How the human body works from the inside has interested people since ancient times. Even when the basic laws by which people lived were church laws that prohibited studying the structure of the body, there were scientists and naturalists who, in spite of everything, opened the corpses of animals and people and were engaged in examining and studying all the details of interest.
The craving for knowledge in this area could not be overcome. Therefore, over time, it was discovered how the human body works. The diagram, drawing of each organ and system was recorded by artists, testers, doctors, scientists, thanks to this, multiple sciences arose that exist today.
Development of knowledge about the structure of the human body
Back in the 5th century, a man named Alkemon lived in Kraton. It was he who first expressed a desire to study the internal structure of living organisms, so he dissected animal corpses. His main merit is the assumption about the relationship between the senses and the brain.
Later, from about 460 BC, a more conscious and intensive development of knowledge in the area in question begins. The following scientists made a great contribution to the understanding of what the human body is (the diagram of its structure, the topography of the internal organs were also described):
- Hippocrates.
- Aristotle.
- Plato.
- Herophilus.
- Claudius Galen.
- Avicenna.
- Leonardo da Vinci.
- Andreas Vesalius.
- William Harvey.
- Casparo Azelli.
Thanks to these people, a general diagram of the structure of the human body was drawn up. Knowledge appeared about functional features, organ systems, tissues and their significance, as well as other very important things.
The 17th century was a period of stagnation for all sciences, and this did not bypass the area we are considering. But later, the diagram of the human body (you can see the picture below) was significantly expanded, refined and transformed thanks to numerous discoveries. A new technique has emerged that makes it possible to study microstructures, and methods of experiment, observation, and comparison have begun to be intensively used. Special contributions were made by:
Thus, the human body was studied in detail, the diagram became complete and reflected all existing organs and systems. Today, any schoolchild can consider both the topography and a detailed description of each to study the functions performed and the internal structure.
General scheme "Man is a living organism"
If we talk about such a scheme, then it should be noted what exactly it contains. Firstly, it can be presented in different versions. Some such drawings and diagrams contain only verbal descriptions, a classification of the internal structures of a person, reflecting their interconnection and functions performed. Others, on the contrary, do not contain descriptions, but simply illustrate the topographic in the body, show their mutual orientation, the general plan of the structure. Organ systems are also reflected here. If you combine both options, then such a scheme will turn out to be too cumbersome and difficult to understand. The second type is more often used.
Therefore, the “Man is a living organism” diagram includes an image of organs from the following body systems (if a complete version of the whole body is provided):
- Cardiovascular and lymphatic. The diagram of human bodies and channels is reflected here in detail.
- Digestive system.
- Musculoskeletal, or musculoskeletal.
- Reproductive.
- Excretory (genitourinary is the combined system of reproductive and excretory organs).
- Nervous and endocrine systems.
- Sensory, or organs of feeling and perception.
Thus, this diagram provides detailed information about the structure of the human body and the location of its organs. There are also many different tables, figures, diagrams, which reflect the detailed microstructure of any organ. All features of the structure, functioning and location are described.
If you combine all these drawings, you will get a whole book. Such publications are called “Human Biology in Tables and Diagrams” and often make life much easier for schoolchildren, students and teachers. After all, they briefly, succinctly and clearly set out all the basics necessary for a general idea of the structure of people.
Lymph formation system
Immunity plays a special role in maintaining a healthy state of the human body. But what is he? It turns out that this is the lymph circulation system, which is an important addition to the cardiovascular organs. It contains cells called “lymphocytes”. They act as the body’s biological protector from viruses and bacteria, foreign particles and anything foreign.
The human lymphatic system, the diagram of which is presented below, has a number of structures that make it up:
- Trunks and ducts.
- Capillaries.
- Vessels.
Together they form a network that is not closed, unlike the cardiovascular network. There is also no central governing body in this system. Lymphatic fluid (lymph) is a waste product of the intercellular space, which moves under weak pressure through vessels and nodes, capillaries, and trunks.
During an illness, such as a cold, every person can feel an increase in the lymph nodes of their body. They are located under the lower jaw, in the armpits, and groin area. It's easy enough to feel them. This confirms the fact that it is in them that the main fight against the disease occurs. Thus, the main barrier to disease is the human lymphatic system. Its diagram shows exactly how all the structural parts are located and how they are interconnected.
