomena:

1. language, consciousness and social nature of work activity

form the foundation of human identity.

2. the presence of language is a necessary condition for the existence of society throughout the history of mankind. Any other social phenomenon in its existence is limited in chronological terms: it is not originally in human society and is not eternal. So, for example, the family did not always exist, there was not always private property, the state, money, etc. Language originally will exist as long as society exists.

3. the presence of language is a necessary condition for material and spiritual existence in all spheres of social space. Any social phenomenon in its distribution is limited to a certain space, for example, science does not include art, and art does not include production, etc. Language is used in all spheres; it is inseparable from all manifestations of human existence.

4. language is dependent and independent of society. On the one hand, the social division of society is reflected in language, i.e. the national language is socially heterogeneous. But, on the other hand, social dialects of a language do not become special languages. Language preserves the unity of a people in its history.

5. The uniqueness of language as a form of social consciousness is that through language a specifically human form of transmission of social experience is carried out.

6. language does not relate to ideological or ideological forms of social consciousness, in contrast to law, morality, politics, religion and other types of consciousness.

III. Being a social phenomenon, language has the properties of social purpose, i.e. certain functions.

The most important functions of the language are the functions communicative And cognitive.

Communicative ( lat. communicatio"communication" ) function– the purpose of language to serve as the main means of human communication. The derivatives of this function are the following:

contact-making (phatic) function– the function of attracting the attention of the interlocutor and ensuring successful, effective communication;

appellative(lat. appellatio"appeal, appeal" )function – function of calling, incitement to action;

conative(lat. conatus"tension, effort") function – function of assessing the communication situation and focusing on the interlocutor;

voluntary(lat . volens"willing") function – influence function associated with the speaker’s will;

epistemic(ancient Greek) episteme"knowledge") or cumulative (lat. cumulare"accumulate") function - the function of storing and transmitting knowledge about reality, cultural traditions, history of the people, national identity.

Cognitive(lat. cognoscere"to know") or epistemological(Greek gnoseos"cognition") function– the function of being a means of obtaining new knowledge about reality and consolidating the results of knowledge in language, the function of thinking. This function of language connects it with human mental activity; the structure and dynamics of thought are materialized in units of language.

Derivatives of this function:

axiological(Greek axios"valuable") function – the function of forming an assessment of objects in the surrounding world and expressing them in speech;

nominative(lat. nominatio"naming") function – function of naming objects of the surrounding world;

predicative(lat. praedicatio"utterance") function – function of correlating information with reality, etc.

In addition to the main functions of language, they sometimes distinguish emotional or expressive function - purpose of being a means of expressing human feelings and emotions; poetic function - the function of creating an artistic image using language; metalinguistic function - function of being a means of exploring and describing language in terms of the language itself.

IV. Extremely important for the development of linguistics was the distinction between the concepts of “language - speech - speech activity”. As the history of linguistics shows, these concepts were often not distinguished. W. Humboldt also spoke about the need to differentiate them: Language as a set of its products differs from individual acts of speech activity.(Humboldt von W. On the differences in the structure of human languages ​​and its influence on the spiritual development of mankind // W. von Humboldt. Selected works on linguistics. M., 1984, pp. 68-69).

The theoretical justification for this position was given by F. de Saussure and L.V. Shcherba.

A Swiss linguist wrote about it this way: In our opinion, the concept of language does not coincide with the concept of speech activity in general; language is only a certain part – indeed, the most important part – of speech activity. It is a social product, a set of necessary conventions adopted by the team to ensure the implementation and functioning of the ability for speech activity that exists in every native speaker...(F. de Saussure. Works on linguistics // Course of general linguistics. M., 1977, p. 47).

According to Saussure, in their existence these phenomena are interconnected, but not reducible to each other.

L.V. Shcherba proposed to distinguish three aspects of language: speech activity (i.e. the process of speaking and understanding), the language system (i.e. the grammar of the language and its dictionary) and linguistic material (i.e. the totality of everything spoken and understood in the act of communication) .

Language and speech, forming a single phenomenon of human language, are not identical to each other. Language is a system of signs used by humans to communicate, store and transmit information. Speech- specific speaking, occurring over time and expressed in audio or written form. Speech is the embodiment, the realization of language.

Language and speech each have their own characteristics:

1. language is a means of communication, speech is the type of communication produced by this means;

2. the language is abstract, formal; speech is material, it concretizes everything that is in language;

3. language is stable, passive and static, while speech is active and dynamic, characterized by high variability;

4. language is the property of society, it reflects the “picture of the world of the people speaking it,” while speech is individual;

5. language has a level organization, speech – linear;

6. language is independent of the situation and setting of communication, while speech is contextually and situationally determined.

7. speech develops in time and space, it is determined by the goals and objectives of speaking and the participants in communication; language is abstracted from these parameters.

Concepts language And speech are related as general and particular: the general (language) is expressed in the particular (speech), while the particular is the form of existence of the general.

Speech activity – a type of human activity that is the sum of the acts of speaking and understanding. It - in the form of speech actions - serves all types of activities, being part of work, play and cognitive activities.

V. The problem of language and thinking is one of the most complex and controversial in the theory of linguistics. In different periods of the history of the science of language, it was solved differently: representatives of some directions (for example, logical) identified these concepts; supporters of others (psychological) tried to resolve this issue on a hierarchical plane, justifying the primacy of either thinking in relation to language, or language in relation to thinking; representatives of structuralism believed that the structure of language determines the structure of thinking and the way of knowing the external world.

A scientific solution to the question of the relationship between language and thinking gives reflection theory, according to which thinking is the highest form of active reflection of objective reality, carried out in various forms and structures (concepts, categories, theories), in which the cognitive and socio-historical experience of mankind is fixed and generalized.

This theory considers language and thinking in a dialectical unity: the tool of thinking is language, as well as other sign systems.

Attitude "language - thinking" studies cognitive linguistics. Cognitive scientists consider a single mental-lingual complex as a self-organizing information system that functions on the basis of the human brain. This system provides perception, understanding, evaluation, storage, transformation, generation and transmission of information. Thinking within the framework of this system is a process of thought generation that constantly occurs in the brain, based on the processing and transformation of information received through various channels. In order for thinking to take place, it must have certain tools that would ensure the division of the flow of impulses coming to the brain from the senses. Language acts as such a tool. The main function of language in relation to thinking is to separate information, i.e. in the form of subject images and meanings.

When studying the thought processes of speech formation, relationships are established between logical and linguistic categories in speech: “concept (representation) – word, phraseological unit”; “judgment (inference) - proposal.”

Concepts how a form of abstract thinking is realized in speech through words and phrases (phraseologisms), and such forms of thought as judgments and inferences have as their material shell various types of sentences of human speech.

Nominative units of language (words and phrases) are not just a way of materializing ideas and concepts, but reflect specific, standardized forms of knowledge about objects and phenomena of the objective world, accumulated as a result of social practice. These types of knowledge are called concepts. Concepts are the smallest units of information based on objective images of the surrounding world.

The centuries-old process of formalizing and expressing thoughts through language also determined the development in the grammatical structure of languages ​​of a number of formal categories, partially correlated with logical categories (categories of thinking). For example, the formal categories of a noun, adjective, numeral correspond to the semantic categories of an object or phenomenon, process, quality, quantity.

Thus, language as a sign system is the material support of thinking; it materializes thoughts and ensures the exchange of information. Thinking reflects reality, and language expresses it. The connection between these phenomena allows language to carry out communicative and cognitive functions: language not only conveys messages about objects and phenomena of the external world, but also organizes knowledge about the world in a certain way, dividing and consolidating it in consciousness.