Physical phenomena. About logical lines that make it possible to detect new physical effects

In 1979, Gorky People's University scientifically - technical creativity released Methodological materials for his new development “Comprehensive method for searching for new technical solutions”. We plan to introduce site readers to this interesting development, which in many ways was significantly ahead of its time. But today we invite you to familiarize yourself with a fragment of the third part teaching materials, published under the title "Arrays of Information". The list of physical effects proposed in it includes only 127 items. Now specialized computer programs offer more detailed versions of physical effects indexes, but for a user who is still “not covered” by software support, the table of applications of physical effects created in Gorky is of interest. Its practical benefit lies in the fact that at the input the solver had to indicate which function from those listed in the table it wants to provide and which type of energy it plans to use (as they would say now, indicate resources). The numbers in the cells of the table are the numbers of physical effects in the list. Each physical effect is provided with references to literary sources (unfortunately, almost all of them are currently bibliographic rarities).
The work was carried out by a team that included teachers from Gorky People's University: M.I. Vainerman, B.I. Goldovsky, V.P. Gorbunov, L.A. Zapolyansky, V.T. Korelov, V.G. Kryazhev, A.V. Mikhailov, A.P. Sokhin, Yu.N. Shelomok. The material brought to the attention of the reader is compact, and therefore can be used as handouts in classes at public schools of technical creativity.
Editor

