The photon is a massless particle and can only exist in a vacuum. Also he has no electrical properties, that is, its charge equal to zero. Depending on the context of consideration, there are different interpretations of the description of a photon. Classical (electrodynamics) represents it as an electromagnetic wave with circular polarization. The photon also exhibits the properties of a particle. This dual idea of it is called wave-particle duality. On the other side, quantum electrodynamics describes the photon particle as a gauge boson that allows the formation electromagnetic interaction.
Among all the particles in the Universe, the photon has the maximum number. Spin (intrinsic mechanical moment) of the photon equal to one. Also, a photon can only be in two quantum states, one of which has a spin projection in a certain direction equal to -1, and the other equal to +1. Given quantum property photon is reflected in its classical representation as transversality electromagnetic wave. The rest mass of a photon is zero, which implies its propagation speed, equal to speed Sveta.
A photon particle has no electrical properties (charge) and is quite stable, that is, the photon is not capable of spontaneously decaying in a vacuum. This particle is emitted in many physical processes, for example, when moving electric charge with acceleration, as well as energy jumps of the nucleus of an atom or the atom itself from one state to another. Also, a photon can be absorbed during reverse processes.
Wave-particle duality of the photon
The wave-particle duality inherent in the photon manifests itself in numerous physical experiments. Photonic particles participate in wave processes such as diffraction and interference, when the size of obstacles (slits, diaphragms) is comparable to the size of the particle itself. This is especially noticeable in experiments with the diffraction of single photons at a single slit. Also, the point nature and corpuscularity of the photon is manifested in the processes of absorption and emission by objects whose dimensions are much smaller than the wavelength of the photon. But on the other hand, the representation of a photon as a particle is also not complete, because it is refuted by correlation experiments based on entangled states elementary particles. Therefore, it is customary to consider a photon particle, including as a wave.
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- Photon 1099: all about the car
Main quantum number- this is a whole number, which is a definition of the state of an electron at the energy level. Energy level is a set stationary states electron in an atom with similar energy values. Main quantum number determines the distance of an electron from the nucleus, and characterizes the energy of the electrons that occupy this level.
The set of numbers that characterize the state are called quantum numbers. The wave function of an electron in an atom, its unique state is determined by four quantum numbers - principal, magnetic, orbital and splin - the moment of motion of the elementary, expressed in quantitative value. Main quantum number has n .If the principal quantum number increases, then the orbit and energy of the electron increase accordingly. How less value n, those more value energy interaction electron If the total energy of electrons is minimal, then the state of the atom is called unexcited or ground. State of the atom with high value energy is called excited. At the highest level number electrons can be determined by the formula N = 2n2. When an electron transitions from one energy level to another, the main quantum number.IN quantum theory the statement that the energy of an electron is quantized, that is, it can take only discrete, specific values. To know the state of an electron in an atom, it is necessary to take into account the energy of the electron, the shape of the electron and other parameters. From the area natural numbers, where n can be equal to 1 and 2 and 3 and so on, the main quantum number can take any value. In quantum theory energy levels denoted by letters, the value n - by numbers. Number of the period where the element is located, equal to the number energy levels in an atom in its ground state. All energy levels consist of sublevels. The sublevel consists of atomic orbitals, which are determined and characterized by the main quantum number m n, orbital number m l and quantum number m ml. The number of sublevels of each level does not exceed n. The Schrödinger wave equation is the most convenient electronic structure atom.
Quantum physics became a huge impetus for the development of science in the 20th century. An attempt to describe the interaction of the smallest particles in a completely different way, using quantum mechanics, when some problems of classical mechanics already seemed insoluble, produced real revolution.
Reasons for the emergence of quantum physics
Physics – describes the laws by which the world functions. Newtonian, or classical, arose in the Middle Ages, and its premises could be seen in antiquity. It perfectly explains everything that happens on a scale perceived by humans without additional measuring instruments. But people faced many contradictions when they began to study the micro- and macroworld, to explore how tiny particles, of which the matter consists, and the giant galaxies surrounding dear to man Milky Way. It turned out that classical physics is not suitable for everything. This is how quantum physics appeared - the science of quantum mechanical and quantum field systems. The techniques for studying quantum physics are quantum mechanics and quantum field theory. They are also used in other related areas of physics.