Digestive system
One of the most important in the body. After all, it is thanks to her work that a person receives nutrients for growth, development, and energy for vital processes. Without it it is impossible to move, grow, think, and so on. After all, every process requires energy, which is contained in the chemical bonds of nutritional molecules.
The diagram of the human digestive system shows which organs make up this network.
- The oral cavity, which includes the teeth, tongue, palate and inner muscles of the cheeks.
- Pharynx and esophagus.
- Stomach.
- Digestive glands that secrete secretions for digesting food.
- The intestine, consisting of several sections: duodenum, small and large intestines.
Cardiovascular system
It represents two circles of blood circulation, consisting of the main organ - the heart - and the arteries, vessels, and capillaries extending from it. The total blood volume of an adult is approximately 5 liters. However, the rate varies depending on body weight.
The heart is a central organ capable of contracting rhythmically, pushing blood into the channel under a certain pressure. Consists of four chambers closely communicating with each other.
Human nervous system
One of the most difficult. Consists of:
- brain;
- spinal cord;
- nerve cells;
- fabrics.
Almost every part of the human body contains nerve cells. They perceive irritation, transmit pain, warning of danger. Their structure is quite unique. The brain and spinal cord include a number of sections, each of which exercises careful control over the functioning of a particular part of the body.
Sensory systems
There are five of them:
All of them together also make up the human body. The structure diagram shows what parts the sensory system is made up of, what structural features it has and what functions it performs.
Human excretory system
This system includes the following bodies:
- kidneys;
- bladder;
- ureters.
Another name for this system is excretory. The main function is the removal of metabolic products, liberation of the body from toxic decay products.
Sciences that study the human body
There are several main ones that can be identified. Although their number has increased significantly compared, for example, with the 18th century. These are sciences such as:
- anatomy;
- physiology;
- hygiene;
- genetics;
- medicine;
- psychology.
Physiology deals with the functioning of a particular system. That is, its task is to answer the question: “How does this happen?” For example, it is this discipline that examines the mechanisms of the change between sleep and wakefulness, and studies the features of higher nervous activity in humans.
Genetics and human hygiene
Genetics deals with the study of the mechanisms of inheritance of certain traits, as well as the causes and consequences of changes in the human chromosomal apparatus. Thanks to this science, people have learned to predict serious genetic abnormalities in fetal development, control this process and, if possible, intervene and change its course.
Hygiene helps answer the question: “Why do we need cleanliness and how to achieve health?” This science talks in detail about the rules for maintaining the cleanliness of your body, the importance of this process, and the mechanisms of immunity, which directly depend on the indicator of cleanliness, the level of bacteria and viruses. This discipline is relatively young, but no less important than all the others.
Psychology and medicine
Psychology is a very complex and subtle science that penetrates into the consciousness and higher nervous activity of a human being. It is intended to explain the basic mechanisms of the psychosomatic structure of people. There are a number of branches of psychology that deal with all social issues affecting people (psychology of family relationships, developmental, experimental, and so on).
Medicine is the most important science that deals with human health. Naturally, it closely borders on all other disciplines: physiology, anatomy, genetics, hygiene and psychology.
The foundations of medicine originated with humanity. After all, unfortunately, people have always gotten sick. At all times, hereditary (genetic) diseases and other ailments accompanied them. Therefore, this science is one of the most important when it comes to preserving life and health.
There are many sections that combine medicine into a single whole: surgery, oncology, hematology, therapy, dermatology, traumatology and others. All of them are highly specialized in specific problems and have their own methods of studying the problem and resolving it.
In general, all sciences that study the human body are a single whole. After all, they are united by a common goal - to study, examine, explain all parts of the body, learn to control every organ and every cell of the body.
Anatomy as the main science
Of course, the very first, historically established and its structure is anatomy. It was thanks to the development of this discipline that people became aware of what organs are in the human body, how they are located there (topography), how they are structured and on what principles their work is based.
