The assumption of the existence of South Pole mysterious Terra Australis Incognita- The southern unknown land - they spoke out long before the first real expeditions were equipped there. Ever since scientists realized that the Earth is spherical, they believed that the areas of land and sea in the northern and southern hemispheres approximately the same. Otherwise, they say, the balance would be disrupted, and our planet would be oriented toward the Sun with the side with the greater mass.
Once again one has to be surprised by the foresight of M.V. Lomonosov, who in 1763, even before Cook’s expeditions, very clearly formulated his idea of the Southern Land: "In the vicinity of the Strait of Magellan and opposite the Cape Good Hope At about 53 degrees of midday width the great ice floats, so there should be no doubt that at a great distance there are islands and seasoned earth covered with many and never-falling snows, and that a large expanse earth's surface near the South Pole is occupied by them than in the north".
An interesting point: at first the prevailing opinion was that the southern continent was much larger than it actually was. And when the Dutchman Willem Janson discovered Australia, he gave it a name based on the assumption that it was part of that very Terra Australis Incognita…
Off the coast of Antarctica. Photo: Peter Holgate.
The first who managed, albeit not of their own free will, to cross the South Arctic Circle and, in all likelihood, see Antarctica, became the Dutch. In 1559, a ship commanded by Dirk Geeritz, in the Strait of Magellan was caught in a storm and was carried far to the south. Reaching 64 degrees south latitude, the sailors saw « high ground» . But apart from this mention, history has not preserved any other evidence of a possible discovery. As soon as the weather permitted, Geeritz immediately left the inhospitable Antarctic waters.
Dutch galleon of the 16th century.
It is possible that the incident with the ship Geeritsa was not the only one. Already in our time, shipwrecks, clothing and kitchen utensils dating back to the 16th-17th centuries have been repeatedly found on the coast of the Antarctic islands. One of these wrecks, belonging to an 18th-century Spanish galleon, is kept in the museum of the Chilean city of Valparaiso. True, skeptics believe that all this evidence of shipwrecks could have been brought to Antarctica waves and currents.
In the 17th-18th centuries, French navigators distinguished themselves: they discovered the islands South Georgia, Bouvet and Kerguelen, located in "Roaring Forties" latitudes The British, not wanting to lag behind their competitors, also equipped two expeditions in a row in 1768-1775. They were the ones who became important stage in the study of the southern hemisphere.
Both expeditions were led by the famous captain James Cook. He repeatedly crossed the Arctic Circle, was covered with ice, crossed 71 degrees south latitude and was only 75 miles from the shores of the sixth continent, but an insurmountable wall of ice prevented him from reaching them.
Cook's expedition ship Endeavor, a modern replica.
Despite the failure to find mainland land, Cook's expeditions overall produced impressive results. It was found that New Zealand is an archipelago, and not part of the southern continent, as previously thought. In addition, the coasts of Australia, vast areas of water Pacific Ocean, several islands were discovered, astronomical observations were carried out, etc.
IN Russian literature There are allegations that Cook did not believe in the existence of the Southern Land and allegedly openly stated this. Actually this is not true. James Cook argued just the opposite: “I will not deny that there may be a continent or significant land near the pole. On the contrary, I am convinced that such a land exists, and it is possible that we have seen part of it. Great cold, huge number ice islands and floating ice - all this proves that there must be land in the south".
He even wrote a special treatise "The Case for the Existence of Earth Near the South Pole", and named the open South Sandwich Islands Sandwich Land in honor of the First Lord of the Admiralty, mistakenly believing that it was a protrusion of mainland land southern continent. At the same time, Cook, faced with the extremely harsh Antarctic climate, came to the conclusion that further research was pointless. Since the mainland “being open and examined, it would still not be of benefit to navigation, geography, or other branches of science”. It was probably this statement that for a long time discouraged the desire to send new expeditions to the Southern Land, and for half a century the harsh Antarctic waters were visited mainly only by whaling and hunting ships.
