LJ language. Language - Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary

Diagnosis of diseases by language is one of the main stages when examining a patient and making a general diagnosis, most often used in the East. This type of diagnostics allows us to learn about the processes occurring in our body, the origin and stage of development of certain diseases.

Language is an indicator of our health, this has always been known in the East, where such an unusual, but quite effective diagnostic method was born - diagnosing diseases by language.

In Eastern medicine, the tongue is believed to be connected to the heart. Here we mean not only the physical state of the tongue, but also the speech that we pronounce - all this indicates certain problems with the heart. However, the body is a single whole, and the condition of the heart also affects other organs. And the state of various organs of our body is “projected” onto the corresponding parts of the tongue. Accordingly, changes in these areas of the tongue, including changes in their color or increased sensitivity, indicate disturbances and imbalances of energies in the corresponding organs.

According to ancient Chinese medicine, the tip of the tongue corresponds to the upper part of the body and reflects the condition of the lungs and heart, the sides of the tongue indicate the health of the liver and gall bladder, the back of the tongue indicates the health of the stomach and spleen, and the root of the tongue indicates the condition of the kidneys.

Often, the first signs of the disease appear on the tongue (discoloration, plaque, redness, etc.). Therefore, when diagnosing diseases by tongue, first of all, pay attention to the size, shape and color of the tongue. According to Eastern medicine, when there is an imbalance of wind energy (rlung), the tongue is red, dry and rough, with small indentations along the edges. When mucus energy (beken) is disturbed, the tongue may have a smooth or dull surface, it may be slightly swollen, moist and sticky, with a whitish-gray coating. An imbalance of bile energy in the body (trip) also changes the appearance of the tongue: a pale yellow coating appears on it, and a bitter taste is felt in the mouth.

Diagnosis of diseases by language

What does the tongue look like? healthy person? Such a language has pink color and a smooth surface, covered with a small whitish coating, the papillae on the surface of the tongue are clearly visible, due to which it looks velvety.

Connection of tongue areas with internal organs

To the left of the tip of the tongue is the left lung, to the right is the right;

The center of the tongue is the heart;

On the left side of the root of the tongue is the left kidney, on the right side is the right;

On the right side, between the projections of the lung and kidney, there is a projection of the liver.

Tongue color

1. Pale tongue - lack of energy and blood. This is a sign of anemia and exhaustion of the body.

2. Pale color of the underside of the tongue - liver and gall bladder diseases.

3. Red (crimson) color - severe infectious diseases accompanied by high fever, poisoning, pneumonia.

4. Dark red color - severe renal and toxic disorders, obesity and chronic alcoholism.

5. A bluish tint - cardiovascular diseases, circulatory disorders with cardiopulmonary failure.

6. Yellowness in the lower part of the tongue - the development of jaundice.

A coating covering the tongue indicates the accumulation of toxins in the stomach, small or large intestine. If only the back of the tongue is covered with plaque, there are toxins in the large intestine; if the plaque is noticeable only in the middle of the tongue, toxins are present in the stomach, small intestine and duodenum.

1. No plaque, shiny tongue - weak stomach energy, problems with intrasecretory activity.

2. Slightly swollen and moist tongue due to excess plaque. May indicate the following diseases: stomach or duodenal ulcer, gastritis, cholecystitis, appendicitis, poor kidney function, food or drug poisoning, infectious diseases (measles).

3. Thin plaque - an incipient disease or its superficial localization. Thick plaque is a chronic disease.

4. White, moist, thin plaque - the energy of the stomach is in order.

5. Weak white coating - decreased acidity in the stomach, dysbacteriosis.

6. Yellowish plaque - excess bile in the gallbladder or liver disease.

7. Fatty, silty coating - stagnation of food.

8. Purple spotty plaque - blood stagnation.

9. Black plaque is a serious disorder of the digestive system, especially the pancreas and gall bladder. Also, such plaque occurs when the acid-base balance of the blood is disturbed (increased acidity) as a result of dehydration of the body.
11. Light gray coating - diphtheria.

12. If over time the white plaque gradually thickens and becomes yellow, and then gray and dark, this indicates that the disease is progressing. And if the plaque becomes lighter and thinner, the disease recedes.

1. Alternating white and red spots - scarlet fever.

2. Bluish spots - congestion in the cardiovascular system.

3. Dark spots - severe kidney damage.

Also, when diagnosing diseases by language, you need to pay attention to:

1. Teeth marks on the edges of the tongue. Deep teeth imprints on the front and side of the tongue indicate stress, neuroses, and severe overwork. The clearest imprints are observed in cases of serious diseases of the central nervous system. In addition, tooth marks along the edges of the tongue indicate dysbiosis, slagging in the body and insufficient intestinal digestibility.

2. " Dry tongue" The feeling of a “dry” tongue and general dryness of the mucous membrane occurs as a result of the production of an insufficient amount of saliva (thirst) and can be a sign of a large number of diseases: intestinal obstruction, peritonitis, fever, diabetes. Often, dry tongue is accompanied by the appearance of a brown coating. If the mucous membrane loses too much moisture, it may develop cracks. Dry tongue also causes loss of taste.

3. Lacquered and checkerboard tongue. Varnished tongue - the surface is smooth, shiny, bright red (as a result of atrophy of the taste buds). Diseases: chronic colitis, pellagra, stomach cancer. “Chess” tongue is a type of varnished tongue. Occurs as a result of deficiency of vitamin B and nicotinic acid.

4. Uenlargement and redness of the papillae of the tongue. Enlargement and redness of the papillae on the right half of the tongue, closer to the tip, indicates liver damage, the left half - spleen disease, on the tip of the tongue - pelvic organ disease, and along the edges and in the middle of the tongue - lung disease.

6. Curvature or deviation of the tongue to the side- vascular disorders of the brain (stroke), mental illness.

7. Trembling tongue- brain disease, deep neurotic disorder.

8. Ulcers on the tongue. Ulcers on the surface of the tongue may indicate a disease of the digestive system (Crohn's disease).

We have listed only the main signs by which tongue diseases can be diagnosed. This diagnostic method requires the skill of a doctor, the ability not only to notice changes in the language, but also to combine the information received in order to make a correct diagnosis, which can be confirmed by subsequent diagnostic methods.

Ushakov's Dictionary

Language

language, language (language books outdated, only at 3, 4, 7 and 8 meaning), husband.

1. An organ in the oral cavity in the form of a movable soft outgrowth, which is an organ of taste, and in humans also contributes to the formation of speech sounds. Cow tongue. It hurts to bite your tongue. Lick with tongue. Stick your tongue out at someone. “The tongue is not a spatula, it knows what is sweet.” pogov. “And he came to my lips, and tore out my sinful tongue.” Pushkin. “He played signals with his tongue, sang songs - so catchy.” Nekrasov.

| Food from the tongue of animals. Tongue with mashed potatoes. Smoked tongue.

2. only units Ability to speak, express thoughts verbally, *****

Language

1) A system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means, which is a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings, expressions of will and serves as the most important means of communication between people. Being inextricably linked in its emergence and development with a given human collective, language is a social phenomenon. Language forms an organic unity with thinking, since one does not exist without the other.

2) A type of speech characterized by certain stylistic features. Book language. Colloquial. Poetic language. Newspaper language. cm. in the 2nd meaning.

On the issue of the relationship between the concepts of “language” and “speech,” different points of view have emerged in modern linguistics.

For the first time, the relationship and interaction of both phenomena was noted by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure: Without a doubt, both of these subjects are closely related to each other and mutually presuppose each other: language is necessary for speech to be understood and produce its effect; speech, in turn, is necessary for language to be established; historically, the fact of speech always precedes language. Following Ferdinand de Saussure, many researchers (V.D. Arakin, V.A. Artemov, O.S. Akhmanova, L.R. Zinder, T.P. Lomtev, A.I. Smirnitsky and others) differentiate these concepts, finding sufficient general methodological and linguistic grounds for this. Language and speech are contrasted on various grounds: a system of means of communication - the implementation of this system (the actual process of speaking), a system of linguistic units - their sequence in the act of communication, a static phenomenon - a dynamic phenomenon, a set of elements in a paradigmatic plan - their totality in a syntagmatic plan, the essence - phenomenon, general - separate (particular), abstract - concrete, essential - insignificant, necessary - random, systemic - non-systemic, stable (invariant) - variable (variable), usual - occasional, normative - non-normative, social - individual, reproducible - produced in the act of communication, code - exchange of messages, means - goal, etc. Individual linguists consistently make this distinction in relation to correlative units of different levels of language and speech: phoneme - specific sound, morpheme - syllable, lexeme - word, phrase - syntagma , sentence - phrase, complex syntactic whole - superphrasal unity. Other scientists (V.M. Zhirmunsky, G.V. Kolshansky, A.G. Spirkin, A.S. Chikobava) deny the difference between language and speech, identifying these concepts. Still others (E.M. Galkina-Fedoruk, V.N. Yartseva), without contrasting or identifying language and speech, define them as two sides of one phenomenon, characterized by properties that are complementary and interconnected in nature.

The beginnings of modern natural science. Thesaurus

Language

the most comprehensive and most differentiated means of expression that man possesses, the highest form of manifestation of the objective spirit. In language, three main functions can be distinguished: expression (detection), influence (using a call, message, etc.), reference to a thing (naming, orientation, image). This or that sphere of life is imprinted and expressed in language, for us - the sphere of science; it appears before the eyes, the mind's eye of the listener, whose language, thanks to this feature, refers to certain moments of it, to a certain area of ​​experience, experiences.

Culturology. Dictionary-reference book

Language

a system of signs that serves as a means of human communication, the development of culture and is capable of expressing the entire body of knowledge, ideas and beliefs of a person about the world and about himself. As a fact of spiritual culture, language in its development and functioning is determined by the entire set of processes of material and spiritual production, social relations of people. It is a means of understanding the world, creating, storing, processing and transmitting information. The essence of language is that it assigns certain meanings to individual elements of the world and classifies them in a special way.

a system of signs with the help of which human communication, thinking and self-expression takes place. It is a means of understanding the world, creating, storing, processing and transmitting information. The essence of language is that it divides the world into discrete concepts, i.e. assigns certain values ​​to individual elements of the world and classifies them in a special way.

Toponymic Dictionary of the Amur Region

Language

1) the pressing part of the leather grinder is a stick with transverse grooves cut out on it;

2) a part of a fishing shell or hunting trap inserted inside the device.

Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language

Language

Chat (or ruffle, scratch, etc.. P.) tongue simple- talk nonsense, talk idle

Sticking out your tongue(run) - quickly, without taking a breath

Protrude (stick out) language- waste your last strength, weaken

Unleash your tongue- start talking a lot, uncontrollably

Keep your mouth shut(or on a leash) - to remain silent, not to talk about something

For yours (his her) you can't keep up with your tongue (And) barefoot- said jokingly to someone or someone who is too talkative

Breaking tongue- speak incorrectly, distorting words and sounds

Mutual language- mutual understanding between someone

Hold your tongue- refrain from speaking

Swallow tongue - O a silent person who cannot or does not want to say anything

Ask for language- about words, phrases ready to be spoken

Untie your tongue decomposition

1) enable, encourage or cause conversation

2) start talking, start talking a lot (after silence)

Broke (word) from the tongue- involuntarily, unexpectedly for the speaker to be uttered

Pulling or tugging on the tongue decomposition force one to speak

Tongue without bones- about a talkative person

I'm tongue-tied whom - O a person who cannot say something clearly

Tongue like a razor someone - someone speaks harshly or wittily

Tongue on the shoulder- about a state of great fatigue (from work, movement)

Tongue won't turn who ( say, ask) - no determination

The tongue was taken away from someone - about a person who suddenly lost the ability to speak (usually from surprise, fear, etc.)

Tongue stuck to larynx- someone is speechless (from fear, confusion)

Tongue suspended who ( good bad) - about the ability or inability to speak

You'll swallow your tongue- delicious

Tongue loose for some - about a person who becomes too talkative

You'll break your tongue- about a difficult to pronounce word, phrase, etc.

The tongue hangs well(or suspended) for some - about an eloquent, fluently speaking person

Tongue scratching- chat

Tongue itches someone - about a great, uncontrollable desire to speak out, express their opinion

Tongue wagging (scratch, chat, grind) colloquial - talk (in vain, to no avail, to pass time)

Dictionary of linguistic terms

Language

1. (anat.)

An organ involved in the formation of speech sounds, in particular, lingual consonants - the most common in the languages ​​of the world.

2. (ling.)

The most important means of communication, a sign mechanism of communication;

a set and system of symbolic units of communication in abstraction from the variety of specific statements of individual people. Language includes five main levels: phonetics, vocabulary, word formation, morphology, syntax. Stylistics is a special “level” of language, which seems to run across the entire cross-section of its structure. (G.O. Vinokur).

in sociolinguistics

1. Language (in a generalized sense). A certain type of sign systems.

2. (In a specific meaning) “Idioethnic” language is a kind of really existing sign system, used in a certain society, in a certain time and in a certain space, which represents a specific implementation of the properties of language in general.

Ethnographic Dictionary

Language

1) a system of signs of any configuration, serving as a means of human (including national) communication, as well as thinking;

2) a means of storing and transmitting information;

3) one of the means of controlling human behavior;

4) one of the foundations of ethnicity, ensuring the unity of both the ethnic group, the state, and the entire society as a whole.

Ya words are a socio-psychological phenomenon, socially necessary and historically conditioned. The natural manifestation of the self is speech. National identity is a means of communication, accumulation and expression of experience by representatives of specific ethnic communities, influencing their national psychological characteristics (see) and forming their national self-awareness (see).

Ya lies at the basis of culture, expresses it, is the most important mechanism for the formation, self-determination, differentiation of an ethnic group, and a means of social advancement. Along with religion, it ensures the development of ethnic identification. A change in identity or its loss stimulates assimilation (q.v.), acculturation (q.v.) of an ethnic group.

The characteristic features of the ego are: specificity, determined by ideas about its uniqueness and independence; social prestige, which is based on communicative value (prevalence). The functions of Ya are diverse - communicative^ and integration, political. With the help of language, channels of communication with a foreign ethnic environment and familiarization with other cultures of other peoples are created. Attachment to the native language determines the painful reaction to persecution of the language, the ease of mobilization in the corresponding movements, and the readiness to respond to the call to speak out in its defense.

On the basis of language, ethnolinguistic communities are formed, and the ethnic group is divided into parts united by a single language. German is spoken by Germans and Austrians, Spanish is spoken by Spaniards and the peoples of Latin America, English is spoken by the British, Americans, Australians, New Zealanders, Kabardian-Circassian is spoken by Kabardians and Circassians, Belgians speak French and Walloon, Mari - Mountain Mari and Lugomari, Mordovians - to Moksha and Erzya.

Language is part of the symbolic resources of power (political and ethnic), along with the banner, coat of arms, etc. The right to speak and write in one’s native language is part of collective, ethnic rights.

The status of the ethnic group determines linguistic equality or inequality, and reflects the general position of the ethnic group in society (privileged, dominant or discriminated against). The language issue most often becomes aggravated with high consolidation of an ethnic group and with the implementation of a policy of language imposition. On this basis, ethnolinguistic movements arise.

Language exists in various forms: oral, colloquial or literary, unwritten and written; operates at the level - national, local, local. Accordingly, the following are distinguished: the language of interethnic communication; official, used in government; regional; local, including tribal, dialects; autochthonous or national, native or foreign.

(Krysko V.G. Ethnopsychological Dictionary. M.1999)

Dictionary of sociolinguistic terms

Language

The most important means of human communication, the main object of study of linguistics.

The term "language" has at least two related meanings:

1) language in general, as a certain type of sign systems;

2) specific, so-called. “idio-ethnic” language is a certain really existing sign system, used in a certain society, in a certain time and in a certain space, which represents a specific implementation of the properties of language in general.

Natural human language is contrasted with artificial languages ​​and animal language.

Phraseological Dictionary (Volkova)

Language

Sticking out my tongue(run) ( vernacular) - quickly, without taking a breath.

He rushed home, sticking out his tongue.

Keep your mouth shut- be silent, don’t speak when you don’t need to.

He knows how to keep his mouth shut.

Long tongue (who) - (trans.) about a talkative person.

I don't like long tongues.

Bite your tongue- refrain from speaking, remain silent.

Then Ivan Ignatich noticed that he had let it slip and bit his tongue.. A. Pushkin.

Gossips - trans. about gossipers, slanderers, about people who spread malicious rumors about someone/something.

Ah, evil tongues are worse than a pistol. A. Griboyedov. All these evil tongues say.

broken tongue- distorted, with incorrect pronunciation (about language, speech).

In broken French, he had difficulty explaining what he needed.

On the tongue- in your speech, in your words.

Why, I’ll tell you straight, should I be so intemperate with my tongue? A. Griboyedov.

Sharp tongue.

On the tongue

1) used to denote a strong desire to say, speak out, pronounce something.

-These objections were on my tongue last spring. M. Saltykov-Shchedrin. There's a word on the tip of my tongue, I can't catch it. M. Gorky.

2) in speech, conversation.

What's on a drunk's mind is on his tongue. Proverb.

Mutual language (with whom - what) mutual understanding between someone - something.

Find a common language with colleagues.

Hold your tongue (decomposition) - to refrain from speaking, to remain silent.

Hold your tongue, it's too crowded here.

Swallow tongue- about a silent person who cannot or does not want to say something.

-Tell me what's on your mind?

Well!., Why did you swallow your tongue? P. Melnikov-Pechersky.

Untie your tongue (decomposition)

1) (to whom; to what) to give an opportunity, encourage or force to talk.

Your honey and velvety beer have loosened my tongue today. A.A. Pushkin.

An unexpected circumstance happened that loosened his tongue... Uspensky.

2) (without additional.) start talking, start talking a lot (after silence).

It’s true that I loosened my tongue at the wrong time. I. Nikitin.

Off the tongue- unexpectedly, suddenly become said, uttered ( decomposition).

The last, inspired sound escaped the lips. I. Turgenev.

The stupid word just rolled off my tongue.. I. Turgenev.

To pull or pull the tongue (decomposition) - to force one to speak, to speak out.

Nobody pulls your tongue.

Well hung or suspended the language of someone - about a person who speaks smartly, smoothly, well.

He has a good tongue.

Tongue without bones who (decomposition trans.) - about a person who says unnecessary things.

Now your tongue is boneless, now it’s boneless; he talks like that, he talks like that. A. Ostrovsky.

The tongue won't dare to say- I don’t have the courage to say.

I wouldn't dare tell him now that I love him. L. Tolstoy,

How did your tongue turn?

Tongue wagging(scratch, chat, grind; decomposition) - talk (in vain, to no avail, to pass time).

Talk with your tongue, but don’t give your hands free reign. Proverb.

You'll swallow your tongue- delicious.

They cook great cabbage soup - you'll swallow your tongue. P. Melnikov-Pechersky.

Tongue loose - who (decomposition) - someone got talking, started talking a lot (after silence).

Tongues were loosened, a frank conversation began. Melnikov-Pechersky.

Tongue scratching (decomposition) - talk in vain, to no avail, to pass time.

Are you tired of scratching your tongue yet?

Tongue itches (decomposition) - there is a desire, I want to say, to speak out.

My tongue itches to admit everything,

Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism

Language

the most important means of communication, which spontaneously arose in human society and is developing a system of sound signs that serves for communication purposes and is capable of expressing the entire body of human knowledge and ideas about the world.

Rb: Language. Visual and expressive means

Reporter: speech

Type: Language of fiction

Ass: Sign system

* “The sign of spontaneity of origin and development, as well as the limitlessness of the scope of application and possibilities of expression, distinguishes language from the so-called artificial languages ​​and from various signaling systems created on the basis of language” (N.D. Arutyunova). *

Gasparov. Records and extracts

Language

♦ “You think that the official language is a phrasebook in which there are only ready-made phrases, but this is a dictionary with which you can say any of your own thoughts.” See RHETORIC.

♦ Annensky “loved the vernacular, pronouncing it like foreign words” (Voloshin’s recollection).

♦ At the Ferrara-Florentine Council, translating from Latin, “speaking in three languages, Greek, Frisian and philosophical” (qtd. Lotman, Letters, 617). See KURGANOV'S WRITER.

♦ “To follow Derrida” - an expression in the New Testament (I think, G. Dashevsky).

♦ N. Av., when the gypsies pester her, tells them the first verses of Virgil or Horace that she remembers, and they fall behind with abuse. They recoil even more quickly from their own language: A. A. Beletsky told me how to answer in gypsy “go away,” but I forgot.

