What electric currents exist on earth. Electricity

First of all, it is worth finding out what electric current is. Electricity is the ordered movement of charged particles in a conductor. For it to arise, an electric field must first be created, under the influence of which the above-mentioned charged particles will begin to move.

The first knowledge of electricity, many centuries ago, related to electrical “charges” produced through friction. Already in ancient times, people knew that amber, rubbed with wool, acquired the ability to attract light objects. But only at the end of the 16th century, the English physician Gilbert studied this phenomenon in detail and found out that many other substances had exactly the same properties. Bodies that, like amber, can attract light objects after rubbing, he called electrified. This word is derived from the Greek electron - “amber”. Currently, we say that bodies in this state have electrical charges, and the bodies themselves are called “charged.”

Electrical charges always arise from close contact various substances. If the bodies are solid, then their close contact is prevented by microscopic protrusions and irregularities that are present on their surface. By squeezing such bodies and rubbing them against each other, we bring together their surfaces, which without pressure would only touch at a few points. In some bodies, electrical charges can move freely between different parts, but in others this is not possible. In the first case, the bodies are called “conductors”, and in the second - “dielectrics, or insulators”. All metals are conductors aqueous solutions salts and acids, etc. Examples of insulators include amber, quartz, ebonite and all gases found under normal conditions.

Nevertheless, it should be noted that the division of bodies into conductors and dielectrics is very arbitrary. All substances conduct electricity to a greater or lesser extent. Electric charges are positive and negative. This kind of current will not last long, because the electrified body will run out of charge. For the continued existence of an electric current in a conductor, it is necessary to maintain an electric field. For these purposes, electric current sources are used. The simplest case of the occurrence of electric current is when one end of the wire is connected to an electrified body, and the other to the ground.

Electrical circuits supplying current to light bulbs and electric motors did not appear until the invention of batteries, which dates back to around 1800. After this, the development of the doctrine of electricity went so quickly that in less than a century it became not just a part of physics, but formed the basis of a new electrical civilization.

Basic quantities of electric current

Amount of electricity and current. The effects of electric current can be strong or weak. The strength of the electric current depends on the amount of charge that flows through the circuit in a certain unit of time. The more electrons moved from one pole of the source to the other, the greater the total charge transferred by the electrons. This net charge is called the amount of electricity passing through a conductor.

In particular, the chemical effect of electric current depends on the amount of electricity, i.e., the greater the charge passed through the electrolyte solution, the more substance will be deposited on the cathode and anode. In this regard, the amount of electricity can be calculated by weighing the mass of the substance deposited on the electrode and knowing the mass and charge of one ion of this substance.

Current strength is a quantity that is equal to the ratio of the electric charge passing through the cross section of the conductor to the time of its flow. The unit of charge is the coulomb (C), time is measured in seconds (s). In this case, the unit of current is expressed in C/s. This unit is called ampere (A). In order to measure the current in a circuit, an electrical measuring device called an ammeter is used. For inclusion in the circuit, the ammeter is equipped with two terminals. It is connected in series to the circuit.

Electrical voltage. We already know that electric current is the ordered movement of charged particles - electrons. This movement is created using an electric field, which does a certain amount of work. This phenomenon is called the work of electric current. In order to move a larger charge along an electric circuit in 1 s, the electric field must perform great job. Based on this, it turns out that the work of electric current should depend on the strength of the current. But there is one more value on which the work of the current depends. This quantity is called voltage.

Voltage is the ratio of the work done by the current in a certain section of an electrical circuit to the charge flowing through the same section of the circuit. Current work is measured in joules (J), charge - in coulombs (C). In this regard, the unit of measurement for voltage will be 1 J/C. This unit was called the volt (V).

In order for voltage to arise in an electrical circuit, a current source is needed. When the circuit is open, voltage is present only at the terminals of the current source. If this current source is included in the circuit, voltage will also arise in individual sections of the circuit. In this regard, a current will appear in the circuit. That is, we can briefly say the following: if there is no voltage in the circuit, there is no current. In order to measure voltage, an electrical measuring instrument called a voltmeter is used. to his appearance it resembles the previously mentioned ammeter, with the only difference being that the letter V is written on the voltmeter scale (instead of A on the ammeter). The voltmeter has two terminals, with the help of which it is connected in parallel to the electrical circuit.

Electrical resistance. After connecting various conductors and an ammeter to the electrical circuit, you can notice that when using different conductors, the ammeter gives different readings, i.e. in this case, the current strength available in the electrical circuit is different. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that different conductors have different electrical resistance, which is a physical quantity. It was named Ohm in honor of the German physicist. As a rule, larger units are used in physics: kilo-ohm, mega-ohm, etc. The resistance of a conductor is usually denoted by the letter R, the length of the conductor is L, and the cross-sectional area is S. In this case, the resistance can be written as a formula:

R = r * L/S

where the coefficient p is called resistivity. This coefficient expresses the resistance of a conductor 1 m long with a cross-sectional area equal to 1 m2. Specific resistance is expressed in Ohms x m. Since wires, as a rule, have a rather small cross-section, their areas are usually expressed in square millimeters. In this case, the unit of resistivity will be Ohm x mm2/m. In the table below. Figure 1 shows the resistivities of some materials.

According to the table. 1 it becomes clear that copper has the lowest electrical resistivity, and metal alloy has the highest. In addition, dielectrics (insulators) have high resistivity.

Electrical capacity. We already know that two conductors isolated from each other can accumulate electrical charges. This phenomenon is characterized by a physical quantity called electrical capacitance. The electrical capacitance of two conductors is nothing more than the ratio of the charge of one of them to the potential difference between this conductor and the neighboring one. The lower the voltage when the conductors receive a charge, the greater their capacity. The unit of electrical capacitance is the farad (F). In practice, fractions of this unit are used: microfarad (μF) and picofarad (pF).

If you take two conductors isolated from each other and place them at a short distance from one another, you will get a capacitor. The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the thickness of its plates and the thickness of the dielectric and its permeability. By reducing the thickness of the dielectric between the plates of the capacitor, the capacitance of the latter can be significantly increased. On all capacitors, in addition to their capacity, the voltage for which these devices are designed must be indicated.

Work and power of electric current. From the above it is clear that electric current does some work. When connecting electric motors, the electric current makes all kinds of equipment work, moves trains along the rails, illuminates the streets, heats the home, and also produces a chemical effect, i.e., allows electrolysis, etc. We can say that the work done by the current on a certain section of the circuit is equal to the product current, voltage and time during which the work was performed. Work is measured in joules, voltage in volts, current in amperes, time in seconds. In this regard, 1 J = 1B x 1A x 1s. From this it turns out that in order to measure the work of electric current, three instruments should be used at once: an ammeter, a voltmeter and a clock. But this is cumbersome and ineffective. Therefore, the work of electric current is usually measured with electric meters. This device contains all of the above devices.

The power of the electric current is equal to the ratio of the work of the current to the time during which it was performed. Power is designated by the letter “P” and is expressed in watts (W). In practice, kilowatts, megawatts, hectowatts, etc. are used. In order to measure the power of the circuit, you need to take a wattmeter. Electrical engineers express the work of current in kilowatt-hours (kWh).

Basic laws of electric current

Ohm's law. Voltage and current are considered the most useful characteristics of electrical circuits. One of the main features of the use of electricity is the rapid transportation of energy from one place to another and its transfer to the consumer in the required form. The product of the potential difference and the current gives power, i.e., the amount of energy given off in the circuit per unit time. As mentioned above, to measure the power in an electrical circuit, 3 devices would be needed. Is it possible to get by with just one and calculate the power from its readings and some characteristic of the circuit, such as its resistance? Many people liked this idea and found it fruitful.

So what is the resistance of a wire or circuit as a whole? Does a wire, like water pipes or vacuum system pipes, have a permanent property that could be called resistance? For example, in pipes, the ratio of the pressure difference producing flow divided by the flow rate is usually a constant characteristic of the pipe. Likewise, heat flow in a wire is governed by a simple relationship involving the temperature difference, the cross-sectional area of ​​the wire, and its length. The discovery of such a relationship for electrical circuits was the result of a successful search.

In the 1820s, German school teacher Georg Ohm was the first to begin searching for the above-mentioned relationship. First of all, he strived for fame and fame, which would allow him to teach at the university. That is why he chose an area of ​​research that promised special advantages.

Om was the son of a mechanic, so he knew how to draw metal wire of different thicknesses, which he needed for experiments. Since it was impossible to buy suitable wire in those days, Om made it himself. During his experiments, he tried different lengths, different thicknesses, different metals and even different temperatures. He varied all these factors one by one. In Ohm's time, batteries were still weak and produced inconsistent current. In this regard, the researcher used a thermocouple as a generator, the hot junction of which was placed in a flame. In addition, he used a crude magnetic ammeter, and measured potential differences (Ohm called them “voltages”) by changing the temperature or the number of thermal junctions.

The study of electrical circuits has just begun to develop. After batteries were invented around 1800, it began to develop much faster. Various devices were designed and manufactured (quite often by hand), new laws were discovered, concepts and terms appeared, etc. All this led to a deeper understanding electrical phenomena and factors.

Updating knowledge about electricity, on the one hand, became the reason for the emergence of a new field of physics, on the other hand, it was the basis for the rapid development of electrical engineering, i.e. batteries, generators, power supply systems for lighting and electric drive, electric furnaces, electric motors, etc. were invented , other.

Ohm's discoveries were of great importance both for the development of the study of electricity and for the development of applied electrical engineering. They made it possible to easily predict the properties of electrical circuits for direct current, and subsequently for alternating current. In 1826, Ohm published a book in which he outlined theoretical conclusions and experimental results. But his hopes were not justified; the book was greeted with ridicule. This happened because the method of crude experimentation seemed unattractive in an era when many were interested in philosophy.