Basic principles of quantum physics, in comparison with classical
For those who are just getting acquainted with quantum physics, its provisions often seem illogical or even absurd. However, delving deeper into them, it is much easier to trace the logic. The easiest way to learn the basic principles of quantum physics is to compare it with classical physics.
If in classical it is believed that nature is unchangeable, no matter how scientists describe it, then in quantum physics the result of observations will very much depend on which measurement method is used.
According to Newton's laws of mechanics, which are the basis of classical physics, a particle (or material point) at each moment of time has a certain position and speed. IN quantum mechanics this is wrong. It is based on the principle of superposition of distances. That is, if quantum particle can be in one and another state, which means it can also be in a third state - the sum of the previous two (this is called a linear combination). Therefore, it is impossible to determine exactly where the particle will be at a certain point in time. You can only calculate the probability of her being somewhere.
If in classical physics you can build a movement trajectory physical body, then in quantum there is only a probability distribution that will change over time. Moreover, the maximum of the distribution is always located where it is determined by classical mechanics! This is very important, as it allows, firstly, to trace the connection between classical and quantum mechanics, and secondly, it shows that they do not contradict each other. We can say that classical physics is a special case of quantum physics.
Probability in classical physics appears when the researcher does not know some properties of an object. In quantum physics, probability is fundamental and is always present, regardless of the degree of ignorance.
IN classical mechanics Any values of energy and velocity for a particle are allowed, but in a quantum particle only certain values, “quantized”, are allowed. They are called eigenvalues, each of which corresponds net worth. A quantum is a “portion” of some quantity that cannot be divided into components.
One of the fundamental principles of quantum physics is the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. The point here is that there is no way to simultaneously determine both the speed and position of a particle. You can only measure one thing. Moreover, the better the device measures the speed of a particle, the less will be known about its position, and vice versa.
The fact is that in order to measure a particle, you need to “look” at it, that is, send a particle of light – a photon – in its direction. This photon, about which the researcher knows everything, will collide with the particle being measured and change its properties. This is approximately the same as measuring the speed of a moving car by sending another car at a known speed towards it, and then, using the changed speed and trajectory of the second car, examining the first one. Quantum physics studies objects so small that even photons—particles of light—change their properties.
Photon is an elementary particle, a quantum of electromagnetic radiation. Quantum energy (that is, discretely), where is Planck’s constant. momentum. If we attribute to the photon the presence of the so-called. “relativistic mass” based on the relationship, it will be There is no rest mass for the photon. The photo effect is the emission of electrons from a substance under the influence of light (and, generally speaking, any electromagnetic radiation). Einstein’s formula for the photo effect:
hν = A out + E k
Where A out- so-called work function (minimum energy required to remove an electron from a substance), E k is the kinetic energy of the emitted electron (depending on the speed, either the kinetic energy of a relativistic particle can be calculated or not), ν is the frequency of the incident photon with energy hν, h- Planck's constant.
External photoelectric effect (photoelectron emission) is the emission of electrons by a substance under the influence of electromagnetic radiation. 1) The maximum initial speed of photoelectrons does not depend on the intensity of the incident light, but is determined only by its frequency. 2) There is a minimum frequency at which the photoelectric effect is possible (red border) 3) The saturation current depends on the intensity of light incident on the sample 4) The photoelectric effect is an inertia-free phenomenon. To stop the photocurrent, a negative voltage (turn-off voltage) must be applied to the anode. 
Internal photoelectric effect is a change in the electronic conductivity of a substance under the influence of light. Photoconductivity is characteristic of semiconductors. The electrical conductivity of semiconductors is limited by the lack of charge carriers. When a photon is absorbed, an electron moves from the valence band to the conduction band. As a result, a pair of charge carriers is formed: an electron in the conduction band and a hole in the valence band. Both charge carriers, when voltage is applied to the semiconductor, create an electric current.