♦ "No language." "Auntie's language." "The language claims that nothing happened." Expressions by B. Zhitkov.

♦ Sleeping at a meeting. Seashore, oleographic blue sky, empty beach stretching into the distance. I walk along the dark edge of the sand, a teenage girl approaches from a distance, barefoot, rolled up trousers, plaid shirt. She looks into me, and I understand: she expects me to feel lust, and she will do as she wants. But I can't feel lust because I don't know what I am? Just the way it is? like I was a long time ago? how I imagine myself in fantasies? And because I don’t know this, I slowly disappear and cease to exist.

Lenore has a bad dream -

Lenore doesn't dream.

♦ In 1918, negotiations between the hetman government and the Moscow government took place through interpreters.

♦ “Pashka knew how to talk even with bears, and if, for example, he did not understand the English, it was only because they probably spoke their own language incorrectly” (“Sulfur Mustard”, ch. 2).

♦ When Mezzofanti went mad, of all his 32 languages, he retained only Gypsy in his memory (V. Veidle).

♦ N. said that as a child it seemed to her that it was impossible to lie in English, since all the words there were already lies. And A., as a child, believed that a foreign language is one in which salt is called sugar, and sugar is called salt.

♦ “I speak foreign languages, but mine speaks me.” Karl Kraus.

♦ S. Krzhizhanovsky about the Odessa summer: on the descent to the beach, the path went around a flower bed, everyone cut the corner and trampled on the flowers, no barbed wire helped. Then they wrote in red and yellow: “Is this a road?” - and it helped. "This is what it means to speak to a person in his own language."

♦ Wells was asked in Petrograd in 1920: why does your son speak languages, but you don’t? He answered: because he is the son of a gentleman, and I am not the son of a gentleman. “My son is not a gentleman’s son either.”

♦ Pisemsky's merchant's wife with her husband, an officer and a coachman (see PERSONALITY) - this is a version of L. Lesnoy's song, how a Japanese man cheated on a Japanese woman with a black woman, but it wasn't cheating, because "he didn't speak Japanese with her." (Remember L.D. Blok; they played together in Kuokkala). Hence the erotic metaphors in "Wax Person".

♦ Art history language, in which every second sentence must be exclamatory.

♦ Playback V. Parnaha (RGALI 2251.1.44): he learned 11 languages ​​in order to de-Russify himself, and consoled himself by reading Spanish Jews who wrote in the language of the inquisitors. "The vowels are like balconies on the sea, the timpani of the Latin -abam and the stone blows of the Spanish -ado, the jumping syncopation of the Arabs, the darkness of the Jewish w with clanking ts".

♦ “How good it would be to translate Baudelaire into Church Slavonic, how he would sound!” - Yu. Sidorov said to Lox.

♦ Knowledge of the French language develops arrogance, and knowledge of Greek - modesty, - members of the academic committee that developed the gymnasium program argued to Nicholas I; but Uvarov understood unreality, and Pushkin wrote about uselessness, and Greek was not introduced.

♦ Uvarov sent Goethe his German article, he wrote: “Take advantage of your ignorance of grammar: I myself have been working for 30 years on how to forget it” (Again from Aldanov).

Bible Dictionary to the Russian Canonical Bible

Language

language - the sound and written structure of speech of a certain people. In the beginning, all people had one language (Gen. 11:1), which, perhaps, was understandable even to the whole creation ( · cf. Gen.2:19; Gen.6:19 -20). Perhaps this same pristine and pure language was given on the day of Pentecost to the Apostles of Christ, for everyone understood it (Acts 2:4,6). Other disciples received a similar gift (Acts 10:46; Acts 19:6; 1 Cor. 12:10; 1 Cor. 14:2), and to a particularly large extent ·ap. Paul (1 Cor. 14:18). It is believed that this language was the original Hebrew language spoken by Abraham and his immediate descendants. This opinion is supported by the fact that this language, unlike all others, operated mainly with concepts. In it, every name and title is a characteristic and purpose of a person or object, which is not found in other languages. This language differed from the Aramaic (or Syriac) language (Gen. 31:47; 2 Kings 18:26) and was eventually superseded by it. In Luke 24:38; John 19:13,17,20; Acts 21:40; Acts 22:2; Acts 26:14; Rev.9:11 The Hebrew language is the name given to this Aramaic language, in which at the time of Christ the entire Middle East was explained ( · cf. Mat.27:46; Mark 5:41). Currently, the Hebrew language is preserved only by scholars to decipher ancient written documents. In writing, it did not have vowels (the continuous texts of the manuscripts consisted only of consonants), which poses an additional difficulty for understanding and translating such texts.

The Greek language mentioned in the books of the New Testament (John 19:20; Acts 21:37; Rev. 9:11) was not the true Greek language of that time, but was a Hellenized dialect of the Hebrew (Aramaic) language. The Old Testament was translated into this language by seventy translators, and almost the entire New Testament was written in the same language (with the exception of the Gospel of Luke, the book of the Acts of the Apostles and all the Epistles ·ap. Paul, which are written in more accurate Greek). This is one of the greatest difficulties in translating and interpreting the books of the New Testament.

The Roman language (John 19:20) is the official language of the Roman Empire, now known as Latin. ( cm. , )

Terms of Cinematic Semiotics

LANGUAGE

and SPEECH according to F. de Saussure

Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure writes: Language is a treasure deposited by the practice of speech in everyone who belongs to one social group, it is a grammatical system potentially existing in every brain, or, better said, in the brains of this collection of individuals, for language does not exist. completely in none of them, it exists fully only in the mass.

By separating language and speech, we thereby separate: 1) the social from the individual; 2) essential from incidental and more or less accidental.

Language is not a function of the speaking subject, it is a product passively registered by the individual; it never presupposes preliminary reflection, and analysis in it appears only in the field of classifying activity...

On the contrary, speech is an individual act of will and understanding, in which one must distinguish: 1) combinations with the help of which the speaking subject uses the language code in order to express his personal thought; 2) a psychophysical mechanism that allows him to objectify these combinations.

While linguistic activity as a whole has a heterogeneous character, language, as we have defined it, is a phenomenon that is homogeneous in nature: it is a system of signs in which the only essential thing is the combination of meaning and acoustic image, and both of these elements of the sign are equally mental.

Language, no less than speech, is a concrete subject by its nature, and this greatly contributes to its research. Although linguistic signs are psychic in their essence, at the same time they are not abstract; associations, sealed by collective consent, the totality of which constitutes language, are realities located in the brain. Moreover, the signs of language are, so to speak, tangible: in writing they can be recorded by means of conventional outlines, while it seems impossible to photograph acts of speech in all detail; the utterance of the shortest word represents a countless number of muscular movements that are extremely difficult to comprehend and depict. In language, on the contrary, there is nothing other than an acoustic image that can be conveyed through a certain visual image. In fact, if we ignore the many individual movements necessary for the realization of speech, any acoustic image turns out, as we will see later, to be the sum of a limited number of elements or phonemes, which in turn can be depicted in writing using a corresponding number of signs. It is this very ability to record phenomena related to language that leads to the fact that a dictionary and grammar can serve as its correct image; for language is a warehouse of acoustic images, and writing is their tangible form (F. de Saussure Course of General Linguistics M., Logos, 1998, pp. 19-21).

Philosophical Dictionary (Comte-Sponville)

Language

Language

♦ Langage, Langue

In a broad sense, any communication through signs (bees, for example, have this kind of “language”). In a strict, or specifically human, sense - the ability to speak (potential language) or the entire existing variety of human languages. It should be noted that language is generally incapable of speaking or thinking; it means nothing, and that is why we are able to speak and think. Language is an abstraction; Only words in action, actualized in a particular language, are real. Thus, in relation to specific languages ​​and words, language is approximately the same as life in relation to species and individuals - their sum and at the same time their remainder.

“Language,” says de Saussure, “is speech minus the word,” what remains when we fall silent. Which speaks not in favor of talkers, but in favor of linguists.

But what is a word? The practical use by an individual at a given specific moment of a language. This means that language is what we speak within - a set of conventional signs produced through articulation (double articulation - in the form of phonemes and monemes) and subordinated to a certain number of semantic and grammatical structures.

It is not difficult to notice that the plurality of languages, which is a factual given, does not exclude the unity of language (since any statement expressed in one language can be translated into another language) and the unity of reason. In my opinion, it even suggests both. If the mind did not exist before the emergence of language, and the symbolic function did not exist before the emergence of concrete languages, we would never be able to speak. From this point of view, the well-known aporia about the origin of languages ​​(to reason, you need language, and to invent a language, you need reason) is in fact not a strict aporia. First, no language was invented (it is the result of a historical process, not an individual act); secondly, intelligence and symbolic function existed even before the advent of languages ​​(it is precisely this, thanks to which newborn babies master speech, that apparently allowed humanity in several thousand years to move from exclusively sensory-motor communication, also characteristic of animals - screams, gestures, facial expressions - to linguistic communication).

In conclusion, it is necessary to emphasize the extremely high efficiency (in terms of opportunities and economy) of what Martinet called double articulation. Any language is divided into minimal meaningful units (monemes), each of which in turn is subdivided into minimal sound units (phonemes), and the result is such an objectively existing miracle as human communication. All the wealth of our experience, ideas and feelings; all books - those already written and those that have yet to be written; all words - spoken and those that will be spoken in the future - all this can be expressed using several dozen short varieties of cry - minimal sound signals that have purely vocal differences characteristic of any language (in the French language, for example, there are about forty phonemes ). These sounds, which in themselves mean nothing, are capable of expressing any meaning. As always, the most difficult things are achieved in the simplest way. We think thanks to atoms, which themselves do not think; we speak thanks to sounds that mean nothing. In this sense, linguistics, which at first glance is far from everything material, can lead to materialism.

Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language (Alabugina)

Language

A, m.

1. A movable muscular organ in the oral cavity that perceives taste sensations and, in humans, is involved in the pronunciation of sounds.

* Try with your tongue. Aspic from the tongue. *

2. trans. About something that has an elongated shape.

* Tongues of flame. Clapper. *

♦ Long tongue . Chatty person.

♦ Gossips. Gossipers.

♦ Hold your tongue . Keep silent.

♦ Untie your tongue . Have a conversation.

A, m.

1. A historically established system of sound, vocabulary and grammatical means with the help of which human thinking is carried out and people communicate.