List of physical effects and phenomena

Gorky People's University of Scientific and Technical Creativity
Gorky, 1979

N	Name of physical effect or phenomenon	Brief description of the essence of a physical effect or phenomenon	Typical functions (actions) performed (see Table 1)	Literature
1	2	3	4	5
1	Inertia	The movement of bodies after the cessation of forces. A rotating or translational body moving by inertia can accumulate mechanical energy and produce a force effect	5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 21	42, 82, 144
2	Gravity	force interaction of masses at a distance, as a result of which bodies can move, approaching each other	5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15	127, 128, 144
3	Gyroscopic effect	Bodies rotating at high speed are able to maintain the position of their axis of rotation unchanged. External force to change the direction of the rotation axis leads to precession of the gyroscope, proportional to the force	10, 14	96, 106
4	Friction	The force arising from the relative movement of two contacting bodies in the plane of their contact. Overcoming this force leads to the release of heat, light, wear and tear	2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 19, 20	31, 114, 47, 6, 75, 144
5	Replacing static friction with motion friction	When the rubbing surfaces vibrate, the friction force decreases	12	144
6	Wear-free effect (Kragelsky and Garkunov)	The steel-bronze pair with glycerin lubricant practically does not wear out	12	75
7	Johnson-Rabek effect	Heating the metal-semiconductor rubbing surfaces increases the friction force	2, 20	144
8	Deformation	Reversible or irreversible (elastic or plastic deformation) change in the relative position of body points under the influence of mechanical forces, electric, magnetic, gravitational and thermal fields, accompanied by the release of heat, sound, light	4, 13, 18, 22	11, 129
9	Poynting effect	Elastic elongation and increase in volume of steel and copper wires when twisted. The properties of the material do not change	11, 18	132
10	Relationship between strain and electrical conductivity	When a metal transitions to a superconducting state, its plasticity increases	22	65, 66
11	Electroplastic effect	Increasing ductility and reducing brittleness of metal under the influence of direct electric current high density or pulse current	22	119
12	Bauschinger effect	Reduction of resistance to initial plastic deformations when the sign of the load changes	22	102
13	Alexandrov effect	With increasing ratio of the masses of elastically colliding bodies, the energy transfer coefficient increases only to a critical value, determined by the properties and configuration of the bodies	15	2
14	Memory alloys	Parts made of some alloys (titanium-nickel, etc.) deformed by mechanical forces after heating restore exactly their original shape and are capable of creating significant force impacts.	1, 4, 11, 14, 18, 22	74
15	Explosion phenomenon	Ignition of substances due to instantaneous chemical decomposition and the formation of highly heated gases, accompanied strong sound, release of significant energy (mechanical, thermal), light flash	2, 4, 11, 13, 15, 18, 22	129
16	Thermal expansion	Changes in the size of bodies under the influence of a thermal field (during heating and cooling). May be accompanied by significant effort	5, 10, 11, 18	128,144
17	First-order phase transitions	A change in the density of the aggregate state of substances at a certain temperature, accompanied by release or absorption	1, 2, 3, 9, 11, 14, 22	129, 144, 33
18	Phase transitions of the second order	Abrupt changes in heat capacity, thermal conductivity, magnetic properties, fluidity (superfluidity), plasticity (superplasticity), electrical conductivity (superconductivity) upon reaching a certain temperature and without energy exchange	1, 3, 22	33, 129, 144
19	Capillarity	Spontaneous flow of liquid under the action of capillary forces in capillaries and half-open channels (microcracks and scratches)	6, 9	122, 94, 144, 129, 82
20	Laminarity and turbulence	Laminarity is the ordered movement of a viscous liquid (or gas) without interlayer mixing with a flow rate decreasing from the center of the pipe to the walls. Turbulence is the chaotic movement of a liquid (or gas) with random movement of particles along complex trajectories and an almost constant flow velocity across the cross section	5, 6, 11, 12, 15	128, 129, 144
21	Surface tension of liquids	Surface tension forces, caused by the presence of surface energy, tend to reduce the interface	6, 19, 20	82, 94, 129, 144
22	Wetting	Physico-chemical interaction of liquid with solid body. The character depends on the properties of the interacting substances	19	144, 129, 128
23	Autophobic effect	When a liquid with low tension comes into contact with a high-energy solid, complete wetting first occurs, then the liquid collects into a drop, and a strong molecular layer of liquid remains on the surface of the solid	19, 20	144, 129, 128
24	Ultrasonic capillary effect	Increasing the speed and height of liquid rise in capillaries under the influence of ultrasound	6	14, 7, 134
25	Thermocapillary effect	Dependence of the speed of liquid spreading on the uneven heating of its layer. The effect depends on the purity of the liquid and its composition	1, 6, 19	94, 129, 144
26	Electrocapillary effect	Dependence of surface tension at the interface between electrodes and electrolyte solutions or ionic melts on electric potential	6, 16, 19	76, 94
27	Sorption	The process of spontaneous condensation of a dissolved or vaporous substance (gas) on the surface of a solid or liquid. With low penetration of the sorbent substance into the sorbent, adsorption occurs, with deep penetration, absorption occurs. The process is accompanied by heat exchange	1, 2, 20	1, 27, 28, 100, 30, 43, 129, 103
28	Diffusion	The process of equalizing the concentration of each component throughout the entire volume of a mixture of gas or liquid. The rate of diffusion in gases increases with decreasing pressure and increasing temperature	8, 9, 20, 22	32, 44, 57, 82, 109, 129, 144
29	Dufour effect	The emergence of a temperature difference during diffusion mixing of gases	2	129, 144
30	Osmosis	Diffusion through a semi-permeable septum. Accompanied by the creation of osmotic pressure	6, 9, 11	15
31	Heat and mass exchange	Heat transfer. May be accompanied by mixing of the mass or caused by movement of the mass	2, 7, 15	23
32	Archimedes' Law	The action of lift on a body immersed in a liquid or gas	5, 10, 11	82, 131, 144
33	Pascal's law	Pressure in liquids or gases is transmitted evenly in all directions	11	82, 131, 136, 144
34	Bernoulli's law	Constancy of total pressure in steady laminar flow	5, 6	59
35	Viscoelectric effect	An increase in the viscosity of a polar non-conducting liquid when flowing between the capacitor plates	6, 10, 16, 22	129, 144
36	Thoms effect	Reducing friction between a turbulent flow and a pipeline when a polymer additive is introduced into the flow	6, 12, 20	86
37	Coanda effect	Deflection of the jet of liquid flowing from the nozzle towards the wall. Sometimes there is “sticking” of liquid	6	129
38	Magnus effect	The emergence of a force acting on a cylinder rotating in the oncoming flow, perpendicular to the flow and the cylinder’s generatrices	5,11	129, 144
39	Joule-Thomson effect (choke effect)	Change in gas temperature as it flows through a porous partition, diaphragm or valve (without exchange with the environment)	2, 6	8, 82, 87
40	Water hammer	Rapid shutdown of a pipeline with a moving liquid causes a sharp increase in pressure, propagating in the form of a shock wave, and the appearance of cavitation	11, 13, 15	5, 56, 89
41	Electrohydraulic shock (Yutkin effect)	Water hammer caused by pulsed electrical discharge	11, 13, 15	143
42	Hydrodynamic cavitation	The formation of ruptures in a fast flow of continuous fluid as a result of a local decrease in pressure, causing destruction of the object. Accompanied by sound	13, 18, 26	98, 104
43	Acoustic cavitation	Cavitation resulting from the passage acoustic waves	8, 13, 18, 26	98, 104, 105
44	Sonoluminescence	Faint glow of a bubble at the moment of its cavitation collapse	4	104, 105, 98
45	Free (mechanical) vibrations	Own damped oscillations when removing the system from equilibrium position. Subject to availability internal energy oscillations become undamped (self-oscillations)	1, 8, 12, 17, 21	20, 144, 129, 20, 38
46	Forced vibrations	Fluctuations year by periodic force, usually external	8, 12, 17	120
47	Acoustic paramagnetic resonance	Resonant absorption of sound by a substance, depending on the composition and properties of the substance	21	37
48	Resonance	Sharp increase amplitudes of oscillations when forced and natural frequencies coincide	5, 9, 13, 21	20, 120
49	Acoustic vibrations	Propagation of sound waves in a medium. The nature of the impact depends on the frequency and intensity of vibrations. Main purpose - force impact	5, 6, 7, 11, 17, 21	38, 120
50	Reverberation	Aftersound caused by the transition of delayed reflected or scattered sound waves to a certain point	4, 17, 21	120, 38
51	Ultrasound	Longitudinal vibrations in gases, liquids and solids in the frequency range 20x103-109 Hz. Beam propagation with effects of reflection, focusing, formation of shadows with the ability to transmit high energy density used for force and thermal effects	2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 15, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26	7, 10, 14, 16, 90, 107, 133
52	Wave motion	transfer of energy without transfer of matter in the form of a disturbance propagating with terminal speed	6, 15	61, 120, 129
53	Doppler-Fizeau effect	Change in oscillation frequency during mutual movement of the source and receiver of oscillations	4	129, 144
54	Standing waves	At a certain phase shift, the direct and reflected waves add up to a standing wave with a characteristic arrangement of disturbance maxima and minima (nodes and antinodes). There is no transfer of energy through nodes, and between neighboring nodes there is an interconversion of kinetic and potential energy. Force impact standing wave capable of creating the appropriate structure	9, 23	120, 129
55	Polarization	Violation axial symmetry, a transverse wave relative to the direction of propagation of this wave. Polarization is caused by: lack of axial symmetry in the emitter, or reflection and refraction at the boundaries different environments, or propagation in an anisotropic medium	4, 16, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24	53, 22, 138
56	Diffraction	Wave bending around an obstacle. Depends on obstacle size and wavelength	17	83, 128, 144
57	Interference	Strengthening and weakening of waves at certain points in space, which occurs when two or more waves overlap	4, 19, 23	83, 128, 144
58	Moire effect	The appearance of a pattern when two equidistant systems intersect at a slight angle parallel lines. Small change the rotation angle leads to a significant change in the distance between the pattern elements	19, 23	91, 140
59	Coulomb's law	Attraction of unlike and repulsion of like electrically charged bodies	5, 7, 16	66, 88, 124
60	Induced charges	The appearance of charges on a conductor under the influence of an electric field	16	35, 66, 110
61	Interaction of bodies with fields	Changing the shape of bodies leads to a change in the configuration of the resulting electric and magnetic fields. This can be controlled by the forces acting on charged particles placed in such fields	25	66, 88, 95, 121, 124
62	Retracting the dielectric between the capacitor plates	When the dielectric is partially introduced between the plates of the capacitor, its retraction is observed	5, 6, 7, 10, 16	66, 110
63	Conductivity	Movement of free carriers under the influence of an electric field. Depends on temperature, density and purity of the substance, its state of aggregation, external influence forces causing deformation, from hydrostatic pressure. In the absence of free carriers, the substance is an insulator and is called a dielectric. Becomes a semiconductor when thermally excited	1, 16, 17, 19, 21, 25	123
64	Superconductivity	Significant increase in the conductivity of some metals and alloys at certain temperatures, magnetic fields and current densities	1, 15, 25	3, 24, 34, 77
65	Law Joule-Lenz	The release of thermal energy during the passage of electric current. The value is inversely proportional to the conductivity of the material	2	129, 88
66	Ionization	The appearance of free charge carriers in substances under the influence of external factors (electromagnetic, electric or thermal fields, discharges in gases irradiated by X-rays or a flow of electrons, alpha particles, during the destruction of bodies)	6, 7, 22	129, 144