He had no choice but to leave his teaching position. He did not achieve an appointment to the university for the same reason. For 6 years, the scientist lived in poverty, without confidence in the future, experiencing a feeling of bitter disappointment.

But gradually his works gained fame, first outside Germany. Om was respected abroad and benefited from his research. In this regard, his compatriots were forced to recognize him in his homeland. In 1849 he received a professorship at the University of Munich.

Ohm discovered a simple law establishing the relationship between current and voltage for a piece of wire (for part of a circuit, for the entire circuit). In addition, he compiled rules that allow you to determine what will change if you take a wire of a different size. Ohm's law is formulated as follows: the current strength in a section of a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage in this section and inversely proportional to the resistance of the section.

Joule-Lenz law. Electric current in any part of the circuit does some work. For example, let's take any section of the circuit between the ends of which there is a voltage (U). By definition of electric voltage, the work done when moving a unit of charge between two points is equal to U. If the current strength in a given section of the circuit is equal to i, then in time t the charge it will pass, and therefore the work of the electric current in this section will be:

A = Uit

This expression is valid for direct current in any case, for any section of the circuit, which may contain conductors, electric motors, etc. The current power, i.e. work per unit time, is equal to:

P = A/t = Ui

This formula is used in the SI system to determine the unit of voltage.

Let us assume that the section of the circuit is a stationary conductor. In this case, all the work will turn into heat, which will be released in this conductor. If the conductor is homogeneous and obeys Ohm’s law (this includes all metals and electrolytes), then:

U = ir

where r is the conductor resistance. In this case:

A = rt2i

This law was first experimentally deduced by E. Lenz and, independently of him, by Joule.

It should be noted that heating conductors has numerous applications in technology. The most common and important among them are incandescent lighting lamps.

Law of Electromagnetic Induction. In the first half of the 19th century, the English physicist M. Faraday discovered the phenomenon of magnetic induction. This fact, having become the property of many researchers, gave a powerful impetus to the development of electrical and radio engineering.

In the course of experiments, Faraday found out that when the number of magnetic induction lines penetrating a surface bounded by a closed loop changes, an electric current arises in it. This is the basis of perhaps the most important law of physics - the law of electromagnetic induction. The current that occurs in the circuit is called induction. Due to the fact that an electric current arises in a circuit only when free charges are exposed to external forces, then with a changing magnetic flux passing along the surface of a closed circuit, these same external forces appear in it. The action of external forces in physics is called electromotive force or induced emf.

Electromagnetic induction also appears in open conductors. In the case when a conductor crosses magnetic power lines, tension arises at its ends. The reason for the appearance of such voltage is the induced emf. If the magnetic flux passing through a closed loop does not change, no induced current appears.

Using the concept of “induction emf,” we can talk about the law of electromagnetic induction, i.e., the induction emf in a closed loop is equal in magnitude to the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the surface bounded by the loop.

Lenz's rule. As we already know, an induced current arises in a conductor. Depending on the conditions of its appearance, it has a different direction. On this occasion, the Russian physicist Lenz formulated next rule: the induced current arising in a closed circuit always has such a direction that the magnetic field it creates does not allow the magnetic flux to change. All this causes the occurrence of an induction current.

Induction current, like any other, has energy. This means that in the event of an induction current, electrical energy appears. According to the law of conservation and transformation of energy, the above-mentioned energy can only arise due to the amount of energy of some other type of energy. Thus, Lenz's rule fully corresponds to the law of conservation and transformation of energy.

In addition to induction, so-called self-induction can appear in the coil. Its essence is as follows. If a current arises in the coil or its strength changes, a changing magnetic field appears. And if the magnetic flux passing through the coil changes, then an electromotive force appears in it, which is called Self-induced emf.

According to Lenz's rule, the self-inductive emf when closing a circuit interferes with the current strength and prevents it from increasing. When the circuit is turned off, the self-inductive emf reduces the current strength. In the case when the current strength in the coil reaches a certain value, the magnetic field stops changing and the self-induction emf becomes zero.

Directed (ordered) movement of particles, electric charge carriers, in an electromagnetic field.

What is electric current in different substances? Let us take, accordingly, moving particles:

• in metals - electrons,
• in electrolytes - ions (cations and anions),
• in gases - ions and electrons,
• in a vacuum under certain conditions - electrons,
• in semiconductors - holes (electron-hole conductivity).

Sometimes electric current is also called displacement current, which arises as a result of a change in the electric field over time.

Electric current manifests itself as follows:

• heats conductors (the phenomenon is not observed in superconductors);
• changes the chemical composition of the conductor (this phenomenon is primarily characteristic of electrolytes);
• creates a magnetic field (manifests itself in all conductors without exception).

If charged particles move inside macroscopic bodies relative to a particular medium, then such a current is called an electric “conduction current”. If macroscopic charged bodies (for example, charged raindrops) are moving, then this current is called “convection”.

Currents are divided into direct and alternating. There are also all kinds of alternating current. When defining types of current, the word “electric” is omitted.

• D.C- a current whose direction and magnitude do not change over time. There may be a pulsating, for example a rectified variable, which is unidirectional.
• Alternating current- electric current that changes over time. Alternating current refers to any current that is not direct.
• Periodic current- electric current, instantaneous values ​​of which are repeated at regular intervals in an unchanged sequence.
• Sinusoidal current- periodic electric current, which is a sinusoidal function of time. Among alternating currents, the main one is the current whose value varies according to a sinusoidal law. Any periodic non-sinusoidal current can be represented as a combination of sinusoidal harmonic components (harmonics) having corresponding amplitudes, frequencies and initial phases. In this case, the electrostatic potential of each end of the conductor changes in relation to the potential of the other end of the conductor alternately from positive to negative and vice versa, passing through all intermediate potentials (including zero potential). As a result, a current arises that continuously changes direction: when moving in one direction, it increases, reaching a maximum, called the amplitude value, then decreases, at some point becomes equal to zero, then increases again, but in a different direction and also reaches the maximum value , decreases and then passes through zero again, after which the cycle of all changes resumes.
• Quasi-stationary current- a relatively slowly changing alternating current, for instantaneous values ​​of which the laws of direct currents are satisfied with sufficient accuracy. These laws are Ohm's law, Kirchhoff's rules and others. Quasi-stationary current, like direct current, has the same current strength in all sections of an unbranched circuit. When calculating quasi-stationary current circuits due to the emerging e. d.s. inductions of capacitance and inductance are taken into account as lumped parameters. Quasi-stationary are ordinary industrial currents, except for currents in long-distance transmission lines, in which the condition of quasi-stationarity along the line is not satisfied.
• High frequency current- alternating current (starting from a frequency of approximately tens of kHz), for which such phenomena become significant that are either useful, determining its use, or harmful, against which necessary measures are taken, such as radiation electromagnetic waves and skin effect. In addition, if the wavelength of alternating current radiation becomes comparable to the dimensions of the elements of the electrical circuit, then the quasi-stationary condition is violated, which requires special approaches to the calculation and design of such circuits.
• Pulsating current is a periodic electric current, the average value of which over a period is different from zero.
• Unidirectional current- This is an electric current that does not change its direction.

Eddy currents

Eddy currents (or Foucault currents) are closed electric currents in a massive conductor that arise when the magnetic flux penetrating it changes, therefore eddy currents are induction currents. The faster the magnetic flux changes, the stronger the eddy currents. Eddy currents do not flow along specific paths in wires, but when they close in the conductor, they form vortex-like circuits.

The existence of eddy currents leads to the skin effect, that is, to the fact that alternating electric current and magnetic flux propagate mainly in the surface layer of the conductor. Heating of conductors by eddy currents leads to energy losses, especially in the cores of AC coils. To reduce energy losses due to eddy currents, dividing alternating current magnetic circuits into separate plates, isolated from each other and located perpendicular to the direction of the eddy currents, is used, which limits the possible contours of their paths and greatly reduces the magnitude of these currents. At very high frequencies, instead of ferromagnets, magnetodielectrics are used for magnetic circuits, in which, due to the very high resistance, eddy currents practically do not arise.

Characteristics

Historically, it was accepted that the """direction of the current""" coincides with the direction of movement of positive charges in the conductor. Moreover, if the only current carriers are negatively charged particles (for example, electrons in a metal), then the direction of the current is opposite to the direction of movement of the charged particles.

Drift speed of electrons

The drift speed of the directional movement of particles in conductors caused by an external field depends on the material of the conductor, the mass and charge of the particles, the surrounding temperature, the applied potential difference and is much less than the speed of light. In 1 second, electrons in a conductor move due to ordered motion by less than 0.1 mm. Despite this, the speed of propagation of the electric current itself is equal to the speed of light (the speed of propagation of the electromagnetic wave front). That is, the place where the electrons change the speed of their movement after a change in voltage moves with the speed of propagation electromagnetic vibrations.

Current strength and density

Electric current has quantitative characteristics: scalar - current strength, and vector - current density.

Current strength a is a physical quantity, equal to the ratio amount of charge

Past for some time

through the cross section of the conductor, to the value of this period of time.

Current strength in SI is measured in amperes (international and Russian designation: A).

According to Ohm's law, the current strength

in a section of the circuit is directly proportional to the electrical voltage

applied to this section of the circuit, and is inversely proportional to its resistance

If the electric current in a section of the circuit is not constant, then the voltage and current are constantly changing, while for ordinary alternating current the average values ​​of voltage and current are zero. However, the average power of heat released in this case is not equal to zero.