Above we examined the main historical milestones in the development of knowledge about man. These are the stages of anatomy development. Those people whose names were mentioned are the founders and fathers of this huge and important discipline.
The task of anatomy has always been the same for all times - to study the internal structure and external morphological characteristics of all organs and systems, as well as tissues. It’s not for nothing that “anatome” is translated from Greek as “dissection”.
SCIENCES STUDYING THE HUMAN BODY
The following sciences study humans: anatomy, physiology, psychology, hygiene.
Human anatomy is a science that studies the shape and structure of the human body and its constituent organs.
There are systematic, topographical, plastic, age-related, comparative and functional anatomy.Systematic anatomy studies the structure of the human body by system (nervous, digestive, etc.).Topographic anatomy studies the structure of the human body by region, taking into account the position of the organs.Plastic anatomy examines the external shapes and proportions of the body, as well as the topography of organs in connection with the need to explain the characteristics of the physique; considers the spatial relationships of structures in individual areas of the body, which is why it is also calledsurgical anatomy. Age anatomy explores changes in the structure of the body and its parts in the process of individual development of the organism depending on age.Comparative anatomy studies structural transformations of similar organs in humans and animals.Functional anatomy studies the structures of individual parts of the body, taking into account the functions they perform.
There are morepathological anatomy , which studies organs and tissues damaged by a particular disease.
Human anatomy methods can be divided into 2 groups:
1) Methods for studying the structure of the human body using cadaveric material - dissection, soaking, sawing frozen corpses, corrosion (corrosion), pouring, macro-microscopic method.
2) Methods for studying the structure of the human body on living people - x-rays, ultrasound, endoscopy of internal organs, anthropometric method, visual examination.
Human physiology is a science that studies the functions of the human body and its constituent organs.
There are general, special (special) and applied physiology.General physiology includes information that relates to the nature of basic life processes (for example, metabolism).Special (private) physiology explores the characteristics of individual tissues and organs, the patterns of combining them into systems.Applied Physiology studies the patterns of manifestations of human activity in connection with special tasks and conditions (physiology of work, nutrition, sports...).
There are morepathological physiology , which studies the functions of a sick body, the mechanisms of recovery and rehabilitation.
Human physiology methods: observations of healthy and sick people, experiments on animals, tests, extirpation (removal) of an organ or part of it, fistula method, catheterization, denervation, instrumental methods (ECG, EEG, etc.), perfusion method, functional tests.
Psychology is the science of the general laws of mental processes, individual personal properties and human behavior.
There are fundamental, applied and practical psychology.Fundamental psychology reveals facts, mechanisms and laws of mental activity.Applied psychology studies mental phenomena in natural conditions.Practical psychology deals with the application of psychological knowledge in practice. There are the following branches: pedagogical, developmental, social, medical psychology, etc.
Psychology methods: observations, self-observation, questioning, measurements, testing, experiment, modeling, method of researching activity products, biographical method.
Hygiene is a science that studies the influence of natural conditions, work and life on the human body in order to protect public health.
There are school, industrial, communal, radiation, military hygiene, as well as food hygiene - in relation to the objects being studied: schools, industrial enterprises, homes, sources of ionizing radiation, military equipment, public catering establishments.
Hygiene methods: physiological observations, clinical observations, measurements, experiment, laboratory tests, modeling, statistics. Based on hygienic methods, sanitary standards necessary for a healthy lifestyle of people and safe conditions for their activities are developed.
The emergence of human sciences
Foreign scientists
Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 377 BC) – ancient Greek physician, “father of medicine.” He described the structure of vertebrae, ribs, joints of the skull bones (sutures), internal organs, eyes, muscles, large vessels. Studied the influence of natural factors on human health.
Aristotle (384 – 322 BC) – ancient Greek philosopher and scientist. He considered the heart to be the main organ in the body and called the largest blood vessel the aorta. Introduced the term "organism".
Claudius Galen (130 – 200) – Roman physician. Dissected the corpses of monkeys. He described 7 of 12 pairs of cranial nerves, the blood vessels of the liver and kidneys, and considered the brain to be the center of sensitivity of the body. He believed that man is constructed in the same way as a monkey.