67	Eddy currents(Foucault currents)	Circular induction currents flow in a massive non-ferromagnetic plate placed in a changing magnetic field perpendicular to its lines. In this case, the plate heats up and is pushed out of the field	2, 5, 6, 10, 11, 21, 24	50, 101
68	Frictionless brake	A heavy metal plate oscillating between the poles of an electromagnet “gets stuck” when turned on. DC and stops	10	29, 35
69	Conductor carrying current in a magnetic field	The Lorentz force affects electrons, which transmit force through ions crystal lattice. As a result, the conductor is pushed out of the magnetic field	5, 6, 11	66, 128
70	Conductor moving in a magnetic field	When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, it begins to flow electric current	4, 17, 25	29, 128
71	Mutual induction	Alternating current in one of two adjacent circuits causes induced emf in another	14, 15, 25	128
72	Interaction of conductors with moving current electric charges	Conductors carrying current are drawn towards each other or repel each other. Moving electric charges interact in a similar way. The nature of the interaction depends on the shape of the conductors	5, 6, 7	128
73	induced emf	When a magnetic field changes or its movement in a closed conductor, an induced emf occurs. The direction of the induction current produces a field that prevents the change in magnetic flux causing induction	24	128
74	Surface effect (skin effect)	High frequency currents flow only along the surface layer of the conductor	2	144
75	Electromagnetic field	The mutual induction of electric and magnetic fields is the propagation of (radio waves, electromagnetic waves, light, x-rays and gamma rays). An electric field can also serve as its source. A special case of the electromagnetic field is light radiation (visible, ultraviolet and infrared). The thermal field can also serve as its source. The electromagnetic field is detected by thermal effect, electrical action, light pressure, activation of chemical reactions	1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 26	48, 60, 83, 35
76	Charge in a magnetic field	A charge moving in a magnetic field is subject to the Lorentz force. Under the influence of this force, the charge moves in a circle or spiral	5, 6, 7, 11	66, 29
77	Electrorheological effect	Rapid reversible increase in viscosity of non-aqueous disperse systems in strong electric fields	5, 6, 16, 22	142
78	Dielectric in a magnetic field	In a dielectric placed in an electromagnetic field, part of the energy turns into heat	2	29
79	Breakdown of dielectrics	A drop in electrical resistance and thermal destruction of the material due to heating of the dielectric section under the influence of a strong electric field	13, 16, 22	129, 144
80	Electrostriction	Elastic reversible increase in body size in an electric field of any sign	5, 11, 16, 18	66
81	Piezoelectric effect	Formation of charges on the surface of a solid under the influence of mechanical stress	4, 14, 15, 25	80, 144
82	Inverse piezoelectric effect	Elastic deformation of a solid under the influence of an electric field, depending on the sign of the field	5, 11, 16, 18	80
83	Electro-caloric effect	Change in temperature of a pyroelectric when introduced into an electric field	2, 15, 16	129
84	Electrification	The appearance of electrical charges on the surface of substances. It can also be caused in the absence of an external electric field (for pyroelectrics and ferroelectrics when the temperature changes). When a substance is exposed to a strong electric field with cooling or illumination, electrets are obtained that create an electric field around themselves	1, 16	116, 66, 35, 55, 124, 70, 88, 36, 41, 110, 121
85	Magnetization	Orientation of intrinsic magnetic moments of substances in an external magnetic field. Based on the degree of magnetization, substances are divided into paramagnets and ferromagnets. U permanent magnets the magnetic field remains after removing the external electrical and magnetic properties	1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 22, 23	78, 73, 29, 35
86	Effect of temperature on electrical and magnetic properties	The electrical and magnetic properties of substances change dramatically near a certain temperature (Curie point). Above the Curie point, the ferromagnet becomes paramagnetic. Ferroelectrics have two Curie points, at which either magnetic or electrical anomalies are observed. Antiferromagnets lose their properties at a temperature called the Néel point	1, 3, 16, 21, 22, 24, 25	78, 116, 66, 51, 29
87	Magneto-electric effect	In ferroferromagnets, when a magnetic (electric) field is applied, a change in the electric (magnetic) permeability is observed	22, 24, 25	29, 51
88	Hopkins effect	Increase in magnetic susceptibility as one approaches the Curie temperature	1, 21, 22, 24	29
89	Barkhausen effect	Stepwise behavior of the magnetization curve of a sample near the Curie point with changes in temperature, elastic stress or external magnetic field	1, 21, 22, 24	29
90	Liquids that harden in a magnetic field	viscous liquids (oils) mixed with ferromagnetic particles harden when placed in a magnetic field	10, 15, 22	139
91	Piezo magnetism	The appearance of a magnetic moment when elastic stresses are applied	25	29, 129, 144
92	Magneto-caloric effect	Change in temperature of a magnet when it is magnetized. For paramagnetic materials, increasing the field increases the temperature	2, 22, 24	29, 129, 144
93	Magnetostriction	Change in the size of bodies when their magnetization changes (volumetric or linear), the object depends on temperature	5, 11, 18, 24	13, 29
94	Thermostriction	Magnetostrictive deformation when heating bodies in the absence of a magnetic field	1, 24	13, 29
95	Einstein and de Haas effect	Magnetization of a magnet causes it to rotate, and rotation causes magnetization	5, 6, 22, 24	29
96	Ferro-magnetic resonance	Selective (by frequency) absorption of electromagnetic field energy. The frequency changes depending on the field intensity and temperature changes	1, 21	29, 51
97	Contact potential difference (Volta's law)	The appearance of a potential difference upon contact of two different metals. The value depends on chemical composition materials and their temperatures	19, 25	60
98	Triboelectricity	Electrification of bodies during friction. The magnitude and sign of the charge are determined by the state of the surfaces, their composition, density and dielectric constant	7, 9, 19, 21, 25	6, 47, 144
99	Seebeck effect	The occurrence of thermoEMF in a circuit of dissimilar metals under the condition different temperatures at points of contact. When homogeneous metals come into contact, the effect occurs when one of the metals is compressed by uniform pressure or saturated with a magnetic field. The other conductor is in normal conditions	19, 25	64
100	Peltier effect	The release or absorption of heat (except Joule) when current passes through a junction of dissimilar metals, depending on the direction of the current	2	64
101	Thomson phenomenon	The release or absorption of heat (excessive over Joule heat) when current passes through an unevenly heated homogeneous conductor or semiconductor	2	36
102	Hall effect	The appearance of an electric field in the direction perpendicular to the direction magnetic field and current direction. In ferromagnets, the Hall coefficient reaches a maximum at the Curie point and then decreases	16, 21, 24	62, 71
103	Ettingshausen effect	The occurrence of a temperature difference in the direction perpendicular to the magnetic field and current	2, 16, 22, 24	129
104	Thomson effect	Change in the conductivity of a ferromanite conductor in a strong magnetic field	22, 24	129
105	Nernst effect	The appearance of an electric field during transverse magnetization of a conductor perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field and the temperature gradient	24, 25	129
106	Electrical discharges in gases	The emergence of an electric current in a gas as a result of its ionization and under the influence of an electric field. The external manifestations and characteristics of discharges depend on control factors (gas composition and pressure, space configuration, electric field frequency, current strength)	2, 16, 19, 20, 26	123, 84, 67, 108, 97, 39, 115, 40, 4
107	Electroosmosis	Movement of liquids or gases through capillaries, solid porous diaphragms and membranes, and through the forces of very small particles under the influence of an external electric field	9, 16	76
108	Current potential	The appearance of a potential difference between the ends of capillaries and also between the opposite surfaces of a diaphragm, membrane or other porous medium when liquid is forced through them	4, 25	94
109	Electrophoresis	Movement of solid particles, gas bubbles, liquid droplets, as well as colloidal particles suspended in a liquid or gaseous medium under the influence of an external electric field	6, 7, 8, 9	76
110	Sedimentation potential	The appearance of a potential difference in a liquid as a result of the movement of particles caused by non-electrical forces (settling of particles, etc.)	21, 25	76
111	Liquid crystals	A liquid with elongated molecules tends to become cloudy in spots when exposed to an electric field and change color at different temperatures and viewing angles	1, 16	137
112	Light dispersion	Dependence of the absolute refractive index on the radiation wavelength	21	83, 12, 46, 111, 125
113	Holography	Obtaining three-dimensional images by illuminating an object coherent light and photographing the interference pattern of the interaction of light scattered by an object with coherent radiation from a source	4, 19, 23	9, 45, 118, 95, 72, 130
114	Reflection and refraction	When a parallel beam of light falls on a smooth interface between two isotropic media, part of the light is reflected back, and the other, refracted, passes into the second medium	4,	21
115	Light absorption and scattering	When light passes through matter, its energy is absorbed. Some of it is re-radiated, the rest of the energy is converted into other forms (heat). Part of the re-emitted energy spreads into different sides and produces diffused light	15, 17, 19, 21	17, 52, 58
116	Emission of light. Spectral analysis	A quantum system (atom, molecule), which is in an excited state, emits excess energy in the form of a portion of electromagnetic radiation. The atoms of each substance have a disrupted structure of radiative transitions that can be recorded optical methods	1, 4, 17, 21	17, 52, 58
117	Optical quantum generators (lasers)	Amplification of electromagnetic waves by passing them through a medium with population inversion. Laser radiation is coherent, monochromatic, with a high energy concentration in the beam and low divergence	2, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 25, 26	85, 126, 135
118	The phenomenon of complete internal reflection	All the energy of a light wave incident on the interface between transparent media from a medium that is optically denser is completely reflected into the same medium	1, 15, 21	83
119	Luminescence, luminescence polarization	Radiation that is excessive under thermal radiation and has a duration exceeding the period of light oscillations. Luminescence continues for some time after the cessation of excitation (electromagnetic radiation, energy of an accelerated flow of particles, energy of chemical reactions, mechanical energy)	4, 14, 16, 19, 21, 24	19, 25, 92, 117, 68, 113
120	Quenching and stimulation of luminescence	Exposure to a type of energy other than the one that excites luminescence can either stimulate or extinguish luminescence. Control factors: thermal field, electrical and electromagnetic field(IR light), pressure; humidity, presence of certain gases	1, 16, 24	19
121	Optical anisotropy	differences in the optical properties of substances in different directions, depending on their structure and temperature	1, 21, 22	83
122	Birefringence	On. anisotropic interface transparent bodies light is split into two mutually perpendicular polarized beam having different speeds distribution in the environment	21	54, 83, 138, 69, 48
123	Maxwell effect	Emergence birefringence in a fluid flow. Determined by the action of hydrodynamic forces, flow velocity gradient, friction against the walls	4, 17	21
124	Kerr effect	The appearance of optical anisotropy in isotropic substances under the influence of electric or magnetic fields	16, 21, 22, 24	99, 26, 53
125	Pockels effect	The appearance of optical anisotropy under the influence of an electric field in the direction of light propagation. Slightly dependent on temperature	16, 21, 22	129
126	Faraday effect	Rotation of the plane of polarization of light when passing through a substance placed in a magnetic field	21, 22, 24	52, 63, 69
127	Natural optical activity	The ability of a substance to rotate the plane of polarization of light passing through it	17, 21	54, 83, 138