Therefore, the following concepts are used:

• instantaneous voltage and current, that is, acting in this moment time.
• amplitude voltage and current, that is, maximum absolute values
• effective (effective) voltage and current are determined by the thermal effect of the current, that is, they have the same values ​​that they have for direct current with the same thermal effect.

Current Density- a vector whose absolute value is equal to the ratio of the current flowing through a certain cross-section of the conductor, perpendicular to the direction current, to the area of ​​this section, and the direction of the vector coincides with the direction of movement of the positive charges forming the current.

According to Ohm's law in differential form current density in the medium

proportional to the electric field strength

and medium conductivity

Power

When there is current in a conductor, work is done against resistance forces. The electrical resistance of any conductor consists of two components:

• active resistance - resistance to heat generation;
• reactance - resistance caused by the transfer of energy to an electric or magnetic field (and vice versa).

Typically, most of the work done by an electric current is released as heat. The heat loss power is a value equal to the amount of heat released per unit time. According to the Joule-Lenz law, the power of heat loss in a conductor is proportional to the strength of the flowing current and the applied voltage:

Power is measured in watts.

IN continuum volumetric loss power

is determined by the scalar product of the current density vector

and electric field strength vector

at this point:

Volumetric power is measured in watts per cubic meter.

Radiation resistance is caused by the formation of electromagnetic waves around a conductor. This resistance is complexly dependent on the shape and size of the conductor, and on the length of the emitted wave. For a single straight conductor, in which everywhere the current is of the same direction and strength, and the length L of which is significantly less than the length of the electromagnetic wave emitted by it

The dependence of resistance on wavelength and conductor is relatively simple:

The most commonly used electric current with a standard frequency of 50 “Hz” corresponds to a wave length of about 6 thousand kilometers, which is why the radiation power is usually negligible compared to the power of thermal losses. However, as the frequency of the current increases, the length of the emitted wave decreases, and the radiation power increases accordingly. A conductor capable of emitting noticeable energy is called an antenna.

Frequency

The concept of frequency refers to an alternating current that periodically changes strength and/or direction. This also includes the most commonly used current, which varies according to a sinusoidal law.

The AC period is the shortest period of time (expressed in seconds) through which changes in current (and voltage) are repeated. The number of periods performed by current per unit time is called frequency. Frequency is measured in hertz, one hertz (Hz) equals one cycle per second.

Bias current

Sometimes, for convenience, the concept of displacement current is introduced. In Maxwell's equations, the displacement current is present at equal rights with current caused by the movement of charges. The intensity of the magnetic field depends on the total electric current, equal to the amount conduction current and displacement current. By definition, the bias current density

Vector quantity, proportional to speed electric field changes

in time:

The fact is that when the electric field changes, as well as when current flows, a magnetic field is generated, which makes these two processes similar to each other. In addition, a change in the electric field is usually accompanied by a transfer of energy. For example, when charging and discharging a capacitor, despite the fact that there is no movement of charged particles between its plates, they speak of a displacement current flowing through it, transferring some energy and closing the electrical circuit in a unique way. Bias current

in a capacitor is determined by the formula:

Charge on the capacitor plates

Electrical voltage between the plates,

Electric capacitance of a capacitor.

Displacement current is not an electric current because it is not associated with the movement of an electric charge.

Main types of conductors

Unlike dielectrics, conductors contain free carriers of uncompensated charges, which, under the influence of a force, usually an electrical potential difference, move and create an electric current. The current-voltage characteristic (the dependence of current on voltage) is the most important characteristic of a conductor. For metal conductors and electrolytes it has simplest form: Current is directly proportional to voltage (Ohm's law).

Metals - here the current carriers are conduction electrons, which are usually considered as an electron gas, clearly exhibiting quantum properties degenerate gas.

Plasma is an ionized gas. Electric charge is transferred by ions (positive and negative) and free electrons, which are formed under the influence of radiation (ultraviolet, x-ray and others) and (or) heating.

Electrolytes are liquid or solid substances and systems in which ions are present in any noticeable concentration, causing the passage of electric current. Ions are formed during the process electrolytic dissociation. When heated, the resistance of electrolytes decreases due to an increase in the number of molecules decomposed into ions. As a result of the passage of current through the electrolyte, ions approach the electrodes and are neutralized, settling on them. Faraday's laws of electrolysis determine the mass of a substance released on the electrodes.

There is also an electric current of electrons in a vacuum, which is used in electron beam devices.

Electric currents in nature

Atmospheric electricity is electricity that is contained in the air. Benjamin Franklin was the first to show the presence of electricity in the air and explain the cause of thunder and lightning.

It was later discovered that electricity accumulates in the vapor condensation in upper layers atmosphere, and the following laws are stated that atmospheric electricity follows:

• in a clear sky, as well as in a cloudy sky, the electricity of the atmosphere is always positive, unless it rains, hails or snows at some distance from the observation site;
• the voltage of electricity from the clouds becomes strong enough to release it from environment only when cloud vapors condense into raindrops, evidence of which can be the fact that lightning discharges do not occur without rain, snow or hail at the observation site, excluding a return lightning strike;
• atmospheric electricity increases as humidity increases and reaches a maximum when rain, hail and snow fall;
• the place where it rains is a reservoir of positive electricity, surrounded by a belt of negative, which in turn is enclosed in a belt of positive. At the boundaries of these belts the stress is zero.

The movement of ions under the influence of electric field forces forms a vertical conduction current in the atmosphere with an average density of about (2÷3) 10 −12 A/m².

The total current flowing over the entire surface of the Earth is approximately 1800 A.

Lightning is a natural sparking electrical discharge. Has been installed electrical nature polar lights. St. Elmo's Fire is a natural corona electrical discharge.

Biocurrents - the movement of ions and electrons plays a very significant role in all life processes. The biopotential created in this case exists both at the intracellular level and in individual parts body and organs. The transmission of nerve impulses occurs using electrochemical signals. Some animals (electric stingrays, electric eels) are capable of accumulating potentials of several hundred volts and use this for self-defense.

Application

When studying electric current, many of its properties were discovered, which made it possible to find practical application in various areas human activity, and even create new areas that would not be possible without the existence of electric current. After electric current has found practical application, and for the reason that electric current can be obtained different ways, a new concept has arisen in the industrial sector - electric power.

Electric current is used as a carrier of signals of varying complexity and types in different areas(telephone, radio, remote control, door lock button, etc.).

In some cases, unwanted electrical currents appear, such as stray currents or short circuit currents.

Use of electric current as an energy carrier

• receiving mechanical energy in all kinds of electric motors,
• obtaining thermal energy in heating devices, electric furnaces, during electric welding,
• obtaining light energy in lighting and signaling devices,
• excitation of high frequency electromagnetic oscillations, ultra high frequency and radio waves,
• receiving sound,
• obtaining various substances by electrolysis, charging electric batteries. Here electromagnetic energy is converted into chemical energy,
• creating a magnetic field (in electromagnets).

Use of electric current in medicine

• diagnostics - the biocurrents of healthy and diseased organs are different, and it is possible to determine the disease, its causes and prescribe treatment. The branch of physiology that studies electrical phenomena in the body is called electrophysiology.
  • Electroencephalography - research method functional state brain.
  • Electrocardiography is a technique for recording and studying electric fields during heart activity.
  • Electrogastrography is a method for studying the motor activity of the stomach.
  • Electromyography is a method for studying bioelectric potentials arising in skeletal muscles.
• Treatment and resuscitation: electrical stimulation of certain areas of the brain; treatment of Parkinson's disease and epilepsy, also for electrophoresis. Pacemaker that stimulates the heart muscle pulse current, used for bradycardia and other cardiac arrhythmias.

electrical safety

Includes legal, socio-economic, organizational and technical, sanitary and hygienic, treatment and preventive, rehabilitation and other measures. Electrical safety rules are regulated by legal and technical documents, regulatory and technical framework. Knowledge of the basics of electrical safety is mandatory for personnel servicing electrical installations and electrical equipment. The human body is a conductor of electric current. Human resistance with dry and intact skin ranges from 3 to 100 kOhm.

A current passed through a human or animal body produces the following effects:

• thermal (burns, heating and damage to blood vessels);
• electrolytic (decomposition of blood, disruption of physical and chemical composition);
• biological (irritation and excitation of body tissues, convulsions)
• mechanical (rupture of blood vessels under the influence of steam pressure obtained by heating by the blood flow)

The main factor determining the outcome of electric shock is the amount of current passing through the human body. According to safety precautions, electric current is classified as follows:

• “safe” is considered to be a current whose long-term passage through the human body does not cause harm to it and does not cause any sensations, its value does not exceed 50 μA (alternating current 50 Hz) and 100 μA direct current;
• The “minimum perceptible” alternating current for humans is about 0.6-1.5 mA (50 Hz alternating current) and 5-7 mA direct current;
• threshold “non-releasing” is the minimum current of such strength that a person is no longer able to tear his hands away from the current-carrying part by force of will. For alternating current it is about 10-15 mA, for direct current it is 50-80 mA;
• The “fibrillation threshold” is an alternating current (50 Hz) strength of about 100 mA and a direct current of 300 mA, the impact of which for more than 0.5 s is likely to cause fibrillation of the heart muscles. This threshold is also considered conditionally fatal for humans.

In Russia, in accordance with the Rules for the technical operation of electrical installations of consumers (Order of the Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation dated January 13, 2003 No. 6 “On approval of the Rules for the technical operation of electrical installations of consumers”) and the Rules for labor protection during the operation of electrical installations (Order of the Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation dated December 27, 2000 N 163 “On approval of Interindustry Rules on Labor Protection (Safety Rules) for the Operation of Electrical Installations"), 5 qualification groups for electrical safety were established depending on the qualifications and experience of the employee and the voltage of electrical installations.