* Slavic languages. Russian language. *

2. A system of signs (sounds, signals) that convey information.

* Computer language. *

3. Ability to speak, express thoughts verbally; speech.

* Lose your tongue from fear. *

4. Style1 (in 3 digits).

* Print language. Writer's language. *

5. Speech quality.

* Colorful language. *

6. That which expresses or explains something.

* The language of nature. *

7. trans. A prisoner captured to obtain the necessary information.

* Capture the tongue. *

Grammar Dictionary: Grammar and linguistic terms

Language

The term ego in relation to human speech is used in different meanings: 1. to designate the human ego in general, as the ability to speak; 2. to designate a separate language, as opposed to an adverb and dialect; 3. to designate the Self of any group of people or individual that is in any way different from the Self of another group of people or other persons.

Ya in general is a set of ways of expressing thoughts using words. The words of the human self, both by themselves and in combinations with each other, are sound symbols, i.e. conventional signs of various concepts as parts of thought; the connection of a word, as a sound symbol, with the concept it denotes exists only in the Self; there is no other connection, independent of the ego, between the word and the concept; for example, outside Ya. there is nothing that would force us to associate the sounds of the word “water” with the concept of water, and the same concept in other Ya. can be denoted by completely different combinations of sounds, cf. Latin aqua, French eau, German Wasser, ancient Greek. hydor, heb. maim, etc. True, words denoting some sounds or their producers may themselves be their reproduction or contain sounds that are such a reproduction, cf. in Russian Ya. “cuckoo”, “cuckoo”, etc.; young children often call a cow “moo-moo,” etc. But these are completely natural cases, similar to the so-called. poetic sound writing or with the need to convey visual images not only in words, but also in drawings, in general in all languages ​​that we know, play the most insignificant role. It is possible that in the primitive language there were more such onomatopoeic words, but the sounds of human speech can be called language only from the moment they become (by themselves or in their combinations) symbols of concepts, i.e. cease to be simple onomatopoeias. The same should be said about another case of a natural, independent of the ego, connection between pronounced sounds and what is conveyed by them, namely, about involuntary sounds and their combinations caused by various affects, i.e. serving as an expression of feelings, such as, for example, interjections about, ah, oh, ah, oh, etc.; Such interjections stand outside the ego as long as they are expressions of feelings and not conventional signs of concepts. One must think that before Ya appeared in the real sense of the word, and in that era when Ya had not yet reached proper development, such interjections were used more often.

The main property of the human self is its articulation, understood not in the sense of the separateness of sounds that form speech, but in the sense of the separateness of concepts denoted by sounds and their combinations. Due to the fact that individual words and their parts can denote individual concepts, partial changes in these concepts and their relationship to each other and to the thought itself, it becomes possible to dissect a whole thought, thanks to which Ya is a means not only of transmitting thought, but also process of thought. Ya did not reach this ability right away; in the primitive self, one must think, thought was much less dissected than in those selves that we know.

Having emerged as a means of transmitting thoughts to another person, I continues to remain the main means of communication between people; hence the need for the ego to be understandable to one or another group of people who are in such communication, and the dependence of the fate of the ego on the fate of social unions using the ego. The development and change of the human ego, as well as its fragmentation into separate Languages ​​and dialects, the unification of several separate languages ​​in one language and other phenomena. The self generally falls apart into many separate selves; Regarding many of them, we cannot say whether there was a Ph.D. between them. connection by origin even in the distant past. Nevertheless, we can talk about the Self as one, meaning the unity of the physical and mental basis. All human ya are ya sounds; in all Ya., speech sounds are formed equally by the exhalation of air from the lungs through the glottis and the oral cavity and nose and by the obstacles that the exhaled air encounters on its way in the glottis and in the oral cavity; Among all peoples, the ego serves to express dissected thoughts and is subject to the same laws rooted in the mental organization common to all humanity.

A separate language, in contrast to an adverb or dialect, is called. such a self, which in a given era does not form one whole with any other selves, although, perhaps, it formed such a whole in another era. The adverbs of one Ya are called. such selves that, despite all the differences between them in a given era, form one whole. In order for the words of two different social groups to be considered as adverbs of one language, it is necessary: ​​1. that the words and grammatical forms used by persons belonging to one and the other social group are recognized by them, at least only in most cases, as the same words and grammatical forms; this is possible if these words and forms in the language of both social groups are identical or represent easily noticeable differences in sound; These are, for example, the differences between Akaya and Okaya Great Russian dialects, in which the same words are pronounced with unstressed O in some dialects and with other unstressed sounds in other dialects: water, carry, village, spring in some, vada, nasit, syalo, vyasna or sil, visna in others, etc.; 2. so that communication between the members of one and the other social group is not interrupted; because I am subject to constant changes (see Life I.), then this will be reflected in the emergence in it of phenomena common to both social groups that use this Ya., and, moreover, not only words and grammatical forms, because both of them can be borrowed by one Ya. from another, but also sound (phonetic, see) changes. In the absence of such general sound changes, such Ya. are separate Ya., no matter how close they are in their past. Since Ya is, first of all, a means of communication between people, the life of Ya (see) is in close connection with the conditions of this communication: the closer it is, the more homogeneity in the Ya of members of society, and the weaker it is, the more Differences in their selves arise more easily. Therefore, the life of an identity depends on the life of social unions or groups that speak a given language: the more cohesive a certain social group is, the more homogeneous its identity is; when its cohesion is weak, the language is fragmented into dialects and adverbs, the differences between which arise the more easily the weaker the connections between the individual parts of this social group; when a social union disintegrates, the language also disintegrates, and individual dialects of the language become independent languages; on the contrary, when social unions merge, their identities can come closer together, becoming adverbs of one identity or forming a mixed identity, or are replaced by one another. Individual languages ​​are partly united into groups of related languages ​​(see Relatedness of languages), and partly stand in isolation, i.e. are not related, at least proven, to any other self; These are, for example, Ya. Basque in the Pyrenees, Ya. Japanese, Chinese. Naming any. I. being unrelated to each other, we only indicate that their relationship has not been proven at present, but it is possible that it will be proven later. The question of whether all human selves originated from one selves or from several selves that arose independently of one another cannot be resolved with the means that comparative linguistics currently has at its disposal. In any case, such an original self or such initial selves were very poor, i.e. contained only a very limited number of words, and the very meanings of the words were extremely uncertain from our point of view. See also Life of Ya., Adverb, Relationship of Languages, Comparative Linguistics. For literature about language, see Linguistics.

Language and race. These concepts are often confused, although they are essentially different. What is Ya, see above; R. is a set of physical characteristics that unite a known group of people. The homogeneity of the language testifies to the kinship of languages ​​(see) and social unions, the representatives of which speak these languages, i.e. that these social unions were formed from one social union, but does not indicate the physical relationship of the representatives of these unions with each other. R.'s homogeneity may indicate the physical relationship of persons belonging to the same R., and may also be caused by mixing of races or similar physical conditions (for example, climate), but does not indicate a class. relations between those social unions that include people belonging to the same R. Therefore, related languages ​​can be spoken by peoples belonging to different R. So, Finns, i.e. those who speak Finnish languages ​​belong partly to the Mongolian languages ​​(Voguls, Ostyaks, etc.), partly to the European languages ​​(Magyars, etc.), and partly combine the characteristics of both languages ​​(Suomi, Karelians, Cheremis, etc.) etc.); the same should be said about the Turks, most of whom belong to the Mongolian Republic, but some (Crimean Tatars, part of the European Ottoman Turks) belong to the European Republic; speakers of Malayo-Polynesian languages ​​(in Malacca, the Malay Islands and Polynesia) also belong to different languages. Most speakers of Indo-European languages ​​belong to the European languages, but some of them combine features of the European and Mongolian languages ​​( part of the Great Russians and Eastern Bulgarians); Among them there are blacks (for example, in Liberia) and people of American R. (in South America). The northern French are racially closer to the northern Germans than both are to the southern French and Germans. On the other hand, the community of R. does not indicate the kinship of Ya.: for example, the peoples of the Caucasus belong to the same European R., but b. parts of the Caucasian Ya. are not related to the European ones; The Mongols and Chinese are very close to each other on racial grounds, but their languages ​​are not in any way related to each other.

Encyclopedia "Biology"

Language

An organ in the oral cavity of vertebrates that performs the functions of transporting and tasting food. The structure of the tongue reflects the specific nutrition of animals. In lampreys, the tongue is gnarled, with horny denticles; in fish, it is a small fold of the mucous membrane supported by an unpaired skeletal element, the copula. Most amphibians have a true muscular tongue, attached (in frogs) by the anterior end to the floor of the mouth. The tongue of snakes and lizards is mobile, long, thin, often forked at the end, designed for chemical analysis of the environment. The chameleon's long tongue, extended and sticky at the end, is designed for catching prey. The shape of the tongue of birds is extremely diverse: short and hard in raptors; long and thin in woodpeckers; wide and fleshy in geese. The muscular tongue of mammals enables complex feeding movements. The human tongue is a mobile muscular organ involved in food processing and swallowing; also performs speech functions. The thickness of the tongue is formed by the longitudinal, transverse and vertical muscles. From the lower surface of the tongue to the bottom of the oral cavity, a fold of the mucous membrane descends - the frenulum, which limits its movement to the sides. On the upper surface of the tongue there are papillae of various shapes, the nerve endings of which provide pain, taste, temperature and tactile sensitivity. Between the lingual muscles there are small salivary glands, and in the mucous membrane of the root of the tongue there is the lingual tonsil, which is involved in immune functions.

Explanatory translation dictionary

Language

1. The naturally existing communication system of society.

2. An ordered collection or system of linguistic semantic or semantic-distinctive units is the essence of linguistic signs.

3. System of correspondence between messages and reality; potency; categories.

4. A system of verbal expression of thoughts that has a certain sound and grammatical structure and serves as a means of communication between people.

5. A type of speech that has certain characteristic features (style).

6. A means of wordless communication.

7. A means of cognition. With the help of language, we tell people what they don’t know, and also that we don’t know something and want to know. With the help of language we learn the thoughts of other people.

8. A means of communication between people of different nationalities. Thoughts expressed in one language using one system of signs, i.e. expressive means of one language can become understandable to people speaking another language if, in the process of communication, they are expressed using the sign system of this other language, i.e. using the expressive means of this second language. This is done by translators, without whom the process of communication between people using different sign systems to express thoughts would be extremely difficult.