Physical Effect Selection Table

List of references to the array of physical effects and phenomena

1. Adam N.K. Physics and chemistry of surfaces. M., 1947

2. Aleksandrov E.A. ZhTF. 36, No. 4, 1954

3. Alievsky B.D. Application of cryogenic technology and superconductivity in electrical machines and devices. M., Informstandartelektro, 1967

4. Aronov M.A., Kolechitsky E.S., Larionov V.P., Minein V.R., Sergeev Yu.G. Electrical discharges in the air at high frequency voltage, M., Energy, 1969

5. Aronovich G.V. etc. Water hammer and surge tanks. M., Nauka, 1968

6. Akhmatov A.S. Molecular physics of boundary friction. M., 1963

7. Babikov O.I. Ultrasound and its application in industry. FM, 1958"

8. Bazarov I.P. Thermodynamics. M., 1961

9. Bathers J. Holography and its application. M., Energy, 1977

10. Baulin I. Beyond the hearing barrier. M., Knowledge, 1971

11. Bezhukhov N.I. Theory of elasticity and plasticity. M., 1953

12. Bellamy L. Infrared spectra of molecules. M., 1957

13. Belov K.P. Magnetic transformations. M., 1959

14. Bergman L. Ultrasound and its application in technology. M., 1957

15. Bladergren V. Physical chemistry in medicine and biology. M., 1951

16. Borisov Yu.Ya., Makarov L.O. Ultrasound in technology of the present and future. USSR Academy of Sciences, M., 1960

17. Born M. Atomic physics. M., 1965

18. Bruening G. Physics and application of secondary electron emission

19. Vavilov S.I. About “hot” and “cold” light. M., Knowledge, 1959

20. Weinberg D.V., Pisarenko G.S. Mechanical vibrations and their role in technology. M., 1958

21. Weisberger A. Physical methods in organic chemistry. T.

22. Vasiliev B.I. Optics of polarizing devices. M., 1969

23. Vasiliev L.L., Konev S.V. Heat transfer tubes. Minsk, Science and Technology, 1972

24. Venikov V.A., Zuev E.N., Okolotin V.S. Superconductivity in energy. M., Energy, 1972

25. Vereshchagin I.K. Electroluminescence of crystals. M., Nauka, 1974

26. Volkenshtein M.V. Molecular Optics, 1951

27. Volkenshtein F.F. Semiconductors as catalysts for chemical reactions. M., Knowledge, 1974

28. Volkenshtein F.F., Radical-recombination luminescence of semiconductors. M., Nauka, 1976

29. Vonsovsky S.V. Magnetism. M., Nauka, 1971

30. Voronchev T.A., Sobolev V.D. Physical Basics electrovacuum technology. M., 1967

31. Garkunov D.N. Selective transfer in friction units. M., Transport, 1969

32. Geguzin Ya.E. Essays on diffusion in crystals. M., Nauka, 1974

33. Geilikman B.T. Statistical physics of phase transitions. M., 1954

34. Ginzburg V.L. The problem of high temperature superconductivity. Collection "The Future of Science" M., Znanie, 1969

35. Govorkov V.A. Electrical and magnetic fields. M., Energy, 1968

36. Goldelii G. Application of thermoelectricity. M., FM, 1963

37. Goldansky V.I. Moesbauer effect and its

application in chemistry. USSR Academy of Sciences, M., 1964

38. Gorelik G.S. Oscillations and waves. M., 1950

39. Granovsky V.L. Electric current in gases. T.I, M., Gostekhizdat, 1952, vol.II, M., Science, 1971

40. Grinman I.G., Bakhtaev Sh.A. Gas discharge micrometers. Alma-Ata, 1967

41. Gubkin A.N. Physics of dielectrics. M., 1971

42. Gulia N.V. Revived energy. Science and Life, No. 7, 1975

43. De Boer F. Dynamic nature of adsorption. M., IL, 1962

44. De Groot S.R. Thermodynamics of irreversible processes. M., 1956

45. Denisyuk Yu.N. Images of the outside world. Nature, No. 2, 1971

46. Deribere M. Practical Application infrared rays. M.-L., 1959

47. Deryagin B.V. What is friction? M., 1952

48. Ditchburn R. Physical optics. M., 1965

49. Dobretsov L.N., Gomoyunova M.V. Emission electronics. M., 1966

50. Dorofeev A.L. Eddy currents. M., Energy, 1977

51. Dorfman Ya.G. Magnetic properties and structure of matter. M., Gostekhizdat, 1955

52. Elyashevich M.A. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy. M., 1962

53. Zhevandrov N.D. Polarization of light. M., Nauka, 1969

54. Zhevandrov N.D. Anisotropy and optics. M., Nauka, 1974

55. Zheludev I.S. Physics of dielectric crystals. M., 1966

56. Zhukovsky N.E. About water hammer in water taps. M.-L., 1949

57. Zayt V. Diffusion in metals. M., 1958

58. Zaydel A.N. Fundamentals of spectral analysis. M., 1965

59. Zeldovich Ya.B., Raiser Yu.P. Physics shock waves and high-temperature hydrodynamic phenomena. M., 1963

60. Zilberman G.E. Electricity and magnetism, M., Nauka, 1970

61. Knowledge is power. No. 11, 1969

62. "Ilyukovich A.M. Hall effect and its application in measuring technology. J. Measuring technology, No. 7, 1960