Notes

• Baumgart K.K., Electric current.
• A.S. Kasatkin. Electrical engineering.
• SOUTH. Sindeev. Electrical engineering with electronic elements.

Electric current is an ordered flow of negatively charged elementary particles - electrons. Electricity necessary for lighting houses and streets, ensuring the functionality of household and industrial equipment, the movement of city and mainline electric transport, etc.

Electricity

• R n – load resistance
• A – indicator
• K – circuit switch

Current– the number of charges passing per unit time through the cross section of the conductor.

• I – current strength
• q – amount of electricity
• t – time

The unit of current is called ampere A, named after the French scientist Ampere.

1A = 10 3 mA = 10 6 µA

Electric current density

Electric current inherent in a number of physical characteristics that have quantitative values ​​expressed in certain units. Main physical characteristics Electric current is its strength and power. Current strength It is quantitatively expressed in amperes, and current power is expressed in watts. An equally important physical quantity is the vector characteristic of electric current, or current density. In particular, the concept of current density is used when designing power lines.

• J – electric current density A / MM 2
• S – cross-sectional area
• I – current

Direct and alternating current

All electrical devices are powered permanent or alternating current.

Electricity, the direction and value of which do not change is called permanent.

Electricity, the direction and value of which can change is called variables.

The power supply for many electrical devices is carried out alternating current, the change of which is graphically represented as a sinusoid.

Use of Electric Current

It can be stated with confidence that the greatest achievement of mankind is the discovery electric current and its use. From electric current depend on the warmth and light in homes, the flow of information from the outside world, the communication of people located in different parts of the planet, and much more.

Modern life cannot be imagined without the widespread availability of electricity. Electricity is present in absolutely all spheres of human activity: in industry and agriculture, in science and space.

Electricity is also a constant component everyday life person. Such widespread distribution of electricity was made possible due to its unique properties. Electrical energy can be instantly transmitted to huge distances and be transformed into various types of energies of a different genesis.

Main consumers electrical energy are industrial and manufacturing sectors. With the help of electricity, various mechanisms and devices are activated, and multi-stage technological processes are carried out.

It is impossible to overestimate the role of electricity in ensuring the operation of transport. Railway transport is almost completely electrified. Electrification of railway transport has played a significant role in ensuring road capacity, increasing travel speed, reducing the cost of passenger transportation, and solving the problem of fuel economy.

The availability of electricity is an indispensable condition for ensuring comfortable living conditions for people. All household appliances: televisions, washing machines, microwave ovens, heating devices - found their place in human life only thanks to the development of electrical production.

The leading role of electricity in the development of civilization is undeniable. There is no area in the life of mankind that could do without the consumption of electrical energy and the alternative to which could be muscular strength.

Directed movement of charged particles in an electric field.

Charged particles can be electrons or ions (charged atoms).

An atom that has lost one or more electrons gains positive charge. - Anion (positive ion).
An atom that has gained one or more electrons acquires a negative charge. - Cation (negative ion).
Ions are considered as mobile charged particles in liquids and gases.

In metals, charge carriers are free electrons, like negatively charged particles.

In semiconductors, the movement (movement) of negatively charged electrons from one atom to another and, as a result, the movement between the atoms of the resulting positively charged vacancies - holes - are considered.

Behind direction of electric current the direction of movement of positive charges is conventionally accepted. This rule was established long before the study of the electron and remains true to this day. The electric field strength is also determined for a positive test charge.

For any single charge q in an electric field of intensity E force acts F = qE, which moves the charge in the direction of the vector of this force.

The figure shows that the force vector F - = -qE, acting on a negative charge -q, is directed in the direction opposite to the field strength vector, as the product of the vector E to a negative value. Consequently, negatively charged electrons, which are charge carriers in metal conductors, actually have a direction of movement opposite to the field strength vector and the generally accepted direction of electric current.

Charge amount Q= 1 pendant moved through the cross section of the conductor in time t= 1 second, determined by current value I= 1 Ampere from the ratio:

I = Q/t.

Current ratio I= 1 Ampere in conductor to its cross-sectional area S= 1 m 2 will determine the current density j= 1 A/m2:

Job A= 1 Joule spent on transporting charge Q= 1 Coulomb from point 1 to point 2 will determine the value of the electrical voltage U= 1 Volt as potential difference φ 1 and φ 2 between these points from the calculation:

U = A/Q = φ 1 - φ 2

Electric current can be direct or alternating.

Direct current is an electric current whose direction and magnitude do not change over time.

Alternating current is an electric current whose magnitude and direction changes over time.

Back in 1826, the German physicist Georg Ohm discovered an important law of electricity, which determines the quantitative relationship between electric current and the properties of the conductor, characterizing their ability to withstand electric current.
These properties subsequently began to be called electrical resistance, denoted by the letter R and measured in Ohms in honor of the discoverer.
Ohm's law in its modern interpretation with the classical U/R ratio determines the amount of electric current in a conductor based on voltage U at the ends of this conductor and its resistance R:

Electric current in conductors

Conductors contain free charge carriers, which, under the influence of an electric field, move and create an electric current.

In metal conductors, charge carriers are free electrons.
As the temperature rises, the chaotic thermal movement of atoms interferes with the directional movement of electrons and the resistance of the conductor increases.
When cooling and the temperature approaches absolute zero, when thermal movement stops, the resistance of the metal tends to zero.

Electric current in liquids (electrolytes) exists as the directed movement of charged atoms (ions), which are formed in the process of electrolytic dissociation.
The ions move towards electrodes opposite in sign and are neutralized, settling on them. - Electrolysis.
Anions are positive ions. They move to the negative electrode - the cathode.
Cations are negative ions. They move to the positive electrode - the anode.
Faraday's laws of electrolysis determine the mass of a substance released on the electrodes.
When heated, the resistance of the electrolyte decreases due to an increase in the number of molecules decomposed into ions.

Electric current in gases - plasma. Electric charge is carried by positive or negative ions and free electrons, which are formed under the influence of radiation.

There is an electric current in a vacuum as a flow of electrons from the cathode to the anode. Used in electron beam devices - lamps.

Electric current in semiconductors

Semiconductors occupy intermediate position between conductors and dielectrics according to their resistivity.
A significant difference between semiconductors and metals can be considered their dependence resistivity on temperature.
As the temperature decreases, the resistance of metals decreases, while for semiconductors, on the contrary, it increases.
As the temperature approaches absolute zero, metals tend to become superconductors, and semiconductors - insulators.
The point is that when absolute zero electrons in semiconductors will be busy creating covalent bonds between atoms crystal lattice and, ideally, there will be no free electrons.
As the temperature increases, some of the valence electrons can receive energy sufficient to break covalent bonds and free electrons will appear in the crystal, and vacancies will form at the breakpoints, which are called holes.
The vacant place can be occupied by a valence electron from a neighboring pair and the hole will move to a new place in the crystal.
When a free electron meets a hole, the electronic bond between the atoms of the semiconductor is restored and the reverse process occurs - recombination.
Electron-hole pairs can appear and recombine when illuminating a semiconductor due to the energy of electromagnetic radiation.
In the absence of an electric field, electrons and holes participate in chaotic thermal motion.
Not only the resulting free electrons, but also holes, which are considered as positively charged particles, participate in the electric field in ordered motion. Current I in a semiconductor it consists of electron I n and hole Ip currents

Semiconductors include chemical elements such as germanium, silicon, selenium, tellurium, arsenic, etc. The most common semiconductor in nature is silicon.

Comments and suggestions are accepted and welcome!

ELECTRIC CURRENTS

change from 10/22/2013 - ( )

One property of matter that one would like to describe arises from the interaction between matter and a subatomic particle, the electron. This property is understood as electric current. Although this description is radically different from modern understanding, what is an electron and what role does it play in electric current, in fact, the concept itself can be understood by reading only this article. For a deeper understanding of the material presented, it is recommended that you read the first volume of the book by Dewey B. Larson "The Structure of the Physical Universe", and the basis of this article is taken from the second volume of the same series. Therefore, if you take the second volume, you will find this material there, but in a more expanded form, which complicates its understanding. This article is intended to give a general understanding of the essence of electric current, and once you grasp the essence, you will understand the details.

So, Larson realized that the Universe is not just a space-time structure of matter, as is commonly believed in traditional science. He discovered that the Universe is a Movement in which space and time are simply two interdependent and non-existent aspects of movement, and have no other meaning. The universe in which we live is not a universe of matter, but a universe of motion, a universe in which the basic reality is motion, and all physical realities and phenomena, including matter, are simply manifestations of motion, existing in three dimensions, in discrete units and with two interdependent aspects - space and time. Space is called the material sector, time - the cosmic sector. The movements themselves and their combinations can exist both in space (positive displacement) and in time (negative displacement) or simultaneously in both, while being one-dimensional, two-dimensional or three-dimensional. Moreover, one-dimensional movements can be correlated with electrical phenomena, two-dimensional ones with magnetic ones, and three-dimensional ones with gravity. Based on this, an atom is simply a combination of movements. Radiation is motion, gravity is motion, electric charge is motion, and so on.

If you don't understand anything, read first.

As stated in Volume 1, the electron is a unique particle. This is the only particle built on the basis of material rotation that has an effective negative rotation bias. More than one unit of negative rotation would exceed one positive rotation unit of the base rotation and would result in negative value total rotation. But for the electron, the resulting total spin is positive, although it includes one positive and one negative unit, since a positive unit is two-dimensional and a negative one is one-dimensional.