9. The historically established social structure of material signs that perform a communicative function.

10. A system of discrete (articulate) sound signs that spontaneously arose in human society and is developing, serving for communication purposes and capable of expressing the entire body of knowledge and ideas about the world.

11. The most important means of communication between people is language. As a means of communication, language is a system of signs of a special nature, which are the main instrument for expressing thoughts and a means of communication between people. Language is understood as a condition for the implementation of thinking and as a means that allows one to store and transmit thoughts already formulated in the process of thinking. In human society, language is one of the most important means of storing, processing and transmitting information. Since language is organized systematically and functions according to the rules of a code, the speaker, starting from a very small number of basic elements, can compose, then groups of signs and, finally, an infinite number of varied utterances. Each of these statements can be recognized by the perceiver if he has the same system at his disposal.

12. The code with which we record our idea of ​​the world around us and transmit information about it to each other.

13. Language not only does not strive to copy the surrounding world, but is connected with it solely on the basis of an agreement (convention) between speakers of this language.

14. Language reflects the “context of reality” in the speech context, coordinating the vital laws of compatibility with its internal laws of grammar and euphony.

15. Language is a code (a set of sounds or symbols) whose meaning is determined by convention, context, situation, and background knowledge.

16. A means of communication between people, a weapon for the formation and expression of thoughts, feelings, emotions, a means of assimilation and transmission of information.

17. An ordered collection or system of linguistic semantic or semantic-distinctive units.

Lem's World - Dictionary and Guide

Language

1) an organ found in many animals and located in the mouth; in humans it serves as a means of nonverbal communication by showing it; 2) a prisoner, through whose interrogation it is intended to obtain information; 3) a system of signals designed to transmit information; language includes rules governing the form of these signals (vocabulary), compatibility (grammar) and processing method (semantics) at the sending and receiving ends; languages ​​can be classified according to these parameters, as well as according to the spontaneity/determinism of their origin (for example, Esperanto is deterministic, modern Hebrew is intermediate on the basis of spontaneous Hebrew), its sociality (human and animal languages ​​are social, the language of the hereditary DNA code is not social), the way signal processing - direct control/control of the recipient's model of the world (the language of smells and movements of animals and humans, as well as, according to B. Bettelheim, the language of commands in concentration camps - directly controlling, human languages ​​and the language of monkeys introduced by humans - controlling the model):

* “The first, Hranislav Megawatt, flew to Koldea, where the Jellied tribe lived, because he planned to get a “language” there.” - How Erg Self-exciter defeated the Paleweed *

* “We know only two types of languages ​​- the hereditary code and the natural language, but it does not follow from this that there are no other languages. I admit that they exist and the Letter was written in one of them.” - Voice of Heaven *

* “Secondly, and this is a decisive consideration, a language created spontaneously during the group evolution of personoids would be incomprehensible to us; its study would be reminiscent of solving a mysterious cipher, complicated in addition by the fact that the ciphers that we usually solve were created after all people for other people, in a world common to codebreakers and codebreakers. And the world of personoids is qualitatively different from ours, and therefore the language most suitable for it must be sharply different from any ethnic language." "I won't serve" *

* “It’s almost the same with language, since individual words are not independent carriers of meaning, but refer us to larger concepts and, in the end, it turns out that language really consists of words, but words acquire meanings in the aggregate, in the process of work in language as a system." - Thirty years later (VYa) *

* “The language in which our nerves speak to our brain is almost identical in all people, but the language, or rather the way we encode memories and associative connections, is purely individual.” - Thirty years later (quote from "Sum of Technology") (VYa) *

* “A person can imagine that he allegedly picked an apple from a branch, but he will not be able to eat this presented apple, unless we come up with something new for the teeth, for the mouth and for the taste buds of the tongue.” - The mystery of the Chinese room. Phantomatics (VYA) *

* “I see the first steps, or rather crawling, in the direction where lies what I tried to describe above with difficulty, typical for a long-term forecast, since there are NO phenomena predicted yet, as well as terms, that is, a language to describe them.” - The mystery of the Chinese room. Exformation (EC) *

* “And the localization of the brain centers responsible for rational speech, for a language learned from the cradle, another language learned in adulthood, written speech, reading, etc. - all these functional language embryos of the newborn’s brain are truly biological and almost identical (regardless of whether the child is Polish or Chinese) and represent an unsolved mystery. After all, it cannot be said that language is not inherited, and it cannot be said that language is inherited: a person inherits only “functional readiness”, the ability to quickly adapt to the linguistic environment, in which he was born." - The mystery of the Chinese room. Tertium comparationis (TJ)*

* “From twenty amino acid letters, Nature has created a language “in its pure form”, in which, with an insignificant rearrangement of nucleotide syllables, phages, viruses, bacteria, tyrannosaurs, termites, hummingbirds, forests and peoples are expressed, if only there is enough time at their disposal. This language anticipates not only conditions at the bottom of the oceans and on mountain peaks, but also the quantum nature of light, thermodynamics, electrochemistry, echolocation, hydrostatics and God knows what else that we do not yet know. He does all this only “practically”, since, creating everything. , understands nothing, but how much better is this misunderstanding than our wisdom. Indeed, it is worth learning such a language - a language that creates philosophers, while our language only creates philosophy." - The mystery of the Chinese room. Cultivation of information (quote from "Sum of Technology") (VYa) *

* “We must talk about language using, naturally, a language, which for this reason becomes a metalanguage (“metalanguage” in relation to the language of the “elementary level” is what “metamathematics” is in relation to mathematics: it is one level in higher hierarchy, but since this is a complex problem, I will deal with it later)." - The mystery of the Chinese room. Languages ​​and codes (LCA) *

* “One end of this scale is occupied by “hard” languages, and at the opposite end there are “soft” languages. “Hard” is a language that is fundamentally context-free or one that, like typical programming languages ​​for finite state machines (computers), is a set of commands (called software ), causing data transformation (data processing) due to the execution of these commands-“orders” through the hardware of a computer (...) Languages ​​at the opposite end of the scale, “soft”, are distinguished by strong semantic polyformism (semantics is the science of meaning, while semiotics is the science of meaning). - about signs). This means multi-interpretation, or many and at the same time different interpretations of linguistic meanings, represented both by individual words (composed of elements of the alphabet) and by idioms." - The mystery of the Chinese room. Languages ​​and codes (LCA) *

* “Everyone who reads the “Probabilistic Model of Language” by the famous probabilistic mathematician Nalimov will be convinced by the author that it is EASIER for a machine to pass the Turing test (in a conversation with a person) than to make a full translation of a non-banal and non-scientific text (for example, philosophical, literary, etc. more poetic) from language to language. And this is true, because if you look at a GOOD translation through the prism of logical semantics, you can see that Nalimov is never talking about unambiguous literalness, and I follow him, that translation is always. interpretation of the conceptual meanings behind individual sentences expressing in one language what must represent the equivalent in another language. This, strictly speaking, is obvious, since we know that in any language everyone can somehow understand another who also speaks it. this language (naturally, we are not talking about topology or algebra), but fluent acquaintance with two languages ​​is indeed a MANDATORY condition for correct translation, but is not sufficient, since not every person who speaks two languages ​​will be able to demonstrate the abilities of a translator - even prose (world literature is simply teeming with poorly translated works).” - The mystery of the Chinese room. Riddles (RY) *

* “This means that there can be no question of being able to “read minds” directly with the help of unheard-of equipment, or at least determine in which language a given person thinks and in which he does not understand anything.” - Megabit bomb. Mind as a helmsman (IY) *

* “When I write in German, I think in German, but the use of meanings in my native Polish language is somehow “final”, that is, “deeper”. I notice this from the numerous doubts over my German even then, when I speak and know that I am not mistaken, in the Polish language such doubts are rare." - Megabit bomb. Replace the mind? (VYa) *

* Moreover, we can determine to which language a completely incomprehensible sentence, constructed in accordance with syntactic rules, belongs. Examples: Apentula niewdziosek te bedy gruwasnie W kos turmiela weprzachnie, kostra bajte spoczy... (this is mine from the Cyberiad). Or: Whor canteel whorth bee asbin? Cam we so all complete With all her fault Bagnose (Lennon). Etc. It is easy to recognize that the first poem is written in Polish, and the second in English. Sound combinations betray meaningless kinship. - Megabit bomb. Mind (MI) *

* “I’m not even sure whether the linear and quantum structure of our language (earthly languages) must be fundamentally universal on a cosmic scale, and the existence of civilizations using a sound-written language also does not seem to me to be some kind of global necessity, if only because “that monkeys (for example, bonobo chimpanzees), whose larynx is structured differently from ours, understand the content of rows composed of symbolic drawings, but cannot speak.” - Megabit bomb. Mind (MI) *

* “In other words, and simply put: excess precision, that is, the desire to get to an absolutely precise linguistic description of concepts, leads to formal systems, after which we fall into the terrible abyss discovered by Kurt Gödel.” - Thirty years later (VYa) *

* “Also, our language and each of its types, thanks to its composition, lexicography, phraseology, as well as idiomatics, avoids the traps and treacherous traps, the presence of which in every arithmetically closed system was discovered by the great Gödel...” - The Secret of the Chinese Room. Tertium comparationis (TJ)*

* "The point is that "soft" languages ​​can avoid the abyss opened by Gödel. And so it is: to prove the correctness of a statement contained in a certain (let's call it "zero") system of statement signs, which, according to Gödel's law, cannot be confirmed internally this system - we MUST rise to the next level of the system and only there we will be able to solve the problem." - The mystery of the Chinese room. Languages ​​and codes (LCA) *

* The normal ethnic language that we use copes with the Gödelian obstacle itself, without worrying about the swing of logical-semantic levels. This follows from the place it occupies on our scale - the band in the middle. This is where the language is located, being hard enough in code to make understanding possible, and at the same time soft enough to be able to understand its texts with various deviations. This saves Godel from falling into the abyss. I said abyss, because in a language freed from the possibility of many interpretations, multiple meanings, dependence of meaning on context, that is, in a monomorphic language (in which each word would mean one single thing) a terrible numerical surplus would prevail, a real Babylonian encyclopedia - such a language is impossible would be enjoyed. Every attempt to finally tightly close signifi- cantly imperfect systems leads to regressus ad infinitum. Thus, our language is a little blurred in perception, and the longer the texts, the more heterogeneously perceived halos appear around them. It exists without falling into Gödel's traps, opposing them with its flexibility, elasticity or, in a word, thanks to the fact that it is metaphorical and is capable of ad hoc creating metaphors. The mystery of the Chinese room. Languages ​​and codes (LCA) *