Captain James Cook.
Next and perhaps most important discovery in history Antarctica was made by Russian sailors. In July 1819, the first Russian Antarctic expedition started, consisting of two Russian Imperial Navy "Vostok" and "Mirny". The first of them, and the detachment as a whole, was commanded by a captain of the 2nd rank, the second by a lieutenant Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev. It is curious that the goals of the expedition were exclusively scientific - it was to explore the remote waters of the World Ocean and find a mysterious southern mainland, penetrating "to the furthest latitude that can be reached".
The Russian sailors completed their assigned tasks brilliantly. On January 28 (according to ship “mean astronomical” time, which was 12 hours ahead of St. Petersburg), 1820, they came close to the ice barrier of the Antarctic continent. According to them, there was "ice field dotted with mounds". Lieutenant Lazarev spoke more definitely: “we met hardened ice of extreme height... it extended as far as vision could reach... From here we continued our path to the east, trying whenever possible to the south, but we always met an icy continent”. This day is now considered the opening day Antarctica. Although, strictly speaking, the land itself Russian sailors They didn’t see it then: they were 20 miles from the coast, later called Queen Maud Land, and only the ice shelf appeared before their eyes.
It is curious that just three days later, on the other side of the continent, an English sailing ship under the command of captain Edward Bransfield approached the Antarctic Peninsula, and land was allegedly visible from its side. The captain of the American hunting ship said the same thing. Nathaniel Palmer, who visited the same place in November 1820. True, both of these ships were engaged in fishing for whales and seals, and their captains were interested primarily in commercial gain, and not in the laurels of discoverers of new lands.
American whaling ships in Antarctic waters. Artist Roy Cross.
In fairness, we note that, despite a number of controversial issues, recognition and Lazarev discoverers Antarctica deservedly and fairly. January 28, 1821 - exactly one year from the date of meeting with "ice continent"- Russian sailors in sunny weather clearly saw and even sketched the mountainous coast. The last doubts disappeared: not just an ice massif, but snow-covered rocks extended to the south. The open land was mapped as the Land of Alexander I. It is interesting to note that for a long time The land of Alexander I was considered part of the mainland, and only in 1940 it became clear that it was an island: under a multi-meter thickness shelf ice a strait was discovered separating it from the continent.
During the two years of sailing, the ships of the first Russian Antarctic expedition circumnavigated open continent, leaving more than 50 thousand miles behind the stern. 29 new islands were discovered, and a huge amount of various research was carried out.
The sloops “Vostok” and “Mirny” off the coast of Antarctica. Artist E.V.Voishvillo.
The first person to set foot on the land - or rather, the ice - of the southern continent, in all likelihood, was the American hunter John Davis. On February 7, 1821, he landed from a fishing vessel on the shore in West Antarctica near Cape Charles. However, this fact is not documented in any way and is given only from the words of the sailor, so many historians do not recognize it. The first confirmed landing on ice continent took place 74 years (!) later – on January 24, 1895. Norwegian
The history of the discovery of nitrogen is quite interesting. You will find out when nitrogen was discovered in this article.
Who discovered nitrogen and when?
Nitrogen was first obtained in 1756 by the Scottish chemist D. Rutherford. The scientist put a mouse under the dome, initially pushing out carbon dioxide. The mouse died immediately, and the scientist decided that this was due to the existence of “poisonous” air, which turned out to be nitrogen. In 1772, he published the results of his research and experiments in 1772.
Nitrogen was later obtained in 1772 by a scientist from Scotland, Henry Cavendish. By experimenting with air, he obtained nitrogen. Unfortunately, not realizing that this is a new substance, G. Cavendish happily attributes everything to phlogiston.
In 1773, Swedish chemist Carl Schelle established that air is a mixture of two gases. One of them promotes breathing, the second does not. In this case, he called nitrogen “spoiled air.”
It is now known that the nitrogen content in the air reaches 78%.