Avicenna (980 – 1037) – Persian physician and philosopher. He wrote the “Canon of Medical Science”, in which he systematized and supplemented information on anatomy and physiology, borrowed from the books of Aristotle and Galen. He was the first to describe the muscles of the eye.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519) - Italian scientist and artist of the Renaissance. He made many drawings of bones, muscles, and internal organs, providing them with written explanations. Laid the beginning of plastic surgery.
Andreas Vesalius (1514 – 1564) – Belgian scientist, professor at Paduns University. He wrote a work in 7 books “On the structure of the human body” (1543), in which he systematized the skeleton, ligaments, muscles, blood vessels, nerves, internal organs, brain and sense organs. He established that the right and left ventricles of the heart do not communicate with each other.
William Harvey (1587 – 1657) – English scientist. Opened the blood circulation circles. He noted the presence of small vessels - capillaries. He is the founder of physiology. For the first time he used the experimental method.
Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) – French philosopher. Opened the reflex. He explained by the reflex mechanism not only the contractions of skeletal muscles, but also many vegetative acts.
Russian scientists
I.V. Buyalsky (1789 – 1866) – author of the anatomical atlas “Tables of Surgical Anatomy”. He proposed a method for embalming corpses.
N.I. Pirogov (1810 – 1881) – founder of topographic anatomy. He developed a method for studying the human body using cuts from frozen corpses. He especially carefully studied and described the fascia and their relationship with blood vessels. A wonderful surgeon. The first one used a plaster cast and ether anesthesia during the war in the Caucasus and in the Crimean campaign.
THEM. Sechenov (1829 – 1905) – “father of Russian physiology.” He developed scientific ideas about the physiology of the nervous system, respiration, and fatigue. He investigated consciousness and discovered inhibition processes in the central nervous system. In his work “Reflexes of the Brain” (1866), he outlined his views on the nature of voluntary movements and mental phenomena.
Ya.F. Lesgaft (1837 – 1909) – founded functional anatomy. One of the first to use radiography, experimental methods on animals and methods of mathematical analysis. His provisions on the possibility of changing the structure of the body through the influence of physical exercise on its functions became the basis of the theory and practice of physical education.
I.I. Mechnikov (1845 - 1916) - discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis, developed, based on its study, the comparative pathology of inflammation, and later the phagocytic theory of immunity, for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1908 together with P. Ehrlich.
I.P. Pavlov (1849 – 1936) – created the doctrine of the higher nervous activity of humans and animals. Studied the physiology of digestion. He developed and put into practice a number of special surgical techniques, thanks to which he created a new physiology of digestion. For this work he received the Nobel Prize in 1904.
A.A. Ukhtomsky (1875 – 1942) – the greatest physiologist. He studied the processes of excitation and inhibition in the brain and spinal cord. Discovered the law of dominance in the activity of the nervous system. He organized a laboratory of labor physiology, where he studied fatigue and working movements.
Human anatomy, physiology and hygiene are sciences that are branches of biology and study the structure and functions of the human body and the conditions for maintaining its health; hygienic aspects of environmental protection.
Anatomy
Anatomy studies the shape and structure of organs and the systems they compose in the human body in connection with the functions they perform; physiology studies the vital functions of the body and its individual parts. Both the structure and functions of organs are interconnected, so their understanding is impossible in isolation from each other. Knowledge of the anatomical structure, coordinated function of organs and systems allows us to justify hygienic working and rest conditions, disease prevention measures to preserve human health, ability to work and longevity. Therefore, hygiene is studied in close connection with anatomy and physiology.
Human anatomy includes the following special disciplines:
- normal anatomy, which studies the structure of a healthy person and his organs;
- pathological anatomy - the morphology of a sick person;
- topographic anatomy - the science of the location of any organ in the human body;
- dynamic anatomy, which studies the motor system from a functional perspective, which is important for the proper physical development of a person.
Anatomy studies the formation of man in his historical development in the process of animal evolution, using the comparative anatomical method. Anatomy is closely related to histology, the science of tissue, and embryology, which studies the processes of formation of germ cells, fertilization, and embryonic development of organisms.