63. Ios G. Course theoretical physics. M., Uchpedgiz, 1963

64. Ioffe A.F. Semiconductor thermoelements. M., 1963

65. Kaganov M.I., Natsik V.D. Electrons slow down dislocation. Nature, No. 5.6, 1976

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The use of semiconductors in electronics has come a long way - from the first detector on a lead sulphide crystal to modern microcomputers. This result was achieved thanks to the success of technology, which, in turn, relies on physical electronics. Nowadays, the development of micro- and nanoelectronics is continuously stimulated by advances in the field of semiconductor physics and in the field of production technology of new semiconductor structures.

By the very meaning of the words, physical electronics is the science that deals with the study and use of flows of moving electrons that generate electric current. Or, as it is customary to call the science that studies the electronic properties of certain solids, as well as methods for obtaining materials with such characteristics that make it possible to create devices for the transfer and accumulation of electrons. In this case, not any materials are considered, but only semiconductors whose characteristics are interesting from the point of view of technical applications.

Goals

The discipline “Physical Foundations of Electronics” belongs to the group of natural science disciplines and its goal is to study the physics of electrical phenomena in solids. Special attention focuses on the basics band theory solids, physical mechanisms and mathematical description of the basic (electrical, thermal, optical and magnetic) properties of equilibrium, nonequilibrium semiconductors, peculiarities of contacts of various substances, surface states of solids. Various physical effects, as well as their use in various devices and elements.

Formed competencies

As a result of studying the discipline, students must

fundamentals of the theory of solids,

physical mechanisms and mathematical descriptions basic (electrical, thermal, optical, magnetic) properties of equilibrium semiconductors,

physical mechanisms and mathematical descriptions of the basic (electrical, thermal, optical, magnetic) properties of nonequilibrium semiconductors,

physical mechanisms and mathematical descriptions of the basic properties of contacts of various substances,

physical mechanisms and mathematical descriptions of surface states of solids.

experimentally investigate the properties of semiconductor materials and structures,

use basic techniques for processing experimental data,

carry out information search on the properties and use of various physical effects in electronics,

solve problems of estimating the parameters of physical processes and properties of solids,

use mathematical methods in technical applications.

skills to work with electronic devices and equipment used to study the characteristics and measure parameters of devices,

methods for calculating the main parameters of semiconductor materials and structures.

Physical effect and its components

Definition of physical effect

To ensure an unambiguous interpretation of the concept of a physical effect, the following definition has been adopted: a physical effect is a pattern of manifestation of the results of the interaction of objects of the material world, carried out through physical fields. In this case, the pattern of manifestation is characterized by consistency and repeatability with the identity of the interaction.

We will consider all physical fields and their modifications as influences in isolation from the material objects from which they emanate.

The impact is always directed at some material object (hereinafter simply “object”), which can be a separate element or a set of interrelated elements that form a certain structure. Thus, objects can include: systems of macrobodies (including parts of devices, mechanisms, etc.), macrobodies ( solid, liquid, crystal, etc.), molecule, atom, parts of atoms and molecules, particles, etc.

The results of the impact are the effects that appear on objects (or in the space surrounding them) to which certain impacts are directed. The results of the impact are the same physical fields that relate to impacts. This determines the relationship between PV, which is used in technical objects. The impact results also include measurements of object parameters (size, shape, dielectric constant, etc.). When the interaction conditions and properties of the object are constant, the same results of influence appear.

In Fig. Figure 1 shows a diagram of the representation of a separate FE, where A is the impact, B is the physical object that is affected, C is the result of the impact (effect). A schematic representation of FE allows you to visually represent the physical processes occurring during the interaction of material objects, including technical objects.

Rice. 1. PV block diagram

At the heart of any production process, any research method there is some kind of physical effect. The number of physical effects discovered during the existence of our civilization is only about 1000. The totality of all known physical effects forms the subject of physics.

In the methodological literature there are many descriptions of how new physical effects are discovered. But, as a rule, this is written by people who have not discovered a single new physical effect, and therefore these descriptions do not quite correspond to how this actually happens.

The vast majority of physical effects are discovered by chance. For example, there is a need to use in practice a well-known pattern given in textbooks. And when taking measurements, instead of confirming it, we suddenly see something unexpected and unknown to anyone. And it’s been so good for a long time, almost since school days, that the known pattern, in fact, turns out to be a purely hypothetical construction... I’ve been seeing this for more than 40 years now, and I’m ready to show it with examples.

Correct and reliable knowledge suitable for practical use can only be obtained as a result of measurements, some kind of testing... In a word, with the help of empirics, experiment. Not with the help of smart conversations, not with the help of mathematics, but exclusively empirically. It often happens that a subject seems so simple and obvious that studying it by special research It’s even somehow inconvenient. And trying to use this knowledge that already exists, we sometimes, completely unwillingly, empirically test it for truth and accidentally discover a new effect.

Newton is credited with saying: “I invent no hypotheses.” In fact, this is some kind of misunderstanding or perhaps an inaccurate translation. Hypotheses are the scaffolding of any scientific construction. Without hypotheses there can be no scientific work. Most likely, Newton meant that he does not tell hypotheses, does not disclose them until they are proven. Well, that’s right, a hypothesis is an intimate thing, and there’s nothing to talk about it until you’ve checked it. However, a proven hypothesis is no longer a hypothesis, but an element of a theory.

Before starting any work, the researcher does it mentally and assumes what result will be obtained. That is, he works with a hypothesis. If he guessed the result of the study, then the hypothesis was correct. And if not, then perhaps a new physical effect, phenomenon or pattern will be discovered. That is, a new physical effect can be discovered as a result of any research. And always unexpected.

The first reaction to a new physical effect is necessarily negative. Such is the peculiarity of humanity that we are always, at all times, confident that maximum awareness in all areas of knowledge has already been achieved. So it turns out that no one needs the new effect. There is simply no place for it in the currently existing system of knowledge. Everyone knows that knowledge is endless. But very rarely is it referred to as its own field of knowledge. In addition, a new physical effect always cancels out some amount of already familiar knowledge. Well, who, of their own free will, admits A no fallacy own ideas... So a new physical effect is always an unwanted child that bothers everyone. And often, precisely for this reason, immediately after its discovery, attempts begin to refute and destroy it. To do this, they try to “not notice” the detected effect and do everything so that there is no information about it anywhere. Unfortunately, this happens most often. Moreover, what’s amazing is that it is often destroyed by the discoverer himself.