Name of gas 1787 year was proposed by Lavoisier along with other researchers. Before this, it was called spoiled, phlogisticated, poisonous and mephitic air. From Greek it is translated as lifeless, and this word is derived from the Greek “a” - negation and “zoe” - life.
Photo 1 Christopher Columbus
On October 29, 1451, Christopher Columbus was born - navigator, Spanish admiral, discoverer of the Sargasso and Caribbean seas, the Bahamas and Antilles, parts north coast South America and the Caribbean coastline of Central America.
He first set foot on board a ship when he was barely 14 years old. Taking part in various trade expeditions, he visited England, Ireland and Iceland, and the Madeira Islands. During long periods sea travel, he had the idea to get to India by the western route from the Canary Islands to Japan through Atlantic Ocean.
Photo 3 – Columbus convinces the Spanish monarchs of the advisability of the expedition to
West (picture American artist Peter Frederick)
It took Columbus 7 long years to convince King Ferdinand of Spain and Queen Isabella of the feasibility of the expedition. How difficult it was can be judged by the prejudices Columbus had to face at court. The dignitaries doubted: is it possible to move west and end up in the east and whether the wind will be strong enough sailing ship to climb the water mountain formed by the bulge globe, as was believed at the time. In addition, in his project, the ambitious Columbus proposed to appoint him viceroy of the new lands and award him the title of “chief admiral of the sea-ocean.” His Majesty King Ferdinand of Spain called Columbus's demands "excessive and unacceptable."
It was not until 1491 that Columbus received royal approval. And after the successful results of the expedition, the discovery of new rich lands, sources of gold and silver, Columbus and his heirs were granted noble title"Don".
Photo 4 - map of the route of Columbus's four expeditions
Columbus made four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean.
According to his calculations, Columbus's first voyage in 1492 was greatly delayed.
Photo 5 - Columbus's secret map
At that time it was not yet known that the compass needle does not point exactly to the north, but to the magnetic North Pole. Columbus once discovered that the magnetic needle was not pointing exactly in the direction North Star, but deviates more and more from this direction. He hid his discovery from the team, fearing the already tense state of being faced with the unknown ocean.
Photo 6 – this is approximately what the compass looked like in the 15th century.
To encourage the sailors, great navigator promised to reward the one who sees the land first with gold. On October 12, sailor Rodrigo de Triana noticed small island. , but the joy of discovery did not bring him the promised reward. The long-awaited land was later named San Salvador. Columbus was sure that he had reached China, Japan or India and on the map he designated this coast as the West Indies, and called the natives he met Indians.
Photo 7 - discovery of America by Columbus expedition
The fourth and last expedition in Columbus's life to the shores of America lasted two years (from 1502 to 1504). The great navigator set off with four ships, and during the voyage he discovered Honduras, Costa Rica, and Panama. In 1503 (June 25), the flotilla was wrecked off the coast of Jamaica. The ships were damaged, food ran out and relations with the local aborigines became strained. Columbus decided to use a trick. From astronomical tables he knew that February 29, 1504 will happen moon eclipse.
Photo 8 – Columbus shows the lunar eclipse to the Indians (1879 engraving)
Columbus called the local leaders and announced that, as punishment for their hostility, the god of the white people had decided to take the Moon away from the inhabitants of the island. And indeed, the prediction came true - exactly at the specified time, the Moon began to be covered with a black shadow. The superstitious Indians began to beg Columbus to return the night star to them, and in return they agreed to feed the strangers with their own food. the best food and fulfill all their wishes
From his travels, Columbus brought many products not yet known to Europeans: corn, tomatoes and potatoes. And in America, thanks to Columbus, grapes appeared, as well as horses and cows.
Many objects were named in honor of the legendary Columbus, who discovered America for Europeans.
Photo 9 - Mount Cristobal Colon – highest point Colombia, named after Christopher Columbus
For example, the Columbia River in the USA, a state in South America, Mount Cristobal Colon in Colombia. The Columbia Pictures studio in Hollywood is also named after famous discoverer America.