When photoconductivity is excited in an intrinsic semiconductor, the photon energy must exceed the band gap. In a doped semiconductor, the absorption of a photon can be accompanied by a transition from a level located in the bandgap, which allows the wavelength of light that causes photoconductivity to be increased. This circumstance is important for detecting infrared radiation. A condition for high photoconductivity is also a high light absorption coefficient, which is realized in direct-gap semiconductors.
16. Light pressure.
Light pressure is the pressure produced by electromagnetic light waves incident on the surface of a body. The quantum theory of light explains light pressure as a result of photons transferring their momentum to atoms or molecules of matter. Let N photons fall on the surface of an absolutely black body with area S perpendicular to it every second: . Each photon has momentum. The total impulse received by the surface of the body is equal. Light pressure: 
.
- reflection coefficient, - volumetric radiation energy density. Classical theory 
17. Bremsstrahlung and characteristic X-ray radiation.
X-rays are electromagnetic waves, the energy of photons of which lies on the scale of electromagnetic waves between ultraviolet radiation and gamma radiation, which corresponds to wavelengths from 10 −2 to 10 3 Å (from 10 −12 to 10 −7 m). 
Schematic illustration x-ray tube. X - X-rays, K - cathode, A - anode (sometimes called anticathode), C - heat sink, U h- cathode filament voltage, U a- accelerating voltage, W in - water cooling inlet, W out - water cooling outlet. When the energy of the electrons bombarding the anode becomes sufficient to tear electrons out of the inner shells of the atom, sharp lines appear against the background of bremsstrahlung characteristic radiation. The frequencies of these lines depend on the nature of the anode substance, which is why they are called characteristic.
Bremsstrahlung is electromagnetic radiation emitted by a charged particle when it is scattered (braked) in an electric field. 
dp/dλ hv cannot be greater than the energy eU. from the law of conservation of energy The most common source of X-ray radiation is an X-ray tube, in which electrons strongly accelerated by an electric field bombard the anode (a metal target made of heavy metals, such as W or Pt), experiencing sharp deceleration on it. In this case, X-rays are generated, which are electromagnetic waves with a wavelength of approximately 10–12–10–8 m. Wave nature X-ray radiation is proven by experiments on its diffraction, discussed in § 182.
A study of the spectral composition of X-ray radiation shows that its spectrum has complex structure(Fig. 306) and depends both on the energy of the electrons and on the anode material. The spectrum is a superposition of a continuous spectrum, limited on the side of short wavelengths by a certain boundary min, called the boundary of the continuous spectrum, and line spectrum- a collection of individual lines appearing against the background of a continuous spectrum.
Research has shown that the nature of the continuous spectrum is completely independent of the anode material, but is determined only by the energy of the electrons bombarding the anode. A detailed study of the properties of this radiation showed that it is emitted by electrons bombarding the anode as a result of their deceleration during interaction with target atoms. The continuous X-ray spectrum is therefore called the bremsstrahlung spectrum. This conclusion is in agreement with the classical theory of radiation, since when moving charges are decelerated, radiation with a continuous spectrum should actually arise.
The classical theory, however, does not imply the existence of a short-wavelength boundary of the continuous spectrum. From experiments it follows that the greater the kinetic energy of the electrons causing X-ray bremsstrahlung, the less min. This circumstance, as well as the presence of the boundary itself, is explained by quantum theory. Obviously, the limiting energy of a quantum corresponds to the case of braking in which all the kinetic energy of the electron is converted into quantum energy, i.e.
Where U- potential difference due to which energy is imparted to an electron E max, max - frequency corresponding to the boundary of the continuous spectrum. Hence the cutoff wavelength
IN modern interpretation The quantum hypothesis states that energy E vibrations of an atom or molecule can be equal to hν, 2 hν, 3 hν, etc., but there are no oscillations with energy in the interval between two consecutive integers that are multiples of . This means that energy is not continuous, as was believed for centuries, but quantized , i.e. exists only in strictly defined discrete portions. The smallest portion is called quantum of energy . The quantum hypothesis can also be formulated as a statement that at the atomic-molecular level, vibrations do not occur with any amplitudes. Valid values amplitudes are related to the vibration frequency ν .