Modern anatomy widely uses experiment and has the latest research methods, including modern optics, x-rays, uses radio telemetry methods, plastic materials, alloys, preservatives and is based on the laws of physics, chemistry, cybernetics, cytology, etc.
Physiology
Physiology is a science that studies the functions of the whole organism, i.e. vital processes of the body and its constituent organs and individual parts.
Physiology can be divided into three departments:
- general,
- comparative,
- special
General physiology studies the basic patterns of response of living organisms to environmental influences. Comparative physiology studies the specific features of the functioning of the whole organism, as well as tissues and cells of organisms belonging to different species. Comparative physiology is closely related to evolutionary physiology. In addition, there are special sections of physiology that study the physiology of various types of animals (for example, agricultural, carnivorous, etc.) or the physiology of individual organs (heart, kidneys, liver, etc.), tissues, cells.
Various methods are used to study body functions. These include short-term or long-term observation of the work of organs when the functional load increases, the action of irritants on them or when nerves are cut, the introduction of drugs, etc. Instrumental methods of study are also widely used, which exclude any damage to the tissues and organs of animals. Using various instruments, you can obtain information about the electrical processes occurring in the body, about the state of the nervous system, heart and other organs. Modern methods make it possible to record the electrical activity of any organ. Using optical methods, they study the inner surface of the wall of the stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, etc. Examination of the body using X-rays makes it possible to study the functioning of the digestive, cardiovascular and other systems in a healthy and sick person.
Radiotelemetric methods of transmitting information about physiological processes are becoming increasingly important. For example, radio telemetry is used to study the human condition during space flights. To assess the functional activity of human organs, biochemical studies of tissues, body fluids - blood, cerebrospinal fluid, urine, etc. are widely used. Thus, only through a comprehensive study of the body can one deeply understand the principles of its functioning at the cellular, tissue, organ and system levels.
Hygiene
Hygiene considers the influence of living and working conditions on human health. She develops measures to create favorable living, work and leisure conditions that ensure the preservation of health.
In modern conditions, as the achievements of scientific and technological progress are introduced into industry and everyday life, unfavorable changes in the physical and chemical properties of the environment increase. Industrial waste often contains chemicals that have a harmful effect on the human body. Garbage and household waste contain decaying organic substances that contain a huge number of microbes, including pathogens. The deterioration of hygienic living conditions has a negative impact on people's health and life expectancy.
The task of hygienists is to improve the sanitary condition of cities and towns. The correct layout of residential and industrial areas is also important in order to eliminate, if possible, the harmful effects of industrial noise, vibration, dust, and electromagnetic fields on the body. Green spaces are a powerful healing factor. They reduce the intensity of street noise, trap dust, and create an optimal microclimate.
Anatomy, physiology and hygiene are closely interrelated and form the basis of medicine, since their knowledge contributes to the prevention and treatment of human diseases.
Modern advances in medicine are amazing: operations on the brain, heart, tissue transplants and rejected body parts, blood transfusions, plastic surgeries are being carried out; Hormones and vitamins have been synthesized and successfully used, many diseases are treated and prevented with the help of medications, artificial respiration and circulatory devices, and an artificial “kidney” are used.
Knowledge of the structure of the human body and its functions allows us to create rational systems of physical and sports exercises that contribute to the formation of a harmoniously developed personality.
1.Anatomy - (Greek anatome - “dissection”) - the science of the structure of the body and its organs.
Anatomy Methods :
Autopsy of a dead body and examination of its organs.
In ancient times, opening a human body was considered a great sin and was prohibited.
It was only during the Renaissance that scientists were allowed to dissect the bodies of executed criminals.
-methods of intravital research: X-ray, ultrasound (US), modeling of organ function (including computer) and others.
2.Physiology - the science of the functions of the body and its organs.
Organ function- that's his job.
The structure of organs and their functions are closely related to each other. To be convinced of this, just look at your own hand. Why are there folds against each joint and fingers on the back of the hand and why do they straighten out when the hand is clenched into a fist? It is not difficult to answer: if there were no folds, it would be impossible to bend the finger - the skin would stretch and make this movement difficult.
Physiology methods:
A.Experiment - experience, artificial reproduction/modeling of a phenomenon under certain conditions for the purpose of research/study.