The history of the discovery of America is quite amazing. These events took place at the end of the 15th century due to the rapid development of navigation and shipping in Europe. In many ways, we can say that the discovery of the American continent happened completely by accident and the motives were very banal - the search for gold, wealth, large trading cities.
In the 15th century in the territory modern America There lived ancient tribes who were very good-natured and hospitable. In Europe, in those days, even then the states were quite developed and modern. Each country tried to expand its sphere of influence and find new sources of replenishment of the state treasury. At the end of the 15th century, trade and the development of new colonies flourished.
Who discovered America?
In the 15th century, ancient tribes lived on the territory of modern America who were very good-natured and hospitable. In Europe, even then the states were quite developed and modern. Each country tried to expand its sphere of influence and find new sources of replenishment of the state treasury.
When you ask any adult or child who discovered America, we will hear about Columbus. It was Christopher Columbus who gave the impetus active search and development of new lands.
Christopher Columbus is the great Spanish navigator. Information about where he was born and spent his childhood is limited and contradictory. It is known that as a young man, Christopher was interested in cartography. He was married to the daughter of a navigator. In 1470, the geographer and astronomer Toscanelli informed Columbus of his assumptions that the route to India was shorter if one sailed west. Apparently then Columbus began to hatch his idea of shortcut to India, and according to his calculations, it was necessary to sail through the Canary Islands, and there Japan would be close.
Since 1475, Columbus has been trying to implement the idea and make an expedition. The purpose of the expedition is to find a new trade route to India across the Atlantic Ocean. To do this, he turned to the government and merchants of Genoa, but they did not support him. The second attempt to find funding for the expedition was made by the Portuguese King João II, however, even here, after a long study of the project, he was refused.
IN last time with his project he came to to the Spanish king. At the beginning, his project was considered for a long time, there were even several meetings and commissions, this lasted several years. His idea was supported by bishops and Catholic kings. But Columbus received final support for his project after the victory of Spain in the city of Granada, which was liberated from the Arab presence.
The expedition was organized on the condition that Columbus, if successful, would receive not only the gifts and riches of new lands, but also receive, in addition to the status of a nobleman, the title: Admiral of the Sea-Ocean and Viceroy of all the lands that he discovers. For Spain, a successful expedition promised not only the development of new lands, but also the opportunity to trade directly with India, since, according to the treaty concluded with Portugal, Spanish ships were prohibited from entering the waters west coast Africa.
When and how did Columbus discover America?
Historians consider 1942 to be the year of the discovery of America, although these are rather approximate data. Discovering new lands and islands, Columbus had no idea that this was another continent, which would later be called the “New World”. The traveler undertook 4 expeditions. He arrived to new and new lands, believing that these were the lands of “Western India”. For quite a long time everyone in Europe thought so. However, another traveler Vasco da Gama declared Columbus a deceiver, since it was Gamma who found a direct route to India and brought gifts and spices from there.
What America did Christopher Columbus discover? It can be said that thanks to his expeditions since 1492, Columbus discovered both the Northern and South America. To be more precise, islands were discovered that are now considered either South or North America.
Who discovered America first?
Although historically it is believed that it was Columbus who discovered America, but in fact this is not entirely true.
There is evidence that " New World"previously visited by the Scandinavians (Leif Eriksson in 1000, Thorfinn Karlsefni in 1008), this journey became known from the manuscripts “The Saga of Eric the Red” and “The Saga of the Greenlanders”. There are other “discoverers of America”, but the scientific community does not takes them seriously, since there is no reliable data. For example, America has been visited before. African traveler from Mali - Abu Bakr II, Scottish nobleman Henry Sinclair, Chinese traveler Zheng He.
Why was America called America?
The first widely known and recorded fact is the visit of this part of the “New World” by the traveler and navigator Amerigo Vespucci. It is noteworthy that it was he who put forward the assumption that this was not India or China, but a completely new, previously unknown continent. It is believed that this is why the name America was assigned to the new land, and not its discoverer, Columbus.