So, essentially, electron is just a spinning unit of space. This concept is quite difficult for most people to understand when they first encounter it, because it contradicts the idea of ​​​​the nature of space that we have acquired through long but uncritical examination of our surroundings. However, the history of science is replete with examples in which a familiar and rather unique phenomenon is discovered to be simply one member of a general class, all members of which have the same physical meaning. Good example– energy. For the researchers who laid the foundation of modern science in the Middle Ages, the property of moving bodies to persist due to motion was called “motive force”; For us, “kinetic energy” has a unique nature. The idea that, due to its chemical composition, a stationary wooden stick contained the equivalent of a “motive force” was as foreign as the concept of a rotating unit of space to most people today. But the discovery that kinetic energy is just one form of energy in general opened the door to significant advances in physical understanding. Likewise, the discovery that the “space” of our everyday experience, extension space as it is called in Larson's work, is simply one manifestation of space as a whole opens the door to understanding many aspects of the physical universe, including phenomena related to the movement of electrons in matter.

In the universe of motion - the universe whose details we are developing - space enters into physical phenomena only as a component of motion. And for most purposes, the specific nature of space is irrelevant, just as the specific kind of energy that goes into a physical process is usually not relevant to the outcome of the process. Hence the status of the electron as a rotating unit of space gives it special role in the physical activity of the universe. It should now be noted that the electron we are discussing does not carry any charge. An electron is a combination of two movements: basic vibration and rotation of the vibrating unit. As we will see later, electric charge is an additional movement that can be superimposed on a combination of two components. The behavior of charged electrons will be considered after the preparatory work has been carried out. Now we are concerned uncharged electrons.

As a unit of space, an uncharged electron cannot move in continuation space, since the ratio of space to space does not constitute motion (from Larson's postulates). But under certain conditions it can move in ordinary matter, due to the fact that matter is a combination of movements with a final, positive or temporary displacement, and the relation of space to time constitutes motion. The modern view of the movement of electrons in solid matter is that they move in the spaces between atoms. Then, resistance to the flow of electrons is considered to be similar to friction. Our discovery is this: electrons (units of space) exist in matter and move in matter in the same way that matter moves in continuation space.

The directional movement of electrons in matter will be defined as electric current. If the atoms of the matter through which the current passes are at rest relative to the structure of the solid aggregate as a whole, the constant movement of electrons (space) in the matter has the same general properties as the movement of matter in space. It follows Newton's first law (law of inertia) and can continue indefinitely without adding energy. This situation occurs in a phenomenon known as superconductivity, which was observed experimentally in many substances at very low temperatures. But if the atoms of the material aggregate are in active temperature motion ( temperature is a type of one-dimensional movement), the movement of electrons in matter adds to the spatial component of temperature movement (that is, increases speed) and thereby introduces energy (heat) into the moving atoms.

The magnitude of the current is measured by the number of electrons (units of space) per unit of time. Unit of space per unit of time is the definition of speed, so electric current is speed. WITH mathematical point From the point of view, it does not matter whether the mass moves in the space of extensions or whether space moves in the mass. Therefore, in dealing with electric current we are dealing with the mechanical aspects of electricity, and the phenomenon of current can be described by the same mathematical equations that apply to ordinary motion in space, with due modifications due to differences in conditions, if such differences exist. The same units could be used, but for historical reasons and for convenience, modern practice uses a separate system of units.

The basic unit of current electricity is a unit of quantity. In the natural frame of reference, this is the spatial aspect of one electron, which has a velocity displacement of one unit. Therefore, the quantity q is the equivalent of space s. In the flow of current, energy has the same status as in mechanical relations, and has space-time dimensions t/s. Energy divided by time is power, 1/s. A further subdivision of the current, having the dimensions of speed s/t, creates an electromotive force (emf) with dimensions 1/s x t/s = t/s². Of course, they are space-time dimensions of force in general.

The term “ electric potential” is commonly used as an alternative to emf, but for reasons that will be discussed later, we will not use “potential” in this sense. If a more convenient term than emf is appropriate, we will use the term “voltage,” symbol U.

Dividing the voltage t/s² by the current s/t, we get t²/s³. This resistance, symbol R, is the only electrical quantity considered so far that is not equivalent to the familiar mechanical quantity. The true nature of resistance is revealed by examining its spatiotemporal structure. The measurements t²/s³ are equivalent to the mass t³/s³ divided by the time t. Hence, resistance is mass per unit time. The relevance of such a quantity is easily seen if we realize that the amount of mass included in the movement of space (electrons) in matter is not a fixed quantity, as is the case in the movement of matter in continuation space, but a quantity that depends on the momentum of the electrons. When matter moves in continuation space, the mass is constant, and the space depends on the duration of the movement. When current flows, space (the number of electrons) is constant, and mass depends on the duration of movement. If the flow is short-lived, each electron may only move through a small fraction of the total amount of mass in the chain, but if the flow is long-lasting, it may re-pass through the entire chain. In either case, the total mass involved in the current is the product of the mass per unit time (resistance) times the time of the flow. When matter moves in the space of extensions, the general space is determined in the same way; that is, it is the product of space per unit time (speed) and the time of movement.

When dealing with resistance as a property of matter, we will be mainly interested in resistivity or resistance, which is defined as the resistance of a unit cube of the substance in question. Resistance is directly proportional to the distance traveled by the current and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of ​​the conductor. It follows that if we multiply the resistance per unit area and divide by the unit distance, we obtain a value with measurements t²/s², reflecting only the inherent characteristics of the material and environmental conditions (mainly temperature and pressure) and does not depend on the geometric structure of the conductor. The inverse quality of resistivity or resistance is - conductivity and electrical conductivity, respectively.

Having clarified the space-time dimensions of resistance, we can return to the empirically determined relationships between resistance and other electrical quantities and confirm the consistency of space-time definitions.

Voltage: U = IR = s/t x t²/s³ = t/s²
Power: P = I²R = t²/s² x t²/s³ = 1/s
Energy: E = I²Rt = s²/t² x t²/s³ x t = t/s

The energy equation demonstrates the equivalence of mathematical expressions of electrical and mechanical phenomena. Since resistance is mass per unit time, the product of resistance and time Rt is equivalent to mass m. The current, I, is the speed v. Thus, the expression for electrical energy RtI² is equivalent to the expression for kinetic energy 1/2mv². In other words, the value of RtI² is the kinetic energy of electron motion.

Instead of using resistance, time and current, we can express energy in terms of voltage U (equivalent to IR) and magnitude q (equivalent to It). Then the expression for the amount of energy (or work) is W = Uq. Here we have some confirmation of the definition of electricity as the equivalent of space. As described in one of the standard physics textbooks, force is a “well-defined vector quantity, creating a change in the movement of objects.” Emf or voltage fits this description. It creates the movement of electrons in the direction of the voltage drop. Energy is the product of force and distance. Electrical energy Uq is the product of force and quantity. It follows that the amount of electricity is equivalent to the distance - the same conclusion that we drew about the nature of the uncharged electron.

In traditional scientific thought, the status of electrical energy as a form of energy in general is taken for granted, since it can be converted into any other forms, but the status of electric or electromotive force as a form of force in general is not accepted. If this were accepted, then the conclusion drawn in the previous paragraph would be inevitable. But the verdict of the observed facts is ignored by the general impression that quantity of electricity and space are entities of an entirely different nature.

Previous students of electrical phenomena recognized that a quantity measured in volts had the characteristics of a force and named it accordingly. Modern theorists reject this definition because of a conflict with their view of the nature of electric current. For example, W. J. Duffin offers a definition of electromotive force (emf) and then says:
“Despite the name, it is definitely not a force, but it is equal to the work done per unit of positive charge if the charge is moving in a circle (that is, in an electrical circuit); therefore this unit is the volt.”

Work per unit of space is force. The author simply takes it on faith that the moving entity, which he calls charge, is not equivalent to space. Thus, he comes to the conclusion that a quantity measured in volts cannot be a force. We believe that he is wrong, and that the moving entity is not a charge, but a rotating unit of space (an uncharged electron). Then electromotive force, measured in volts, is actually force. Essentially, Duffin acknowledges this fact by saying in another connection that “U/n (volts per meter) is the same as N/C (newtons per coulomb).”. Both express the voltage difference in terms of force divided by space.

Traditional physical theory does not claim to offer insight into the nature of either the quantity of electricity or the electric charge. She simply admits: Due to the fact that Scientific research unable to provide any explanation of the nature of electric charge, it must be a unique entity independent of other fundamental physical entities, and must be accepted as one of the “given” characteristics of nature. It is further assumed that this entity of an unknown nature, which plays a major role in electrostatic phenomena, is identical to the entity of an unknown nature, the quantity of electricity, which plays a major role in the flow of electricity.

The most significant weakness of the traditional theory of electric current, a theory based on the above assumptions, which we can now consider in the light of a more complete understanding of the physical foundations derived from the theory of the universe of motion, is that it assigns two different and incompatible roles to electrons. According to current theory, these particles are components atomic structure, it is at least conceivable that some of them are freely adaptable to any electrical forces applied to the conductor. On the one hand, each particle is so tightly bound to the rest of the atom that it plays a significant role in determining the properties of the atom, and in order to separate it from the atom, a significant force (ionization potential) is required. On the other hand, electrons move so freely that they will respond to thermal or electrical forces whose magnitude is slightly greater than zero. They must exist in a conductor in certain quantities, if we consider that the conductor is electrically neutral, although it carries an electric current. At the same time, they must freely leave the conductor (either in large or small quantities) provided they acquire a sufficient amount of kinetic energy.

It should be obvious that the theories call on electrons to perform two different and conflicting functions. They were attributed key position both in the theory of atomic structure and in the theory of electric current, ignoring the fact that the properties which they must possess to perform the functions required by one theory interfere with the functions which they are intended to perform in the other theory.