* "We should not be afraid of metaphors, because they represent one of the most effective weapons that save our linguistic utterances from every regressus ad infinitum discovered by Gödel. Natural languages ​​cope with the irremovable Gödelian defect because of their ambiguity, connotational-denotational blurriness , as well as contextuality, allow them to neutralize not only “soft” (semantic) contradictions, but also “hard” (logical) ones. - The mystery of the Chinese room. Artificial Intelligence as Experimental Philosophy (EP) *

* “In addition, it seems that the “linguistic core” of the human Mind arose quite accidentally and only when its use was little by little “justified” did a more expressive drift begin in the “linguistic direction”, which (we don’t know how) “learned” to bypass” Gödel's abysses" and the bottomless uncertainties of self-recurrence, but these steps already occurred quite late on the historical scale and at a certain stage preceded the emergence of writing as an "antichronic" (that is, opposing the erosive action of time, the passage of which kills each of us) stabilizer, and even as “a pole” along (up) which Reason should have stretched like a bindweed (a comparison with beans, perhaps, would be inedible for many people).” - Megabit bomb. Mind (MI) *

Language

Syn: manner, style, syllable (raised)

encyclopedic Dictionary

Language

1. in anatomy - in terrestrial vertebrates and humans there is a muscular outgrowth (in fish, a fold of the mucous membrane) at the bottom of the oral cavity. Participates in the capture, processing of food, in the acts of swallowing and speech (in humans). The tongue contains taste buds.
2. ..1) natural language, the most important means of human communication. Language is inextricably linked with thinking; is a social means of storing and transmitting information, one of the means of controlling human behavior. Language arose simultaneously with the emergence of society in the process of joint labor activity of primitive people. The emergence of articulate speech was a powerful means of further development of man, society and consciousness. It is realized and exists in speech. The languages ​​of the world differ in structure, vocabulary, etc., but all languages ​​have some common patterns, a systematic organization of language units (for example, paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships between them), etc. Language changes over time (see Diachrony), may cease to be used in the field of communication (dead languages). Varieties of language (national language, literary language, dialects, language cult, etc.) play different roles in the life of society... 2) Any sign system, for example. the language of mathematics, cinema, sign language. See also: Artificial languages, Programming language... 3) The same as style (the language of a novel, the language of a newspaper).

Ozhegov's Dictionary

YAZ Y K 1, A, pl. and, ov, m.

1. A movable muscular organ in the oral cavity that perceives taste sensations and is also involved in articulation in humans. Lick with tongue. Try it on me. (i.e. taste). I'm a snake.(such an organ forked at the end in the mouth of a snake). Show me. commun. (stick it out; also as a sign of ridicule, disdain). Hold me. take care of your teeth (translated: don’t say too much, keep quiet; colloquial). Long me. at kogon. (also translated: about a chatterbox, about someone who talks too much; colloquial disapproved). Gossips(translated: gossipers, slanderers). On I. someone is sharp. (can speak sharply). The question was in Kogon language. (who was ready to ask a question). What's on the mind is on the Kogon's tongue. (what he thinks, he says; colloquial). I'll hold it. (translated: not to say too much; colloquial). Who are you (me, him etc.) for me. pulled?(why did he say it, did he blab?; colloquial disapproval). Ya untie (to start speaking more freely, more willingly, and also to force one to speak; colloquial). Ya dissolve (start saying unnecessary things; colloquial disapproval). Ya bite or have a snack(also transl.: having come to your senses, being frightened, to immediately shut up; colloquial). I swallowed someone. (silent, does not want to speak; colloquial). Something came out of my mouth. at kogon. (said accidentally, without thinking; colloquial). Ya without bones at Kogon. (about someone who likes to talk a lot, says too much; colloquial disapproval). I am well hung by the cogon. (master of speaking well, eloquent speaker; colloquial). I won't turn around to say (not strong enough to say; colloquial). I. or scratch your tongue or chatter, wag your tongue (translated: engage in empty chatter; colloquial). I'm itching. (translated: it’s hard to remain silent, you can’t wait to say; colloquial). There's something on the tip of your tongue. at kogon. (I really want to, I can’t wait to say, tell something; colloquial). Ya swallow it (about something very tasty; colloquial).

2. Such an animal organ is like food. I'm beefy. I'm jellied.

3. In a bell: a metal rod that produces ringing by striking the walls.

4. translation, what or Which. About something that has an elongated, elongated shape. Tongues of flame. Fire tongues. Ya glacier. Ya waves.

| decrease tongue, chka, m.

| adj. linguistic, aya, oh (to 1 and 2 meanings) And lingual, aya, oe (to 1 meaning; special). Lingual papilla. Tongue sausage (made with a tongue in 2 meanings). Lingual muscles.

YAZ Y K 2, A, pl. and, ov, m.

1. A historically established system of sound, vocabulary and grammatical means that objectifies the work of thinking and is a tool for communication, exchange of thoughts and mutual understanding of people in society. I am the great Russian. Slavic languages. Literary me. the highest form of the national language. History of language. Dead languages(known only from written monuments). Conditional me.(argot). Speak different languages ​​with others. (also translated: completely fail to reach mutual understanding). Find the common self. with someone (translated: to achieve mutual understanding, agreement).

2. units A set of means of expression in verbal creativity, based on the national sound, vocabulary and grammatical system (in 3 meanings). Ya. Pushkin. Ya writers. Ya fiction. Ya journalism.

3. units Speech, the ability to speak. Lose your tongue. The patient lies without tongue and without movement.

4. A system of signs (sounds, signals) that convey information. Ya animals. Ya bees. Ya gestures. Ya road signs. Ya programming. Information languages (in an information processing system).

5. units, translation, what. What it expresses explains something. (about objects and phenomena). Ya facts. Ya flowers. Ya dance.

6. trans. A prisoner captured to obtain the necessary information (colloquial). Take, bring language.

| adj. language, aya, oh (to 1, 2 and 3 values).

YAZ Y K 3, A, pl. and, ov, m.(old). People, nation. Invasion of the Twelve (i.e. twelve) languages(about Napoleon's army during the Patriotic War of 1812).

Byword(bookish, usually ironic; in the tongues the old form of the preposition p.) the subject of general conversations. This man became the talk of the town.

Efremova's Dictionary

Language

1. m.
   1. :
      1. A movable muscular organ in the oral cavity of vertebrates and humans, facilitating grasping, chewing, etc. food.
      2. Such an organ is like an organ of taste.
      3. Such an organ involved in the formation of speech sounds (in humans).
   2. A dish prepared from such a muscular organ (usually cow or pork).
   3. trans. A metal rod in a bell or bell that, when struck against a wall, produces a ringing sound.
   4. trans. decomposition The name of something that has an elongated, elongated shape.
2. m.
   1. :
      1. A historically established system of verbal expression of thoughts, which has a certain sound, lexical and grammatical structure and serves as a means of communication in human society.
      2. Such a system as a subject of study or teaching.
   2. :
      1. A set of means of expression in verbal creativity.
      2. A type of speech that has certain characteristic features.
      3. A manner of expression characteristic of smb.
   3. The ability to speak, expressing one's thoughts verbally.
   4. :
      1. A system of signs conveying information; something that serves as a means of wordless communication.
      2. Something that expresses or explains something.
3. m.
   1. decomposition An enemy captured in order to obtain the necessary information.
   2. outdated Guide, translator.
4. m. outdated People, nationality, nation.

Russian language dictionaries

A significant role in the diagnosis of diseases is played by studies of the size, shape and color of the surface of the tongue.

Language- organ of taste and speech. The tongue has many tasks: mixing food while chewing, determining taste, and, of course, speaking. The tongue consists of muscles covered on top with a mucous membrane. It is divided into two departments, between which, however, there is no clear boundary. The back of the tongue, which on one side fuses with the mucous membrane of the mouth, is the root.

The front part, which moves freely in different directions, is called the body of the tongue. The upper surface of the tongue is called its back. You probably noticed that the tongue appears velvety in appearance, not as smooth and shiny as the oral mucosa.

Its entire surface is covered with papillae, the main task of which is to distinguish the taste of food. It is these papillae that give the tongue its velvety appearance. There are 4 types of papillae. The smallest of them - thread-like - cover the entire surface of the tongue and look like carpet pile. The larger papillae - mushroom-shaped - are located on the back of the tongue between the filiform ones.

The leaf-shaped papillae are somewhat reminiscent of fish gills. They are located on the lateral surfaces of the tongue, and are less visible in adults than in children. The largest papillae are groove-shaped. There are not very many of them - from 7 to 11. They are located on the back of the back and actually serve as the border between the body and the root.

Language has long been considered an indicator of human health. Sometimes its changes appear before all other signs of the disease.

In ancient Chinese medicine, there are two main approaches to the topography of tongue zones: according to the theory of the “Three Heaters”, the tip of the tongue corresponds to the “upper focus”, the middle - to the “middle focus”, the base of the tongue to the “lower focus”, i.e. the upper, middle and lower parts of the body .

We perceive taste with the tongue when the tongue is wet. A dry tongue cannot perceive taste. If a person stops feeling sweet, sour, salty or bitter, diseases of the nervous and endocrine system are likely.

The tongue is also an organ of speech used to transform thoughts, concepts, ideas and feelings into words. Examination of this important organ will provide information about what is happening in the body.

According to traditional Tibetan medicine, the tongue is connected to the heart. The condition of the tongue and speech reflect heart problems. However, the body functions as a single whole and the connection of the heart with other organs is also reflected in the tongue.

The tongue of a healthy person has a smooth pink surface and is covered with a small whitish coating, which also forms on the teeth. There is not much of it, and therefore the pink color of the tongue remains, and the papillae on its surface are clearly visible.

The tongue of a healthy person looks velvety due to the large number of papillae.

Look at your tongue in the mirror. Observe its size, surface and outline.

When examining the tongue, you should pay attention to:

2. The nature of plaque in different areas of the tongue.

3. Shape and character of the surface. The surface can be: dense, smooth, loose, striated, etc.

4. Various formations on the tongue - papillomas, blisters, aphthae. Their location indicates the diseased organ.

5. Tongue mobility.

This allows us to judge the functional state of various body systems and, above all, the state of the blood. According to the classification of Chinese doctors, a hard, calloused tongue, “+”, represents an excess condition; tongue of normal consistency, “0” - normal condition; soft tongue, “-” - insufficient condition.