Columbus discovered America
The year this Spanish navigator discovered new land, is indicated in history as the 1492nd. And by the beginning of the eighteenth century, all other areas of North America, for example, Alaska and the regions of the Pacific coast, had already been discovered and explored. It must be said that travelers from Russia also made an important contribution to the exploration of the mainland.
Development
The history of the discovery of North America is quite interesting: it can even be called accidental. At the end of the fifteenth century, a Spanish navigator and his expedition reached the shores of North America. At the same time, he mistakenly believed that he was in India. From this moment begins the countdown of the era when America was discovered and its exploration and exploration began. But some researchers consider this date inaccurate, arguing that the discovery of a new continent occurred much earlier.
The year Columbus discovered America - 1492 - is not exact date. It turns out that the Spanish navigator had predecessors, and more than one. In the middle of the tenth century, the Normans arrived here after they discovered Greenland. True, they failed to colonize these new lands, since they were repelled by harsh weather north of this continent. In addition, the Normans were also frightened by the remoteness of the new continent from Europe.
According to other sources, this continent was discovered by ancient sailors - the Phoenicians. Some sources call the middle of the first millennium AD the time when America was discovered, and the Chinese as the pioneers. However, this version also does not have clear evidence.
The most reliable information is considered to be about the time when the Vikings discovered America. At the end of the tenth century, the Normans Bjarni Herjulfson and Leif Eriksson found Helluland - “stone”, Markland - “forest” and Vinland - “vineyards” of land, which contemporaries identify with the Labrador Peninsula.
There is evidence that even before Columbus in the fifteenth century northern continent reached by Bristol and Biscay fishermen, who named it the island of Brazil. However, the time periods of these expeditions cannot be called the milestone in history when America was truly discovered, that is, it was identified as a new continent.
Columbus - a true discoverer
And yet, when answering the question of what year America was discovered, experts most often name the fifteenth century, or rather its end. And Columbus is considered the first to do this. The time when America was discovered coincided in history with the period when Europeans began to spread ideas about round shape Land and the possibility of reaching India or China by western path, that is, across the Atlantic Ocean. It was believed that this path was much shorter than the eastern one. Therefore, given the Portuguese monopoly on control over South Atlantic, obtained by the Treaty of Alcaçovas in 1479, Spain, always eager to obtain direct contacts with eastern countries, warmly supported the expedition of the Genoese navigator Columbus in a western direction.
Honor of opening
Christopher Columbus with early age was interested in geography, geometry and astronomy. From a young age, he took part in sea expeditions and visited almost all the then known oceans. Columbus was married to the daughter of a Portuguese sailor, from whom he received many geographical maps and notes from the time of Henry the Navigator. The future discoverer carefully studied them. His plans were to find a sea route to India, but not bypassing Africa, but directly across the Atlantic. Like some scientists - his contemporaries, Columbus believed that, having gone west from Europe, it would be possible to reach the Asian eastern shores - those places where India and China are located. At the same time, he did not even suspect that on the way he would meet an entire continent, hitherto unknown to Europeans. But it happened. And from this time the history of the discovery of America began.
First expedition
For the first time, Columbus's ships sailed from Palos harbor on August 3, 1492. There were three of them. The expedition proceeded quite calmly to the Canary Islands: this part of the journey was already known to the sailors. But very soon they found themselves in a vast ocean. Gradually the sailors began to become despondent and begin to grumble. But Columbus managed to pacify the rebellious, maintaining hope in them. Soon signs began to appear - harbingers of the proximity of land: unknown birds flew in, tree branches floated up. Finally, after six weeks of sailing, lights appeared at night, and when dawn broke, a green picturesque island, all covered with vegetation. Columbus, having landed on shore, declared this land to be the possession of the Spanish crown. The island was named San Salvador, that is, the Savior. It was one of the small pieces of land included in the Bahamas or Lucayan archipelago.