Chronic experiments- these are long-term experiments on living animals - For example, holes were made in the stomach and skin and these holes were connected with a tube. Thanks to this, the contents of the stomach could be obtained at any time. To do this, it was necessary to remove the plug that closed the tube that carried the contents of the stomach out. In this way, it was possible to study not only the functioning of the organ, but also its regulation.
Studying the functioning of animal organs (+ setting up an experiment) and transferring/extrapolating the obtained data to humans because similar organs of animals and humans perform similar functions Thanks to experimental animals - frogs, guinea pigs, dogs and monkeys - it was possible to find out what functions each organ performs.
B. Study of the work of any human and animal organ using devices : An electrocardiogram allows you to accurately analyze the heartbeat and, if necessary, prescribe treatment.
IN.Laboratory research methods: blood analysis (general and biochemical) and other biological fluids.
G.Instrumental research methods.
3. Hygiene(from ancient Greek “health”) - an area/section of medicine that studies influenceconditions life, work for the purposecreating optimal conditions for existence (maintaining health, performance, longevity) + developing prevention various diseases.
→Hygiene, along with sanitation and epidemiology, is one of the areas preventive medicine.
The main branches of the science of Hygiene: general hygiene (hygiene propaedeutics), communal hygiene, occupational hygiene, food hygiene, hygiene of children and adolescents, radiation hygiene, military hygiene, etc.
Hygiene methods:
-clinical - finding out the causes of mass diseases,
- physiological - establishing the adaptive capabilities of the body to unfavorable conditions of the natural and social environment,
-laboratory - analysis of environmental factors (analysis of air water samples, etc.).
Factors affecting the body :
Physical- noise, vibration, electromagnetic and radioactive radiation, climate, etc.
Chemical- chemical elements and their compounds.
For each of these factors hygienists are developing MPC (maximum permissible concentrations of substances),the excess of which in the atmosphere, water, products, soil or things may be harmful to human health, A sanitary doctors monitor compliance with these standards (so if something is wrong in our home or at work, we immediately report it to SESsanitary doctors).
Thus, the maximum permissible concentration of chlorine in tap water is 0.5 mg/l. This means that water is completely safe if the content of chlorine and its compounds does not exceed 0.5 mg per liter.
Hygiene Recommendations are developing doctors - hygienists: find out whether there are harmful radiations, whether the air, water, food, soil are dangerous to human health; monitor the condition of wells and water supply systems, cleanliness in hairdressing salons, bathhouses and swimming pools, factories and factories, schools and institutes; check cesspools and garbage dumps; study the impact of household insects, rats and mice, dogs and cats, livestock and wild animals on people.
Hygiene Recommendations implemented through SES ( sanitary-epidemiological stations) and SEC (sanitary and epidemiological centers).
To the SEC inspector given great rights: he can stop the work of any enterprise if the production technology and products do not meet sanitary standards; close retail outlets that do not comply with hygiene rules or sell products that are hazardous to health.
People who face administrative or criminal penalties violating sanitarynorms hostels: littering courtyards and entrances, throwing noisy parties at night, etc.
Sanitary doctors identify the sources of diseases and, if necessary, declare quarantine- prohibition or restriction of exit and entry into the territory where a dangerous infection has appeared.
Quarantine can be introduced in a kindergarten, school, hospital and other institutions for the duration of the necessary disinfection.
Those who violate quarantine can become carriers of infection and cause an epidemic that is dangerous for many people.
Epidemic- widespread (mass) spread of some infectious (contagious) disease.
4. Valeology(Latin valeo - “to be healthy”) - theory of health consisting of the physical, moral and spiritual health of a person.
is an integral science those. based on knowledge of the natural, social and human sciences - medicine, hygiene, biology, sexology, psychology, sociology, philosophy, cultural studies, pedagogy and others.
More precisely, Valeology is the science of: 1.rules of a healthy lifestyle,
2. reserves of human health,
3. hygiene rules,
4. the basics of environmental literacy.
What is health? in a biological sense it is physiological adaptation / adaptation a specific organism to life in some specific/certain conditions and the ability to adapt to changing conditions.
What factors provoke negative changes able health person?