In the theory of the universe of motion, each of these phenomena involves a different physical entity. The unit of atomic structure is the unit of rotational motion, not the electron. It has a kind of permanent status that is required for an atomic component. The electron, without charge and without any connection to the atomic structure, is then available as a freely moving unit of electric current.

The fundamental postulate of the Reverse System theory says that the physical universe is a universe of motion, a universe in which all entities and phenomena are movements, combinations of movements, or relationships between movements. In such a universe, all basic phenomena are explainable. There is nothing that is “unanalyzable,” as Bridgman puts it. The basic entities and phenomena of the universe of motion—radiation, gravity, matter, electricity, magnetism, and so on—can be defined in terms of space and time. Unlike traditional physical theory, the Inverse System should not leave its basic elements at the mercy of metaphysical mystery. It should not exclude them from physical investigation, as the following statement from the Encyclopedia Britannica states:

“The question: “What is electricity?”, like the question: “What is matter?”, lies outside the sphere of physics and belongs to the sphere of metaphysics.”

In a universe consisting entirely of motion, the electrical charge belonging to the physical entity must necessarily be motion. Then the problem facing theoretical research, is not an answer to the question: “What is an electric charge?”, but a definition, what type of motion manifests itself as a charge. The definition of charge as complementary motion not only clarifies the relation between the experimentally observed charged electron and the uncharged electron known only as a moving entity in an electric current, but also explains the interchange between them, which is a fundamental support for the now popular opinion that only one entity is involved in the process - charge. It is not always remembered that this opinion achieved general recognition only after a long and lively debate. There are similarities between static and current phenomena, but there are also significant differences. At present, in the absence of any theoretical explanation for any kind of electricity, the question to be resolved is whether charged and uncharged electrons are identical due to their similarities or incomparable due to their differences. The decision in favor of identity prevailed, although over time much evidence accumulated against the validity of this decision.

The similarities are evident in the two general types x: (1) some properties of charged particles and electric currents are similar; (2) transitions from one to another are observed. Definition of a charged electron as an uncharged electron with additional movement explains both types of similarities. For example, the demonstration that a rapidly moving charge has the same magnetic properties as an electric current was a major factor in the victory won by proponents of the electric current “charge” theory many years ago. But our discoveries show that the moving entities are electrons or other charge carriers, so the existence or non-existence of electric charges is irrelevant.

A second type of evidence that has been interpreted to support the identity of static and moving electrons is the apparent replacement of a flowing electron by a charged electron in processes such as electrolysis. Here the explanation is: electric charge is easily created and easily destroyed. As everyone knows, only a small amount of friction is required to create an electrical current on many surfaces, such as modern synthetic fibers. It follows that whenever there exists a concentration of energy in one of the forms capable of being liberated by conversion into another, the rotational vibration constituting the charge either arises or disappears to permit the kind of motion of the electrons which takes place in response to the force exerted.

To follow the prevailing policy of treating two different quantities as identical and using the same units for both is possible only because the two different uses are absolutely separate in most cases. Under such circumstances, the calculations do not introduce error from using identical units, but in any case, if a calculation or theoretical consideration involves quantities of both types, a clear distinction is necessary.

As an analogy, we can assume that we want to establish a system of units in which the properties of water are expressed. Let's also assume that we cannot recognize the difference between the properties of weight and volume, and therefore express them in cubic centimeters. This system is equivalent to using a unit of weight of one gram. And so long as we deal separately with weight and volume, each in its own context, the fact that the expression “cubic centimeter” has two completely different meanings does not lead to any difficulty. However, if we are dealing with both qualities at the same time, it is essential to recognize the difference between them. The division of cubic centimeters (weight) by cubic centimeters (volume) is not expressed as a dimensionless number, as calculations would seem to indicate; the coefficient is a physical quantity with dimensions weight/volume. Likewise, we can use the same units for electric charge and quantity of electricity as long as they work independently and in the correct context, but if both quantities are included in a calculation or they work individually with the wrong physical dimensions, confusion arises.

Dimensional confusion resulting from a misunderstanding of the difference between charged and uncharged electrons has been a source of considerable concern and confusion among theoretical physicists. It was an obstacle to the establishment of any comprehensive systematic connection between dimensions physical quantities. Failure to discover a basis for connection is a clear indication that there is something wrong with the dimensions themselves, but instead of recognizing this fact, the current reaction is to sweep the problem under the rug and claim that the problem does not exist. This is how one observer sees the picture:
“In the past, the topic of size was controversial. It took years of unsuccessful attempts to discover the “inherent, rational relationships” in terms of which all dimensional formulas should be expressed. It is now generally accepted that there is no one absolute set of sizing formulas.”

This is a common reaction to long years frustration, a reaction we have often encountered in exploring the topics discussed in Volume 1. When the best efforts of generation after generation of researchers fail to achieve a particular goal, there is always a strong temptation to declare that the goal is simply unattainable. “In short,” says Alfred Lande, “if you cannot clarify a problem situation, announce that it is “fundamental, and then promulgate the corresponding principle.” Therefore, physical science is full of principles of impotence rather than explanations.

In the universe of motion, the dimensions of all quantities of all kinds can only be expressed in terms of space and time. The space-time dimensions of basic mechanical quantities are defined in Volume 1. Here we add the dimensions of quantities involved in the flow of electric current.

Clarification of dimensional relationships is accompanied by the definition of the natural unit of magnitude of different physical quantities. The system of units commonly used when working with electrical currents developed independently of mechanical units on an ad hoc basis. To establish the relationship between a random system and a natural system of units, it will be necessary to measure one physical quantity, the value of which can be determined in a natural system, as was done in the previous determination of the relationships between natural and traditional units of space, time and mass. For this purpose, we will use Faraday's constant - the observed relationship between the amount of electricity and the mass involved in electrolysis. Multiplying this constant, 2.89366 x 10 14 ese/g-equiv, by the natural unit of atomic weight 1.65979 x 10 -24 g, we obtain as a natural unit of quantity of electricity 4.80287 x 10 -10 ese.

Initially, the definition of the unit of charge ( ese) using the Coulomb equation in an electrostatic measurement system was planned to be used as a means of introducing electrical quantities into a mechanical measurement system. But here electrostatic unit charge and other electrical units, including ese, constitute separate system measurement in which t/s is identified with electric charge.

The magnitude of electric current is the number of electrons per unit of time, that is, units of space per unit of time or speed. Therefore, the natural unit of current can be expressed as the natural unit of speed, 2.99793 x 10 10 cm/sec. In electrical terms, it is the natural unit of quantity divided by the natural unit of time, it is equal to 3.15842 x 10 6 ese/sec or 1.05353 x 10 -3 amperes. Therefore, the traditional unit of electrical energy, watt-hour, is equal to 3.6 x 10 10 erg. The natural unit of energy, 1.49275 x 10 -3 erg, is equivalent to 4.14375 x 10 -14 watt-hours. Dividing this unit by the natural unit of time, we get the natural unit of power - 9.8099 x 10 12 erg/sec = 9.8099 x 10 5 watts. Then dividing by the natural unit of current gives us the natural unit of electromotive force or voltage of 9.31146 x 10 8 Volts. Dividing further by the current gives a natural unit of resistance of 8.83834 x 10 11 ohms.

Another quantity of electricity that deserves mention because of the key role it plays in the modern mathematical approach to magnetism is “current density.” It is defined as “the amount of charge passing per second through a unit area of ​​a plane perpendicular to the line of flow.” It is a strange quantity, differing from any other quantity already discussed in that it is not a relation between space and time. When we realized that this quantity actually represents current per unit area and not “charge” (a fact confirmed by the units, amperes per square meter, in which it is expressed), its space-time dimensions are apparently s/t x 1/s² = 1/st. They are not dimensions of motion or properties of motion. It follows that in general this quantity has no physical significance. It's just a mathematical convenience.

The fundamental laws of electric current known to modern science, such as Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff's Law and their derivatives, are simply empirical generalizations, and their application is not affected by the clarification of the true nature of electric current. The essence of these laws and the relevant details are adequately described in the existing scientific and technical literature.

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

Although the movement of electric current in matter is equivalent to the movement of matter in space, the conditions encountered by each type of movement in our everyday experience, highlight different aspects of the general provisions. When we deal with the movement of matter in continuation space, we are mainly interested in the movements of individual objects. Newton's laws of motion, cornerstones Mechanics deal with the use of force to cause or change the motion of such objects and with the transfer of motion from one object to another. On the other hand, in the case of electric current we are concerned with aspects of the continuity of the flow of current, and the status of the individual objects involved is not relevant.

The mobility of space units in a current flow introduces some types of variability that are absent in the movement of matter in continuation space. Therefore, there are behavioral characteristics or properties of material structures that are characteristic of the relationship between the structures and moving electrons. To put it another way, we can say that matter has some characteristic electrical properties. The main property of this nature is resistance. As stated earlier, resistance is the only quantity involved in the fundamental relations of current flow that is not a familiar characteristic of the system of equations of mechanics, equations dealing with the movement of matter in continuation space.

One of the authors summarizes modern ideas about the origin of electrical resistance as follows:
“The ability to conduct electricity... arises due to the presence of a huge number of quasi- free electrons, which, under the influence of an electric field, are capable of flowing through a metal lattice... Exciting influences... interfere with the free flow of electrons, scattering them and creating resistance.”