In the Chinese diagnostic system, the tongue serves as a path through the corresponding energy channels. The corresponding section of the channel (meridian) in the tongue reflects a number of body functions associated with it and is associated with certain organs through which it passes. For example, the heart meridian goes to the root of the tongue, the spleen meridian runs along the lower surface, the kidney meridian ends at its root. Pathological changes in these organs are reflected in the appearance of the tongue and the plaque covering it. Wetness, dryness and other signs of the tongue give an idea of ​​the syndromes of emptiness, fullness, heat and cold, traditional for Chinese medicine. Raids indicate the nature and course of diseases.

One of the oldest diagnostic systems based on language is presented in Ayurveda (“Jiva”). According to it, each organ has its own “representation” in the language, according to the projection scheme. This diagram of the tongue represents a “double-reversed map” on which the projections of the corresponding organs are located. Based on the characteristics of plaque, redness, and other signs, one can judge the processes in organs and systems, their intensity and development.

Hollow and dense organs of our body are projected in different parts of the tongue. Discoloration or increased sensitivity of certain parts of the tongue indicates a disorder in those organs associated with this part.

Examination of the tongue provides valuable information about the energy balance of internal organs and makes it possible to make an accurate diagnosis if they are disturbed. Tongue diagnoses in traditional Tibetan medicine are as follows:

Tongue red, moist: energy and blood blooming;

Tongue is pale: energy and blood are weak;.

The coating on the tongue is thin, white, moist: the energy of the stomach is prosperous;

The tongue is shiny, without plaque: the energy of the stomach is weak, its intrasecretory activity is affected.

Diagnosis of diseases by language is an important stage in examining a patient in Tibet, China and India. According to the theory of the “Five Elements,” the tip of the tongue is associated with the condition of the heart and lungs, the lateral parts of the tongue are associated with the liver and gallbladder, the back of the tongue is associated with the stomach and spleen, and the root of the tongue is associated with the condition of the kidneys.

Enlargement and redness of the papillae of the right half of the tongue towards the tip is observed with liver damage, the left half - with pathology of the spleen. The discovery of reddened papillae on the tip of the tongue indicates a disease of the pelvic organs; red papillae are higher along the edges and in the middle of the tongue - the lungs.

Dry tongue mucosa can be a sign of a large number of diseases. Sometimes the reason lies in the production of insufficient saliva or thirst. The tongue can become dry when the body temperature rises, as well as in some serious diseases (for example, coma resulting from diabetes), intestinal obstruction, peritonitis (inflammation of the peritoneum). Often the dryness of the tongue is combined with a brown coating on it. Sometimes the mucous membrane loses so much moisture that cracks even appear on it.

In some diseases, for example, gastritis, gastric or duodenal ulcers, insufficient kidney function, appendicitis, cholecystitis, infectious diseases (for example, measles), as well as poisoning with poor-quality food or certain medications, the tongue changes its color due to for excess plaque.

This tongue looks slightly swollen and moist. Most often, it is covered with a thick white coating, due to which the papillae are practically invisible. Plaque is removed with a toothbrush, but after a while it becomes covered with plaque again.

If the color is pale, this indicates signs of anemia or lack of blood in the body. A whitish color indicates mucus disturbances. A weak white coating reflects a decrease in acidity in the stomach, accompanied by dysbacteriosis.

The general characteristic changes in the tongue indicated above indicate a close connection between the digestive organs: stomach, spleen, pancreas with the structures of the brain and psyche.

With a yellow coating of the tongue, there is excess heat in the body. With a fatty, muddy coating of the tongue - stagnation of food, accumulation of mucus, etc., with a spotted purple coating of the tongue - stagnation of blood. A thin coating of the tongue indicates an incipient disease (or superficial localization of the process), a thick coating of the tongue indicates a chronic disease (or deep localization of the process).

If the color is yellowish, there is excess bile in the gallbladder or a disorder in the liver. Yellow plaque increases with seasonal exacerbations of the liver and gallbladder. One of the signs of developing jaundice is yellowness in the lower part of the tongue, which is detected when it is raised to the palate.

If there is discoloration of the tongue, its flaccidity or elevation of its sphere, then this important organ has a defect. For example, if you see a tooth mark on the edges of the tongue, this indicates insufficient digestion of the intestines.

The cause of the disease with white plaque can be cold, humidity, or wind. If the white coating on the tongue, gradually thickening, becomes yellow, and then gray and dark color, this means the progression of the disease and, conversely, clearing and thinning of plaque indicates an improvement in the condition.

A coating that coats the tongue indicates toxins in the stomach, small intestine, or colon. If only the back of the tongue is coated, toxins are present in the colon; if the plaque is in the middle of the tongue, toxins are present in the stomach, duodenum and small intestine.

The line running down the middle of the tongue indicates excitement running along the spinal column. If this line is curved, it may indicate a deformity or curvature of the spine.

Red or yellow-green indicates bile disorders; with an exacerbation of gastric or duodenal ulcers, it may become too red, but moist.

A tongue with a black coating is an ominous indication of a disorder of the digestive system, especially the gallbladder and pancreas. Black plaque also indicates a violation of blood pH towards acidosis (acid-base balance), due to dehydration of the body.

It's another matter when such coloring is caused by a disease - Crohn's disease. At the same time, the amount of adrenal hormones in the body decreases, as a result of which an increased amount of melanin (the same pigment that is formed during tanning) is produced in the skin and mucous membranes. As a result, the tongue becomes covered with blue-black spots of various shapes and sizes, or even becomes black. At the same time, the color does not fade after cleaning and over time until the disease is treated.

The varnished tongue has a shiny, smooth, bright red surface due to atrophy of the taste buds. In some diseases, the number of papillae decreases, they become almost invisible, and sometimes are completely absent. Because of this, the tongue looks smooth and shiny, as does the entire mucous membrane of the mouth. Occurs in stomach cancer and chronic colitis. With pellagra (deficiency of nicotinic acid and vitamin B), the tongue is covered with a difficult-to-remove coating of black-brown color, with cracks resembling a chessboard. In the late stage of pellagra, the tongue acquires a red tint with a varnished surface - “cardinal tongue”.

A geographic tongue is characterized by the presence on its surface of areas of varying color and size with deep grooves and reliefs. Geographic tongue occurs with chronic damage to the gastrointestinal tract, as well as with some forms of mental disorders. Using this language, you can almost immediately diagnose the allergic condition of individual organs.

If bright red spots appear against the background of a normal pink color, then the disappearance of the papillae is a sign of anemia (anemia). An enlarged, uniformly red, but not crimson, varnished tongue is most often a sign of metabolic disorders.

When examining the tongue, the following signs are often noted:

Deep imprints of teeth on the lateral surface and front of the tongue characterize a stressful state, hidden neuroses, and the more pronounced the neurosis, the clearer the imprints.

In case of severe infectious diseases, poisoning, accompanied by high fever, severe pneumonia, the tongue becomes red (crimson) in color.

In case of severe renal, toxic disorders, the tongue has a dark red color.

A pale, bloodless tongue indicates anemia and severe exhaustion of the body.

In advanced cases of cardiovascular disorders, a bluish tint of the tongue is observed. At the same time, a sharply cyanotic tongue is an ominous sign of imminent death.

In case of dysfunction of the cerebellum, cerebral circulation, hemorrhagic or ischemic stroke, the tongue is bent or deviated to the side.

A tongue with deep transverse fissures also indicates a predisposition to vascular disorders of the brain.

Flat ulcers on the tongue indicate a tuberculous process.

A black tongue may indicate cholera infection.

If there is plaque on the middle part of the tongue and a light red coloration of its tip and edges, one can think of a violation of the acid-forming function of the stomach.

Streaks of foam on both sides of the tongue indicate the presence of rheumatism.

With scarlet fever, the tongue resembles strawberries with sour cream - alternating white and red spots.

Trembling of the tongue indicates a brain disease or a deep neurotic disorder. Trembling of protruding tongue. A very clear sign of some diseases (for example, hyperthyroidism) is the shaking of the protruding tongue. In severe forms of the disease, the fingers, eyelids, and sometimes the whole body also tremble. In some neurological and mental diseases (for example, chorea), the protruding tongue deviates to the side.

Minor tremor of the tongue is observed in chronic alcoholics, moderate intensity tremor - in patients with neuroses, fibrillary twitching and atrophy of the tongue - in patients with damage to the medulla oblongata.

With anemia due to iron deficiency in the body, there is a burning and tingling sensation in the tongue area. With some types of anemia, a smooth, as if scraped tongue, devoid of the papillary layer, is observed.

Diabetes is characterized by a dry tongue, the surface of which has numerous cracks. In diabetic coma, the tongue may also acquire a brownish-brown color, which develops in patients with diabetes in the absence of proper treatment.

If the underside of the tongue is bluish in color, a circulatory disorder with cardiopulmonary insufficiency can be assumed. If the color is bluish, there is a defect in the heart.

Pale coloration of the underside of the tongue indicates pathology of the liver and gallbladder.

Poor health, a temperature that has not decreased for a long time, abdominal pain and such a coating on the tongue are sufficient reasons to urgently consult a doctor, since the abscess can rupture, causing peritonitis (inflammation of the peritoneum). In addition, a slightly lighter, but also gray coating appears on the tongue with diphtheria.

An enlarged, thick tongue is observed with inflammation, decreased function of the thyroid gland, disease of the pituitary gland, pathology of the reticular formation of the trunk, and mental illness.

Often the tip or side edges of the tongue fall between the teeth, and the person constantly bites it. As a result, you can see not only a clearly enlarged tongue, but also teeth marks along its edges. Such signs may indicate a decrease in the amount of thyroid hormones in the blood - hypothyroidism.

White or grayish-white spots on the tongue and on the mucous membrane of the cheeks appear most often due to constant irritation of the mucous membrane (for example, from smoking). Such spots themselves are not dangerous, but later they can cause the development of a malignant tumor.

Ulcers on the surface of the tongue are a wound that does not heal for a long time. Ulcers on the surface of the tongue may be a sign of Crohn's disease. This disease affects most of the digestive system, starting with the intestines. Ulcers can be different.