This happened when the discovery was made by my boss, the head of the laboratory in which I worked. I know this because I was his assistant during the experiment. I persuaded him not to destroy the results obtained and the laboratory installation itself. It was about something in the realm of destruction rocks. I did it, maybe even too harshly. I proved to him that the effect he discovered was perhaps the only meaning of his life. And when he passes away, this will be the only thing left of him. Naturally, he was offended and said that he did not want to be beaten the same way as me. And if the members of the Academic Council (he was going to defend doctoral dissertation) will understand that he knows more than they do, then he will definitely be defeated in defense.

In fact, as I later found out, there was another reason. Scientists holding a position higher than a junior research fellow are not appointed to the position, but are elected, and then re-elected every few years. They cannot be fired from their jobs, but they may not be re-elected. And since this is done collegially, it is impossible to appeal. Failure to be re-elected is a sword of Damocles for them. For any irregularity in behavior, for a sidelong glance towards the Owner... Well, and even an independent discovery, without the permission of the rector, and even without his participation... This does not fit into any framework at all...

Unfortunately, our attitude towards science is such that the main requirement for a dissertation is the absence of anything new in it. So, everything that happens around the discoveries is, in general, logical.

Young people who get into science naturally strive to improve their status, not knowing that as soon as they become employees elected by the Academic Council, they will lose the right to independence and, in general, to their own opinion. And they will march like little girls in formation under the watchful eye of their superiors...

Well, he never defended his dissertation, which my boss took 15 years to complete, because he left for the Other World. And he took with him an effect that may never be discovered.

Yes, they beat me hard for the discoveries that I happened to make. But sooner or later I will also leave, and people will ALWAYS use the effects that I discovered.

Often they try to force a person who discovers a new effect out of the organization in which he works and prevent publication of the discovery. This is my option. And the fact that my bosses failed to either force me out or ban publication is not their fault.

It happens when a person who has discovered an effect is convinced that no one needs this discovery, and inhibits its acceptance. This is about Lord Kelvin, who discovered the electrical oscillatory system ( L-C contour), which, without exaggeration, changed the direction of development of our civilization. Lord Kelvin was convinced of the futility of this discovery, and strongly objected to the scientific community spending funds on the study of physics L-C contour. This is normal, by the way. The significance of a new physical effect is usually not immediately perceived.

It happens when a discovered effect turns out to be very necessary, but its physics is incomprehensible. I don’t remember a real scientist admitting that he doesn’t understand something. And then they involve mathematics. Professional mathematicians create a fairly complex mathematical text, which, of course, has nothing to do with the physics of the discovered phenomenon, but is so complex that it is easier to accept it than to understand it.

This, for example, happened with quartz. The quartz effect was discovered in 1917, no one began to understand its physics, and since then the science of quartz has been developing. The mathematical apparatus proposed at the very beginning is becoming more complicated all the time, but it still has nothing to do with the physics of quartz. The funny thing is that nothing can be learned directly about quartz from this mathematics. Even about the relationship between the thickness of a quartz plate and the frequency of quartz, which is key point during their manufacture.

So it turns out that the principle of operation of the most necessary element of electronics, without which almost nothing can do electronic device, was still unknown.

This is called scientism. We live in a world of scientism, where the essence does not matter. It is successfully replaced by apparent knowledge, clothed in ringing meaningless phrases, often as if supported by cool mathematics. Many departments contain a mathematician whose duty is to create mathematical text for dissertations. Well, yes, everything is correct, because there are even standards that indicate the amount of “mathematical text” required for a dissertation. In my opinion, this expression speaks for itself. By the way, I witnessed a comical situation when a mathematician was fired because he wrote the same mathematical text to all applicants and on all subjects for many years.

I've been very unlucky in life. I have never met mathematicians or mathematical work aimed at normal scientific work. No, only for the production of science. This may not be the case in all areas of knowledge, but in seismic exploration, construction and mining science, this is a 100% situation.

By the way, I am very interested in communicating with theoretical physicists. To be considered a theorist in a field that, by definition, is a body of empirics, you must agree, is possible only with a complete lack of a sense of humor.

Well, as an example, I’ll give you some information from that most difficult time for me.

1st effect

When I discovered my first physical effect (in 1977), I was convinced that it could not exist. And my colleagues were of the same opinion, and they strongly recommended that I not engage in nonsense. That's how it was.

My task was to determine the attenuation of sound (the field of elastic vibrations) as it propagates along a rock layer overlying a coal seam (naturally, in a coal mine), depending on the disturbance of the layer and the frequency of the sounding signal. According to the initial, initial hypothesis, with increasing destruction and fracturing of rocks, sound attenuation in the layer under study should increase, and this should correspond to an increase in the probability of collapse of the rock layer, which leads to injury to miners located under this rock layer.

It was assumed that by determining this dependence, it would be possible to determine the probability of rock layer collapse based on the magnitude of the attenuation of the field of elastic vibrations. In other words, predict an emergency situation.

The initial hypothesis and, in general, the entire initial premise of this study seemed quite obvious and logical, and I began to complete the task.

Figure 1 shows the experimental design.

It was imagined that the field excited by the piezo emitter would propagate within the rock layer of thickness h- this is the so-called direct roof, which collapses first. This hypothesis was confirmed in the experiment, and everything that subsequently turned out belonged precisely to this layer.

Initially, everything looked extremely simple and unambiguous. However, when it was necessary to make the equipment, the question arose at what frequency the radiation from the field of elastic vibrations should occur. No recommendations on this matter could be found in any literature.

Rice. 1

Then it was decided to study the dependence of attenuation on the frequency of the probing signal.

A sinusoidal voltage generator with varying frequency was used as a source exciting the piezoceramic emitter. Theoretical works on seismic exploration indicate that above one kilohertz the signal does not propagate in rocks at all. The confidence in this is so great that even seismic stations are made for frequencies not exceeding 1 kHz. But just in case, in our measuring setup the frequency range was set from 20Hz to 20kHz.

The emitting and receiving piezoceramics (piezoelectric transducers) were identical in design; they were in contact with the roof at a distance of approximately 5 m from each other.

Figure 2 shows graphs of the amplifier readings I from frequency f . It was assumed that the dependencies I (f ) will be geometrically similar to the graphs 1 And 2 , and at the same time the difference between the graphs 1 And 2 determined by the fact that measurements will be carried out in two different mine workings, differing in the level of rock disturbance. True, it was not clear how to determine the level of disturbance of the rocks. But, as it turned out, this was not necessary.

Rice. 2

Such dependence ( 1 And 2 ) seemed completely obvious. As it seemed, in a fractured medium (and the material of the rock layer overlying the coal seam, in theory, cannot be different), with increasing frequency the attenuation cannot but increase.

However, the actual result had nothing in common with what was expected. The resulting dependence is shown in the graph 3 . The extremum had a maximum at the frequency f 0≈1kHz. How to treat this result and what does this graph shape mean?