As already indicated, the development of the theory of the universe of motion leads to the directly opposite concept of the nature of electrical resistance. We find that electrons are removed from the environment. As discussed in Volume 1, there are existing physical processes, creating electrons in significant quantities, and that although the motions that constitute these electrons are in many cases absorbed by atomic structures, the possibilities of using this type of motion in such structures are limited. It follows that in the material sector of the universe there is always a large excess of free electrons, most of which are not charged. In an uncharged state, electrons cannot move in connection with the space of extensions, because they are rotating units of space, and the relation of space to space is not movement. Therefore, in open space, each uncharged electron is constantly in the same position relative to the natural reference system, in the same way as a photon. In the context of a stationary spatial reference frame, an uncharged electron, like a photon, is carried outward at the speed of light by the sequence of the natural reference frame. Thus, all material aggregates are exposed to a flow of electrons, like a continuous bombardment of photons of radiation. However, there are other processes where electrons are returned to the environment. Consequently, the electron population of a material aggregate such as the Earth stabilizes at an equilibrium level.

The processes that determine the equilibrium of the electron concentration do not depend on the nature of the atoms of matter and the volume of the atoms. Therefore, in electrically insulated conductors, where there is no current flow, the electron concentration is constant. It follows from this that the number of electrons involved in the thermal motion of atoms of matter is proportional to the volume of the atom, and the energy of this motion is determined by the effective rotation coefficients of the atoms. Hence, resistance is determined by the volume of the atom and thermal energy.

Substances in which rotational motion occurs entirely in time have thermal motion in space, according to the general rule governing the addition of motion, as established in Volume 1. For these substances, zero thermal motion corresponds to zero resistance, and with increasing temperature the resistance increases. This occurs due to the fact that the concentration of electrons (space units) in the temporary component of the conductor is constant for any particular amount of current. Therefore, current increases thermal motion in a certain proportion. Such substances are called conductors.

For other elements that have two dimensions of rotation in space, thermal motion, which, due to the finite diameters of moving electrons, requires two open dimensions, necessarily occurs in time. IN in this case zero temperature corresponds to zero movement in time. Here, the resistance is initially high, but decreases as the temperature increases. Such substances are known as insulators or dielectrics.

Elements with the largest electrical displacement, having only one dimension of spatial rotation and closest to electropositive divisions, are able to follow a positive pattern and are conductors. Elements with lower electrical bias follow a modified pattern of movement over time, where resistance decreases from a high, but finite, level to zero temperature. Such substances with intermediate characteristics are called semiconductors.

Unfortunately, resistance measurements involve many factors that introduce uncertainty into the results. The purity of the sample is especially important due to the large difference between the resistances of conductors and dielectrics. Even a small amount of Dielectric contamination can significantly change the resistance. Traditional theory has no explanation for the magnitude this effect. If electrons are moving through the spaces between atoms, as the theory suggests, a few extra obstacles along the way shouldn't make a significant contribution to the resistance. But, as we assert, currents move in all the atoms of the conductor, including impure atoms, which increases the heat content of each atom in proportion to its resistance. The extremely high resistance of the dielectric results in a large contribution from each impure atom, and even a very small number of such atoms has a very significant effect.

Semiconductive element contaminants are less effective as contaminants, but can still have resistance thousands of times greater than that of conductive metals.

Also, resistance changes with heat and requires careful annealing before reliable measurements can be made. The adequacy of this method in many, if not most, definitions of resistance is questionable. For example, G. T. Meaden reports that this treatment reduces the resistance of beryllium by 50%, and that “ preliminary work was carried out on non-annealed samples.” Other sources of uncertainty include changes in crystal structure or magnetic behavior, which occur when different temperatures or pressures in different samples, or at different conditions, often accompanied significant effects delays.

Since electrical resistance is the result of temperature motion, the energy of electron motion is in equilibrium with temperature energy. Therefore, the resistance is directly proportional to the effective thermal energy, that is, temperature. It follows from this that the increment of resistance per degree is constant for each (unchanged) substance; this value is determined by atomic characteristics. That's why, the curve representing the relationship of resistance to temperature as applied to a single atom is linear. The restriction to a straight line is a characteristic of the electron's relationships, and occurs due to the fact that the electron has only one unit of rotational displacement and, therefore, cannot shift to a multi-unit type of motion in the manner of complex atomic structures.

However, a similar change in the resistivity curve occurs if the coefficients that determine the resistivity are changed by rearrangement, such as a change in pressure. As P.W. expressed it Bridgman, when discussing his results, after a change of this nature has taken place, we are essentially dealing with a different substance. The curve of a modified atom is also a straight line, but it does not coincide with the curve of an unmodified atom. At the moment of transition to new form the resistance of an individual atom changes abruptly to a ratio with another straight line.

ELECTRIC CHARGES

In the universe of motion, all physical entities and phenomena are movements, combinations of movements, or relationships between movements. It follows that developing the structure of a theory describing such a universe is mainly a matter of determining what motions and combinations of motions can exist under the conditions specified in the postulates. So far in our discussion physical phenomena we dealt only with translational motion, the movement of electrons in matter and different influences this movement, say, with the mechanical aspects of electricity. We will now turn our attention to electrical phenomena involving rotational motion.

As described in Volume 1, gravity is a three-dimensional rotationally distributed scalar motion. If we consider the general pattern of generating movements of greater complexity as a combination different types movement, it is natural to assume the possibility of imposing one-dimensional or two-dimensional scalar rotation on attracting objects to create phenomena more complex nature. However, upon analyzing the situation, we find that adding to the gravitational motion ordinary rotationally distributed motion in less than three dimensions would simply change the magnitude of the motion and would not lead to the appearance of any new types of phenomena.

However, there is a variation of the rotationally distributed pattern that we have not yet explored. Up to this point, three general types have been considered simple movement(scalar motion of physical positions): (1) translational motion; (2) linear vibration; and (3) rotation. Now we should realize the existence of a fourth type - vibratory-rotational movement, associated with rotation in the same way as linear vibration is associated with translational movement. Vector motion of this kind is common (an example is the movement of the hairspring in a watch), but is largely ignored by traditional scientific thought. It plays important role in the basic movement of the universe.

At the atomic level, rotational vibration is a rotationally distributed scalar motion that undergoes continuous change from outside to inside and vice versa. As with linear vibration, to be constant, the measurement of scalar direction must be continuous and uniform. Therefore, like the photon of radiation, it must be a simple harmonious movement. As noted in the discussion of temperature motion, when simple harmonic motion is added to existing movement, it coincides with this motion (and therefore does not act) in one of the scalar directions and has an effective quantity in the other scalar direction. Each incremental motion must accommodate the rules for combining scalar motions established in Volume 1. On this basis, the effective scalar direction of self-sustaining rotational vibration must be outward, opposite the inward rotational motion with which it is associated. Such an addition of the scalar inward direction is not stable, but can be supported by external influence, as we will see later.

Scalar motion in the form of rotational vibration will be defined as charge. This type of one-dimensional rotation is an electric charge. In a universe of motion, any basic physical phenomenon, such as charge, is necessarily motion. And the only question that requires an answer by examining its place in the physical picture is the question: What kind of movement is it? We discover that the observed electric charge has properties that theoretical development defines how one-dimensional rotation vibration; therefore, we can equate these two concepts.

It is interesting to note that traditional science, which for so long could not explain the origin and nature of electric charge, recognizes that it is scalar. For example, W. J. Duffin reports that the experiments he describes demonstrate that “charge can be defined as a unit number,” supporting the conclusion that “charge is a scalar quantity.”

However, in traditional physical thinking, electric charge is considered one of the fundamental physical entities, and its definition as motion will undoubtedly come as a surprise to many people. It should be emphasized that this is not a feature of the theory of the universe of motion. Regardless of our discoveries based on this theory, charge is necessarily motion, and based on the definitions working in traditional physics, a fact that is neglected because it does not agree with modern theory. The key factor in the situation is the definition of strength. We know that force is a property of movement, and not something of a fundamental nature that exists in itself. Understanding this position is essential for the development of the theory of charges.

For physics purposes, force is defined by Newton's second law of motion. This is the product of mass and acceleration, F = ma. Motion, the relation of space to time, is measured on an individual unit of mass basis as speed or rapidity, v (that is, each unit moves at its own speed), or on a collective basis as moment—mass times velocity, mv, formerly called by a more descriptive name “quantity of movement”. The rate of change in the magnitude of motion over time is dv/dt (acceleration, a) in the case of individual mass, and m dv/dt (force, ma) if it is measured collectively. Then force is defined as the rate of change of the magnitude of the total amount of motion with time; we can call it the “amount of acceleration.” From the definition it follows that force is a property of motion. It has the same status as any other property, not something that can exist as an autonomous entity.

The so-called “fundamental forces of nature,” the supposedly autonomous forces that are invoked to explain the origin of physical phenomena, are necessarily properties of the movements behind them; they cannot exist as independent entities. Every “ fundamental force” must emerge from the fundamental movement. This is a logical requirement for the definition of force, and it is valid regardless of the physical theory in the context of which the situation is considered.

Modern physical science is unable to determine the movements required by the definition of force. For example, a physical charge creates an electric force, but as determined from observation, it does not do so in its own way. own initiative. There is no indication of any previous movement. With such an obvious contradiction The definition of force is now managed by ignoring the requirements of definition and considering electric force as an entity created in some indefinite way by a charge. Now the need for evasion of this kind is eliminated by defining the charge as a vibration of rotation. It is now clear that the reason for the absence of any evidence of motion involved in the generation of electric force is that charge itself is movement.

Therefore, electric charge is a one-dimensional analogue of the three-dimensional movement of an atom or particle, which we defined as mass. Space-time dimensions of mass – t³/s³. In one dimension this would be t/s. Rotational vibration is a motion similar to the rotation that makes up mass, but differs only in the periodic reversal of the scalar direction. It follows from this that the electric charge - a one-dimensional vibration of rotation - also has dimensions t/s. Measurements of other electrostatic quantities can be derived from charge quantities. Electric field strength- a quantity that plays an important role in many relationships involving electrical charges is the charge per unit area, t/s x 1/s² = t/s³. The product of field strength and distance, t/s³ x s = t/s², is the force, electric potential.