Ulcers in Crohn's disease are usually small, appear several at a time and cause a lot of discomfort. If one ulcer appears on the surface of the tongue (most often on the back) (it can be of different sizes), round or oval, with clear boundaries, with a bright red, shiny, hard surface - this is a sign of the primary period of syphilis.

A syphilitic ulcer almost never hurts. Its edges rise only slightly above the surface of the tongue or are on the same level with it. Sometimes its bottom may be covered with a grayish-yellow film.

Warts are growths of the skin or mucous membrane that almost never cause any discomfort to their owner because they do not hurt. The appearance of warts on the skin can be caused by a virus. This happens quite often. Warts rarely appear on mucous membranes, and even more so on the tongue, and therefore their appearance should alert you. For example, small warts that appear on the sides of the tongue closer to the root may be a sign
HIV infections.

According to observations, curvature of the tongue can be caused by somatic disorders. When one or another half of the body suffers: the left (spleen, left lung) or the right (liver, right lung), the corresponding half of the tongue changes in volume, and its tip deviates. This circumstance should be taken into account in neurology when assessing central paresis of the hypoglossal nerve.

Diagram of the location of the “zones of responsibility” of internal organs on the tongue.

Examples of observations of the condition of the tongue, which can serve as a hint to the practicing physician.

Diagnosis through visual examination of language plays a minor role in Tibetan medicine. However, this method can be used as a quick form of additional diagnostic testing to check for a range of symptoms.

If there is an imbalance, the tongue may have the following characteristics:

Condition of the tongue due to imbalance of Lung (wind) energy

Red.

With small dents along the edges.

Rough.

Condition of the tongue due to imbalance of Tripa energy (bile)

(Pale)-yellowish coating (more or less dense).

Slightly bitter taste.

"Dirty" in appearance.

Tongue condition due to energy imbalance Peken (mucus)

(Pale) whitish-gray coating (more or less dense).

The tongue is wet and sticky.

The tongue is somewhat swollen, as if inflamed.

Smooth surface.

Dull surface.

Other areas of examination

Brushes can also tell a lot. The color of the nail bed, discoloration of the nails, dryness or dampness, and the muscularity of the hands can be clues to certain conditions. The feet also provide a lot of information for the doctor.

The structure of the back, the balance of the shoulder girdle and pelvis are also important indicators of possible causes of the disease.

• . Morozova O.G., Zdybsky V.I., Shcherbakov S.S., Yavlyansky Yu.V. The beauty of language diagnostics is its simplicity and efficiency. Whenever there is a complex disorder full of contradictions, language examination can help identify the underlying pathological process. The text is illustrated with 54 figures and 8 tables.

• . Davydov M.A.

  Diagnosis of the patient’s face helps the therapist (massage therapist) determine the “problem areas” of his body, and then carry out the appropriate correction of organs and systems by using the Wing Chun massage technique. Let's say a few words about the name of the Wing Chun technique, which translated means “eternal spring” and hints at a long-lasting state of youth. The Wing Chun massage technique is based on step-by-step preparation of the human body (patient). E.I. Gonikman. The proposed atlas contains detailed descriptions and images of various types of faces, divided into zones, with their corresponding interpretation in Chinese medicine. Very important in this diagnosis is the ability to find out in advance about upcoming excesses inside the body and promptly correct them.

• Basics of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Diagnosis by pulse, tongue, navel. DVD-rip. (2011). Educational video.
  
• Seven questions about the face. Episode 6 from the “Mystical Asia” series DVD-rip. (2007). Documentary film. South Korea. What can a face tell about a person? It turns out that it carries 99% of the information about us.

Language is a unique collection of sounds and symbols, each of which has a specific meaning. Language is an important tool for human interaction and communication. Thanks to language, we can express our thoughts in tangible speech form.

Language is not only a means of communication, it is also the historical memory of every people. Each language reflects the spiritual culture and centuries-old history of each nation.

Language is a social phenomenon, because it is impossible to master it without social relations. A person does not have the gift of speech from the moment of birth. After all, a small child begins to talk only when he manages to learn to repeat the phonetic sounds that the people around him make, and thanks to the ability to think, he gives them the correct meaning.

The emergence of language

In the first stages of its emergence, language consisted of inarticulate sounds made by primitive people and was accompanied by active gesticulation. Later, with the advent of Homo sapiens, language takes on an articulated form, thanks to his ability to think abstractly.

Thanks to language, primitive people began to exchange experiences and plan their joint actions. Articulate language brought ancient people to a new stage of their evolutionary development, and became another factor that could bring humans to a higher level from other biological species.

Also during this period, the language acquired a mystical coloring; ancient people believed that certain words had magical properties that helped stop an impending natural disaster: this is how the first magic spells appeared.

Functions of modern language

The main functions of modern language are communicative and mental. The main one, of course, is communicative: thanks to language, people can communicate with each other, convey the necessary information to each other, express their thoughts, feelings, and wishes.

With the help of the mental function of language, a person not only has the opportunity to convey his thoughts to others, but also forms his own with the help of language.

Along with those mentioned above, there is also such a function of language as epistemological or cognitive - a person analyzes all the information received from other members of society, thanks to this the process of scientific knowledge of the surrounding world arises.

Language also has an aesthetic function, which is most often used in works of art. Thanks to its use in literature, such a language gives people a feeling of aesthetic pleasure, it provokes them to emotions, makes the human soul worry.

Language development and society development

The development of language is inextricably linked with the development of society. Language is a living organism that is influenced by historical, political and social changes in the life of the public.

Under the influence of time, some words die out and go out of use forever; in their place, new words come into the language that best meet the requirements of the time.

Language is, of course, a huge gift for humanity. Therefore, we must appreciate it, try not to litter it with profanity and parasitic words, because by doing this we are causing great harm, first of all, to the centuries-old culture of our people and our personality.

Language is the most ancient and main property of man as a biological species, distinguishing him from other living beings. In linguistics, the science of language, the following definition is used: language is a sign system, created naturally or artificially, with the help of which people communicate and formulate their mental activity.

Origin of language

Education and the development of language, along with work activity, played a key role in the development of man as a rational being. One of the most important problems in the question of the origin of language is its ability to reflect reality. Words, like signs of language, have no resemblance to the object they denote. Nevertheless, a clear image of an object appears in a person’s mind when he hears or sees a word denoting it.

To understand how a language appeared, the sound complex of which in itself does not reflect anything, scientists are developing various Onomatopoeic theory considers the origin of the first words as a reproduction of the sounds and noises of nature. However, it cannot explain the presence of different sound shells for the same phenomenon in different languages. According to the interjection theory, the original word is based on an emotional exclamation or cry denoting a person’s state. This theory, in turn, does not explain the entire diversity of language, which could not have come from interjections alone.

Some scientists suggest that the first words were nouns; man initially sought to reflect the objects and phenomena of reality. Others believe that verbal forms are primary, a person first of all performed an action and, on its basis, built a picture of the world.

Thus, each theory of the origin of language depends on the function that is assigned to it.

Language functions

The essence of language, its main characteristics are manifested in its functions. Among the large number of language functions, the most significant ones are highlighted.

• Communication function. By definition, language is the main means of communication between people.
• Thinking or cognitive function. Language serves as the main means of formation and expression of mental activity.
• Cognitive function. Language allows you to create new words and concepts, and also acts as a means of storing and transmitting information.
• Other functions (phatic, emotive, appellative, aesthetic, etc.).

Language and speech

The term language cannot be identified with the concept of speech. First of all, language is a means of communication, and speech is its embodiment. The main characteristic of language is its abstractness and formality, while speech is characterized by materiality, because it consists of articulated sounds that are perceived by the ear.

Unlike stable and static language, speech is an active and dynamic phenomenon. It is worth noting that language is a public property and reflects the picture of the world of the people speaking it, and speech, in turn, is purely individual and reflects the experience of a particular person. Language, as a complex sign system, has a level organization, while speech is characterized by a linear organization. And finally, language does not depend on a specific situation and setting, but speech is contextually and situationally determined. Thus, we can say that language relates to speech as the general relates to the particular.

Units and levels of language

The main ones are phoneme, morpheme, word and sentence. In accordance with each unit, a separate language level is formed. So the lowest level is phonetic, which consists of the simplest linguistic units - phonemes. The phoneme itself has no meaning and acquires a meaningful function only as part of a morpheme. The morpheme (morphemic level), in turn, is the shortest meaningful unit of language. There are derivational (form words) and grammatical (form word forms) morphemes.

A word (lexical-semantic level) represents the main significant unit of language, which can have syntactic independence. It serves to designate objects, phenomena, processes and properties. Words are divided into certain groups: a system of parts of speech (based on grammatical features), a system of synonyms and antonyms (based on semantic relations), groups of archaisms, historicisms and neologisms (from a historical perspective), etc.

A sentence (syntactic level) is a combination of words that expresses a certain thought. The sentence is characterized by semantic and intonation completeness and structure. There are simple and complex sentences. It should be noted that the unit of each level of language is an element in the construction of the unit of the next level.

Languages ​​of the world

According to various estimates, there are about 7,000 languages ​​in the world. All of them are divided into the following groups:

• common and not common;
• written and unwritten;
• "living" and "dead";
• artificial and natural.

Based on linguistic kinship, a genetic one has been created; according to it, there is another definition of language. This is primarily an attitude towards a specific ancestral language. As a rule, the Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan and Ural-Altaic families of languages ​​are distinguished. All languages ​​of one family are based on one parent language.

Russian language

The Russian language is one of the Indo-European language family and is a language of global importance. The Russian language is the national language of the Russian people. The Russian language uses a writing system based on the Russian alphabet, which goes back to the Cyrillic alphabet. Moreover, in the Russian language, not everything is indicated by letters, but only the basic sounds of speech. So the number of letters in the alphabet is 33, and the sound system contains 43 sounds, of which 6 are vowels and 37 are consonants. The classification of sounds of the Russian language is made on the basis of articulatory properties. In this case, sounds are distinguished by the method of their pronunciation and by the areas of the speech apparatus involved in their pronunciation.

There is also a classification of the sounds of the Russian language according to acoustic characteristics. This takes into account the participation of voice and noise in the formation of sound. Russian is one of the most difficult languages ​​in the world to learn.

Thus, we can give the following definition: “Language is a complex polysemantic concept in which it is considered primarily as a multi-level sign system that is in organic unity with human thinking.”