The point is that the shape of the graph 3 is geometrically similar to the spectral image of the characteristics of an electric oscillatory system ( L-C oscillatory circuit), and in addition, this is exactly what the spectral image of a damped sinusoid looks like. And it is precisely this signal that is obtained as a result of impact on both the oscillatory circuit and the rock layer. So, what happens... That a plane-parallel structure made of sandstone (namely sandstone with a thickness (thickness) h=2.5m and lay in the roof at in this case) exhibited the property of an oscillatory system?!... But such a result, in principle, seemed incredible.

To discover a previously unknown oscillatory system at the end of the twentieth century... This could not have happened. Seismic exploration had already existed for almost 80 years at this point. So, after so many years, no one noticed this?... Well, okay, this may just have its own explanation. If seismic exploration was carried out by people who were not familiar with the branch of mathematics called spectral-temporal s transformations (and geophysicists are not really taught this branch of mathematics), then even having received a similar result, they might not recognize the oscillatory system.

Yes, if I had not had a radio engineering education, even having received such a result, I would not have recognized the oscillatory system. I have come across publications that provide a similar frequency response. But the extremum in the frequency response was not interpreted in any way. Even as evidence of a violation of the law of conservation of energy...

But, in the end, even if everything is so, then a plane-parallel structure made of a homogeneous monolithic material still cannot turn out to be an oscillatory system. The fact is that an oscillatory system is an object that must have a mechanism for converting the impact into a sinusoidal response. Tuning fork, spring, pendulum, L-C circuit - they all have this mechanism, and it is well known.

In a plate made of a homogeneous medium, such a mechanism is not visible. In this case, the response to an impact should, in theory, be a sequence of short pulses with decreasing amplitude, but not a sinusoid. As, in fact, it is described in all textbooks. (Another example of an obvious but untested hypothesis?)

But, despite this doubt, since the presence of an oscillatory system is confirmed by metrologically correct measurements, its existence should be recognized. In the end, you never know what we don’t understand...

It seemed logical to call an oscillatory system of this type an elastic oscillatory system, since it manifests itself when it is irradiated by a field of elastic oscillations.

Further consequences of this effect are sufficiently described in the publications already made, and, in particular, in the book.

2nd effect

The effect described above had a happy fate. It began to be used immediately after its discovery. A relationship was found between the resulting impact frequency spectrum seismic signal and the structure of the earth's strata, and on the basis of this, a research methodology began to be developed, which was later called spectral seismic exploration. In particular, in accordance with Fig. 3, knowing the frequency of the sinusoid resulting from the impact, it became possible to determine the power of the immediate roof h , which was previously impossible to do without drilling. This information turned out to be key in creating a methodology for predicting the stability of the roof of a coal seam.

However, the lack of understanding of the mechanism for converting shock into a sinusoidal response was a time bomb. And finally, after 4 years it worked.

I then had to transfer the equipment and methods for predicting the stability of the roof to the mine geologists. This equipment was an implementation of the 1st effect. The purpose of the equipment is to increase the safety of miners. But it was achieved by using a method that cannot exist. It shouldn’t be... And I was simply horrified by the thought that under some circumstances this illegal effect might not work, and instead of increasing safety, we would get an increase in danger. One mistake can cost a person's life. So what should I do then? Hanging himself?

And I refused to transfer the equipment to the mines. At least until I understand the physics of this effect. The scandal was universal. The transfer of equipment was already packed into some plans. No one listened or heard me anymore. And somehow all this affected me in such a way that I suddenly understood something that I could not understand for more than four years.

The logical line that dawned on me now seems so simple and banal to me that I’m even embarrassed to admit that I couldn’t come to it for so many years. Well, see for yourself what she is.

I had already established by so many methods the presence of a damped sinusoid during impact on resonator objects that I simply had no right to doubt it. On the other hand, in an ideally homogeneous material there certainly cannot be a mechanism for converting a shock into a sinusoid. But what is important for us is not just the heterogeneity of the environment, but its acoustic heterogeneity. But can a homogeneous solid medium have inhomogeneous acoustic characteristics? What do we know about acoustic characteristics except for the speed of propagation of the front of the field of elastic vibrations? You simply can’t measure anything else. This means that it remains to assume that the speed of field propagation at all points of the resonator object should not be the same. I thought and got scared. Well, just think about it, is it possible that in a monolithic homogeneous medium, such as, say, glass, the speed at all points of such a glass object may not be the same...

No, of course this cannot be. But I was already beaten by such obvious things. And he understood that if a hypothesis arose, then no matter how impossible it was, it must be tested. When I told my colleagues about what was tormenting me, they were afraid for my sanity. And I understood them well.

But that’s how it turned out. Indeed, the speed of propagation of the front of elastic vibrations in resonator objects is not the same throughout the entire volume. In my other articles I described how to check this and how to find out. So I won't describe it here. But when I finally proved experimentally that the speed of field propagation near the boundaries gradually decreases as the front approaches the boundaries, it was then that I finally realized that this cannot be.

It was easy to prove that a decrease in speed near the boundaries is a condition for the presence of a mechanism for transforming the impact into a sinusoid. The fact is that there are materials in which the speed is constant at all points of the objects. And the transformation of the shock into a sinusoid does not occur in such materials. This is, for example, plexiglass (plexiglass). In the case of a short impact on an object made of plexiglass, the reaction takes the form of short pulses damping in amplitude, and not a sinusoid.

And thus, objects made of glass (as well as metal, ceramic, and rocks) are resonators, and objects made of plexiglass are non-resonators. The reason for the acoustic difference between glass and plexiglass is also unclear to me, but, in the end, this is a property different materials, and this point does not need anyone's understanding. But the change in speed itself in glass, etc. objects (that is, in resonator objects) occur can't.

Well, simply, from the law of conservation of momentum. No change in speed can occur / propagation of something without an influx of energy. Figure 3 shows a diagram of field propagation in resonator objects.

Rice. 3

When a resonator plate is sounded, the speed of propagation of the field of elastic vibrations in the middle part of the plate thickness h is constant and equal maximum value wave front propagation speed V fr.max. , and in near-surface zones Δ h the front speed decreases as the front approaches the surface. Average, measured speed Vfr. mid depends on the ratio h And Δ h , and in thick plates, with h»Δh V fr.mid. the measured speed tends to V fr.max. In thin resonator plates, the speed of the front movement may not reach the value V fr.max. For example, if in thick steel plates (about, say, 20mm) V fr.mid. ≈V fr.max.≈ 6000m/s, then in 1.5mm thick plates of the same material average speed decreases to 1500m/s.

In general, these moments (which can sometimes last for years), when measurements say one thing, but one hundred percent certainty says something completely different, are not for the faint of heart. Well, imagine that based on measurements you saw that the speed of front propagation in such a homogeneous material as glass is not the same in different points object... In principle, such problems are usually solved with the help of brainstorming, when the topic is discussed not by one person, but by several colleagues who have approximately the same understanding of the subject. Unfortunately, I did not have such an opportunity, and I suffered all these 40 years alone.

The only time a brainstorming took place was when I told one company about this problem about the impossibility of changing speed in Δ zones h. And then a method of a fundamentally different measurement of speed was proposed, as a result of which it turned out that the speed really Not varies in size. It is in the near-surface zones Δ h changes, but not in size, but in direction(!!), and at the same time changes in size x-component (see Fig. 3), which I previously perceived not as the magnitude of the projection of speed onto the axis x, but as the value of the full speed.