The land where there is gold
The natives are peaceful and good-natured savages. Noticing the greed of those who sailed for the gold jewelry that hung in the noses and ears of the aborigines, they told with signs that in the south there was a land literally abounding in gold. And Columbus moved on. In the same year, he discovered Cuba, which, although he mistook it for the mainland, or rather, the eastern coast of Asia, he also declared it a Spanish colony. From here the expedition, turning east, landed in Haiti. Moreover, along the entire route the Spaniards met savages who not only willingly exchanged their gold jewelry for simple glass beads and other trinkets, but also constantly pointed to south direction, when asked about this precious metal. Which Columbus named Hispaniola, or Little Spain, he built a small fortress.
Return
When the ships landed in Palos harbor, all the inhabitants came ashore to greet them with honors. Columbus and Ferdinand and Isabella received him very graciously. The news of the discovery of the New World spread very quickly, and those who wanted to go there with the discoverer gathered just as quickly. At that time, Europeans had no idea what kind of America Christopher Columbus discovered.
Second trip
The history of the discovery of North America, which began in 1492, continued. From September 1493 to June 1496, the second expedition of the Genoese navigator took place. As a result, the Virgin and Windward Islands were discovered, including Antigua, Dominica, Nevis, Montserrat, St. Christopher, as well as Puerto Rico and Jamaica. The Spaniards firmly settled in the lands of Haiti, making them their base and building the fortress of San Domingo in its southeastern part. In 1497, the British entered into competition with them, also trying to find northwestern routes to Asia. For example, the Genoese Cabot, under the English flag, discovered the island of Newfoundland and, according to some reports, came very close to the north American coast: to the peninsulas of Labrador and Nova Scotia. Thus, the British began to lay the foundation for their dominance in the North American region.
Third and fourth expeditions
It began in May 1498 and ended in November 1500. As a result, the mouth of the Orinoco was also opened. In August 1498, Columbus landed on the coast already on the Paria Peninsula, and in 1499 the Spaniards reached the shores of Guiana and Venezuela, after which - Brazil and the mouth of the Amazon. And during the last - fourth - journey from May 1502 to November 1504, Columbus had already discovered Central America. His ships sailed along the coasts of Honduras and Nicaragua, reaching from Costa Rica and Panama all the way to the Gulf of Darien.
New continent
In the same year, another navigator, whose expeditions took place under the Portuguese flag, also explored the Brazilian coast. Having reached Cape Cananea, he put forward the hypothesis that the lands that Columbus discovered were not China, or even India, but a completely new continent. This idea was confirmed after the first trip around the world perfected by F. Magellan. However, contrary to logic, the name America was assigned to the new continent - on behalf of Vespucci.
True, there is some reason to believe that new continent was named after the Bristol philanthropist Richard America from England, who financed the second transatlantic voyage in 1497, and Amerigo Vespucci after that took his nickname in honor of the continent named so. To prove this theory, researchers cite the facts that Cabot reached the shores of Labrador two years earlier, and therefore became the officially registered first European to set foot on American soil.
In the mid-sixteenth century, Jacques Cartier, a French navigator, reached the shores of Canada, giving the territory its modern name.
Other contenders
Development of the continent North America continued by such navigators as John Davis, Alexander Mackenzie, Henry Hudson and William Baffin. It was thanks to their research that the continent was studied right up to the Pacific coast.
However, history knows many other names of sailors who landed on American soil even before Columbus. These are Hui Shen, a Thai monk who visited this region in the fifth century, Abubakar, the Sultan of Mali, who sailed to the American coast in the fourteenth century, the Earl of Orkney de Saint-Clair, the Chinese explorer Zhee He, the Portuguese Juan Corterial, etc.
But, in spite of everything, Christopher Columbus is the person whose discoveries had an unconditional impact on the entire history of mankind.
Fifteen years after the time when the ships of this navigator discovered America, the very first geographic map mainland. Its author was Martin Waldseemüller. Today it, being the property of the United States, is stored in Washington.