For the same reasons that apply to the creation of a gravitational field by mass, an electric charge is surrounded by a force field. However there is no interaction between mass and charge. Scalar movement. changing separation between A and B, can be represented in the reference frame either as the movement of AB (movement of A to B) or movement of BA (movement of B to A). Hence the AB and BA movements are not two separate movements; they are just two different ways of representing one and the same motions in the reference system. This means that scalar motion is a reciprocal process. It cannot take place unless objects A and B are capable of the same type of movement. Consequently, charges (one-dimensional motions) interact only with charges, and masses (three-dimensional motions) only with masses.

Linear motion of an electric charge, analogous to gravity, is subject to the same considerations as gravitational motion. However, as noted earlier, it is directed outward, not inward, and therefore cannot be directly added to the basic movement of vibration in the manner of rotational movement combinations. The outward motion limitation occurs because the outward sequence of the natural frame of reference, which is always present, extends to a full unit of outward velocity—the limiting quantity. Further movement outward can only be added after an inward component is introduced into the movement combination. Thus, charge can only exist as an addition to an atom or subatomic particle.

Although the scalar direction of rotational vibration constituting a charge is always outward, both positive (temporal) displacement and negative (spatial) displacement are possible, since the rotational speed can be either greater or less than unity, and rotational vibration must necessarily be opposite to the rotation . This raises a very awkward issue of terminology. From a logical point of view, rotational vibration with a spatial displacement should be called a negative charge, since it is the opposite of a positive rotation, and a rotational vibration with a time displacement should be called a positive charge. On this basis, the term “positive” always refers to a temporal displacement (low velocity), and the term “negative” always refers to a spatial displacement (high velocity). There would be some advantages to using these terms, but for the purposes of this paper it does not seem desirable to run the risk of introducing further confusion to explanations that already suffer from the inevitable use of unfamiliar terminology to express previously unconscious connections. Therefore, for present purposes we will follow the present usage and the charges of positive elements will be called positive. This means that the meaning of the terms “positive” and “negative” in connection with rotation is inversely related to charge.

In normal practice this should not present any particular difficulty. However, in the present discussion, some identification of the properties of the different movements included in the combinations under study is essential for the sake of clarity. To avoid confusion, the terms “positive” and “negative” will be accompanied by asterisks when used in reverse. On this basis, an electropositive element that rotates at low speed in all scalar directions receives a positive* charge - vibration of rotation at high speed. An electronegative element with high and low spin components can accept any kind of charge. However, generally the negative* charge is limited to the majority of negative elements of the class.

Many of the problems that arise when scalar motion is considered in the context of a fixed spatial reference frame arise as a result of the fact that the reference frame has a property, a position, that scalar motion does not have. Other problems arise for the opposite reason: scalar motion has a property that the reference frame does not have. We called this property scalar direction, inward or outward.

Electric charges do not participate in the basic movements of atoms or particles, but are easily created in almost any kind of matter and can be separated from that matter with equal ease. In low-temperature environments such as the Earth's surface, electrical charge acts as a temporary addition to relatively permanent rotating systems of motion. This does not mean that the role of charges is not important. In fact, charges often have a greater influence on the outcome of physical events than the underlying motions of the atoms of matter involved in the action. But from a structural point of view, one should realize that charges come and go in the same way as the translational (kinetic or temperature) movements of an atom. As we'll see shortly, charges and temperature movements are largely interchangeable.

The simplest form of charged particle is created by adding one unit of one-dimensional rotational vibration to an electron or positron, which has only one unbalanced unit of one-dimensional rotational displacement. Since the effective spin of the electron is negative, it takes on a negative* charge. As stated in the description of subatomic particles in Volume 1, each uncharged electron has two vacant dimensions; that is, scalar measurements, in which there is no effective rotation. We also saw earlier that the basic units of matter - atoms and particles - are able to orient themselves according to their surroundings; that is, they adopt orientations consistent with the forces acting in the environment. When an electron is created in free space, for example from cosmic rays, it escapes the restrictions imposed by its spatial displacement (such as the inability to move in space) by orienting itself so that one of the vacant dimensions coincides with the dimension of the reference frame. Then it can occupy a fixed position in the natural frame of reference indefinitely. In the context of a stationary spatial reference frame, this uncharged electron, like a photon, is carried outward at the speed of light by the sequence of the natural reference frame.

If the electron enters a new environment and begins to be subjected to a new set of forces, it can reorient itself to adapt to the new situation. For example, when entering a conductive material, it encounters an environment in which it can move freely, due to the fact that the velocity shift in the combinations of motions that make up matter occurs primarily in time, and the connection between the spatial displacement of the electron and the temporal displacement of the atom is motion. Moreover, environmental factors favor such reorientation; that is, they favor an increase in speed above unity in a high-speed environment and a decrease in a low-speed environment. Consequently, the electron reorients the active displacement in the dimension of the reference frame. It is either a spatial or a temporal frame of reference, depending on whether the velocity is above or below unity, but the two frames are parallel. In fact, these are two segments of a single system, since they represent the same one-dimensional movement in two different speed regions.

If the speed is greater than one, the representation variable size occurs in a temporal coordinate system, and a fixed position in a natural reference system appears in a spatial coordinate system as the movement of electrons (electric current) at the speed of light. If the speed is less than one, the representations are reversed. It does not follow from this that the movement of electrons along a conductor occurs at such speeds. In this regard, the collection of electrons is similar to the collection of gas. Individual electrons move at high speeds, but in random directions. Only the resulting excess movement in the direction of current flow, electron drift as it is commonly called, acts as non-directional movement.

The idea of ​​an “electron gas” is usually accepted in modern physics, but it is believed that “ simple theory leads to greater difficulties if examined in more detail.” As noted, the prevailing assumption is that the electrons of the electron gas extracted from atomic structures face many problems. There is also a direct contradiction with the specific heat values. “It was expected that electron gas would add an additional 3/2 R to the specific heat of metals,” but such an increase in specific heat was not experimentally detected.

The theory of the universe of motion offers answers to both of these problems. Electrons, the movement of which constitutes an electric current, are not removed from the atoms and are not subject to restrictions relating to their origin. The answer to the specific heat problem lies in the nature of electron motion. The movement of uncharged electrons (space units) in the matter of a conductor is equivalent to the movement of matter in the space of extensions. At a given temperature, atoms of matter have a certain speed relative to space. It doesn't matter whether it's continuation space or electronic space. Movement in electronic space (electron movement) is part of temperature movement, and the specific heat due to this movement is part of the specific heat of the atom, and not something separate.

If electron reorientation occurs in response to environmental factors, it cannot flip against forces associated with those factors. Therefore, in an uncharged state, electrons cannot leave the conductor. The only active property of an uncharged electron is spatial displacement, and the ratio of this space to the space of extensions is not motion. The combination of rotational movements (of an atom or particle) with a resulting displacement in space (velocity greater than one) can only move in time, as stated earlier. A combination of rotational motions with a resulting displacement in time (speed less than one) can only move in space, since motion is the connection between space and time. But the unit of speed (natural zero or First level) is unity in space and time. It follows that a combination of movements with a net velocity displacement of zero can move either in time or in space. Gaining a unit of negative* charge (in fact, positive in nature) by an electron that, in its uncharged state, has a unit of negative displacement, reduces the resulting velocity displacement to zero and allows the electron to move freely either in space or time.

The creation of charged electrons in a conductor requires only the transfer of sufficient energy to an uncharged electron to bring the existing kinetic energy of the particle to the equivalent of a unit charge. If an electron is projected into space, additional quantity energy is required to break away from a solid or liquid surface and overcome the pressure exerted by the surrounding gas. Charged electrons with energies below this level are confined to the conductor in the same way as uncharged electrons.

The energy required to create a charge and exit a conductor can be learned in many ways, each of which is a way of creating freely moving charged electrons. A convenient and widely used method provides the necessary energy through a potential difference. This increases the electrons' translational energy until it satisfies the requirement. In many applications, the required energy increment is minimized by projecting newly charged electrons into a vacuum rather than by requiring gas pressure to be overcome. Cathode rays used in the creation x-rays, are streams of charged electrons projected into a vacuum. The use of vacuum is also a characteristic of thermionic creation of charged electrons, in which the necessary energy is introduced into uncharged electrons through heat. In photovoltaic creation, energy is absorbed from radiation.

The existence of an electron as a freely charged unit is usually short-lived. Immediately after being created by one transfer of energy and emitted into space, it again collides with matter and enters into another transfer of energy by which the charge is converted into thermal energy or radiation, and the electron returns to an uncharged state. In close proximity to an agent that creates charged electrons, both the creation of charges and the reverse process that converts them into other types of energy occur simultaneously. One of the main reasons for using a vacuum to create electrons is to minimize the loss of charges during the reverse process.

In space, charged electrons can be observed, that is, detected, different ways, since due to the presence of charges they are influenced by electrical forces. This allows their movements to be controlled, and unlike its elusive uncharged counterpart, a charged electron is an observable entity that can be manipulated to create different kinds of physical effects.

It is impossible to isolate and study individual charged electrons in matter as we do in space, but we can become aware of the presence of particles by following the traces of freely moving charges in material aggregates. In addition to the special characteristics of charges, charged electrons in matter have the same properties as uncharged electrons. They move easily in good conductors and more difficult in bad ones. They move in response to potential differences. They are held in insulators - substances that do not have the necessary open measurements to allow free movement of electrons, and so on. The activity of charged electrons in and around aggregates of matter is known as static electricity.