But this means that the zones Δ h arise as a result of the fact that during normal (at right angles) sounding of the resonator layers, a tangential field component arises, which is categorically contrary to classical theory fields of elastic vibrations.

I have long ceased to care about the discrepancy between experimental results and the generally accepted theory of the field of elastic oscillations. Since I became convinced that not a single position of this theory could be proven experimentally, it became clear to me that this is not a theory at all, but just a set of hypotheses.

By the way, about that brainstorming. Those people who participated in it, later, when I needed them to confirm that my statements were not a figment of my sick imagination, but correspond to reality, refused to even acknowledge their communication with me. I, of course, expressed to them my attitude towards them. But he was wrong. Because the very fact of their communication with me would cost them their jobs, and certainly their positions.

Yes, and more. I tried to consult experts in the field of solid media physics about this effect. After all, in theory, if in zones Δ h speed differs from the speed outside this zone, then the near-surface layer of materials that make up the resonator objects should have some difference from the same material, but far from the boundary... Alas, as it turned out, this area of knowledge is the same like seismic exploration, it does not have a single experimental confirmation of their mathematical calculations. Okay, let's get by...

I would like to show here that the direction of scientific research is determined not by our intentions and even (alas!) not by the plans of our leadership, but exclusively by those questions that arise when solving specific tasks. And happy is the one who can afford to completely obey only the requirements of scientific research. Thus, having discovered that during normal sounding of resonator plates a tangential component of the field arises, I was forced to study the formation and propagation of this tangential field, despite the strongest objections of my scientific and administrative leadership.

Having assembled an installation for normal sounding of a resonator plate with a field of elastic vibrations varying in frequency, I discovered that at the natural frequency of this resonator the primary field is reoriented in the orthogonal direction. This effect was called acoustic resonant absorption (ARA), by analogy with the known resonant absorption of other types of fields...

As is known from the philosophy course (section “methodology of development scientific knowledge"), a simple experiment can turn out to be the gravedigger of any mathematized, time-honored hypothesis. An example of this was the ARP effect, which proved that the field of elastic vibrations in the earth's strata does not propagate across the bedding, but along it, as a result of which the final end to traditional seismic exploration as such was put to rest.

According to the methodology of scientific knowledge, each new physical effect is the basis of a new research method, which is a source of fundamentally new information. Fundamentally new information- This is a new physical effect. And thus, if the scientist is not disturbed, he will be the author of not one, but a whole chain of physical effects. Let's call this chain a chain of the first kind.

Based on my own experience, I can say that there is another chain of physical effects (of the second kind), which arises as a result of attempts to unravel the physics of a new effect. Here, within the framework of this short narrative, you can see chains of both kinds.

The central, primary effect is the detection of elastic oscillatory systems. This discovery was made at the boundary between the physics of the field of elastic vibrations and radio engineering (electrical engineering). The chain of the first kind is a method of spectral seismic exploration and the discovery with its help of a new, previously unknown geological object - zones of tectonic disturbances, and, as a continuation of this chain, the discovery of a number of previously unknown remarkable properties of these zones.

The same central effect gave rise to a chain of the second kind. This is the difference in front speed in homogeneous environments resonator objects, then, the ARP effect, and the division of the field of elastic oscillations into two parts - real and imaginary - that follows from this effect.

In the life of any person there is a time to learn, then there comes a time to do something on your own and, if you are lucky, create new knowledge, and then there comes a time to pass on what you have done to a new generation. I have now entered the third stage. Everything says so. So much has been done that it is impossible to talk about it not only in such a small article, but also in a whole book.

At the first stage, I had a wonderful and huge school, where it was only important not to resist and absorb everything from all my wonderful teachers.

When the second stage came, new knowledge poured out on its own absolutely independently of me. Each new experiment, each new study provided new information.

Knowledge is endless, and in order to ensure the further development of the science of the field of elastic vibrations, I must concentrate all my remaining strength on passing on my knowledge to future generations.

LITERATURE

Glikman A.G. Fundamentals of spectral seismic exploration. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, 232pp. (2013-12-29)
Glikman A.G.

Everything that surrounds us: both living and inanimate nature, is in constant movement and continuously changes: planets and stars move, it rains, trees grow. And a person, as is known from biology, constantly goes through some stages of development. Grinding grains into flour, falling a stone, boiling water, lightning, glowing a light bulb, dissolving sugar in tea, movement vehicles, lightning, rainbows are examples of physical phenomena.

And with substances (iron, water, air, salt, etc.) various changes or phenomena occur. The substance can be crystallized, melted, crushed, dissolved and again isolated from solution. However, its composition will remain the same.

So, granulated sugar can be crushed into a powder so fine that the slightest breath will cause it to rise into the air like dust. Sugar grains can only be seen under a microscope. Sugar can be divided into even smaller parts by dissolving it in water. If you evaporate water from a sugar solution, the sugar molecules again combine with each other to form crystals. But even when dissolved in water or when crushed, sugar remains sugar.

In nature, water forms rivers and seas, clouds and glaciers. When water evaporates, it turns into steam. Water vapor is water in gaseous state. When exposed to low temperatures (below 0˚C), water turns into a solid state - turns into ice. The smallest particle of water is a water molecule. A water molecule is also the smallest particle of steam or ice. Water, ice and steam are not different substances, but the same substance (water) in different states of aggregation.

Like water, other substances can be transferred from one state of aggregation to another.

When characterizing a substance as a gas, liquid or solid, we mean the state of the substance under normal conditions. Any metal can not only be melted (transformed into a liquid state), but also turned into gas. But this requires very high temperatures. In the outer shell of the Sun, metals are in a gaseous state, because the temperature there is 6000˚C. And, for example, carbon dioxide by cooling it can be turned into “dry ice”.

Phenomena in which there is no transformation of one substance into another are classified as physical phenomena. Physical phenomena can lead to a change, for example, in the state of aggregation or temperature, but the composition of substances will remain the same.

All physical phenomena can be divided into several groups.

Mechanical phenomena are phenomena that occur with physical bodies when they move relative to each other (the revolution of the Earth around the Sun, the movement of cars, the flight of a parachutist).

Electrical phenomena are phenomena that occur with the appearance, existence, movement and interaction of electric charges (electric current, telegraphy, lightning during a thunderstorm).

Magnetic phenomena are phenomena associated with the appearance of magnetic properties in physical bodies (the attraction of iron objects by a magnet, turning the compass needle to the north).

Optical phenomena are phenomena that occur during the propagation, refraction and reflection of light (rainbows, mirages, reflection of light from a mirror, the appearance of shadows).

Thermal phenomena are phenomena that occur during heating and cooling of physical bodies (melting snow, boiling water, fog, freezing of water).

Atomic phenomena are phenomena that occur when internal structure substances of physical bodies (glow of the Sun and stars, atomic explosion).

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Physical phenomena. About logical lines that make it possible to detect new physical effects

List of physical effects and phenomena

List of references to the array of physical effects and phenomena

Formed competencies

Physical effect and its components

Definition of physical effect