In 1905, Einstein put forward a bold idea that generalized the quantum hypothesis and made it the basis new theory light (quantum theory of the photoelectric effect). According to Einstein's theory , light with frequencyν not only emitted, as Planck assumed, but also spreads and is absorbed by the substance in separate portions (quanta), whose energy. Thus, the propagation of light should not be considered as continuous wave process, but as a stream of discrete light quanta localized in space, moving at the speed of light propagation in vacuum ( With). Quantum electromagnetic radiation got the name photon .
As we have already said, the emission of electrons from the surface of a metal under the influence of radiation incident on it corresponds to the idea of light as an electromagnetic wave, because the electric field of the electromagnetic wave acts on the electrons in the metal and knocks some of them out. But Einstein drew attention to the fact that the details of the photoelectric effect predicted by the wave theory and the photon (quantum corpuscular) theory of light differ significantly.
So, we can measure the energy of the emitted electron based on the wave and photon theory. To answer the question of which theory is preferable, let us consider some details of the photoelectric effect.
Let's start with wave theory, and suppose that the plate is illuminated monochromatic light . light wave characterized by parameters: intensity and frequency(or wavelength). Wave theory predicts that when these characteristics change, the following phenomena occur:
· with increasing light intensity, the number of ejected electrons and their maximum energy should increase, because higher light intensity means greater amplitude electric field, and a stronger electric field pulls out electrons with higher energy;
knocked out electrons; kinetic energy depends only on the intensity of the incident light.
The photon (corpuscular) theory predicts something completely different. First of all, we note that in a monochromatic beam all photons have the same energy (equal to hν). Increasing the intensity of a light beam means an increase in the number of photons in the beam, but does not affect their energy if the frequency remains unchanged. According to Einstein's theory, an electron is knocked off the surface of a metal when a single photon collides with it. In this case, all the energy of the photon is transferred to the electron, and the photon ceases to exist. Because electrons are held in the metal by attractive forces; minimal energy is required to knock an electron out of the metal surface A(which is called the work function and, for most metals, is on the order of several electron volts). If the frequency ν of the incident light is small, then the energy and energy of the photon is not enough to knock out an electron from the surface of the metal. If , then electrons fly out from the surface of the metal, and energy in such a process is preserved, i.e. photon energy ( hν) is equal kinetic energy the emitted electron plus the work of knocking the electron out of the metal:
| (2.3.1) |
Equation (2.3.1) is called Einstein's equation for the external photoelectric effect.
Based on these considerations, the photonic (corpuscular) theory of light predicts the following.
1. An increase in light intensity means an increase in the number of incident photons, which knock out more electrons from the metal surface. But since the photon energy is the same, the maximum kinetic energy of the electron will not change ( confirmed I photoelectric effect law).
2. As the frequency of the incident light increases, the maximum kinetic energy of electrons increases linearly in accordance with Einstein’s formula (2.3.1). ( Confirmation II photoelectric effect law). The graph of this dependence is presented in Fig. 2.3.
 ,
|
Rice. 2.3
3. If the frequency ν is less than the critical frequency, then electrons are not knocked out from the surface (III law).
So, we see that the predictions of the corpuscular (photon) theory are very different from the predictions of the wave theory, but coincide very well with the three experimental established laws photoelectric effect
Einstein's equation was confirmed by Millikan's experiments performed in 1913–1914. The main difference from Stoletov’s experiment is that the metal surface was cleaned in a vacuum. The dependence of the maximum kinetic energy on frequency was studied and Planck’s constant was determined h.
In 1926 Russian physicists P.I. Lukirsky and S.S. Prilezhaev used the method of a vacuum spherical capacitor to study the photoelectric effect. The anode was the silver-plated walls of a glass spherical cylinder, and the cathode was a ball ( R≈ 1.5 cm) from the metal under study, placed in the center of the sphere. This shape of the electrodes made it possible to increase the slope of the current-voltage characteristic and thereby more accurately determine the retardation voltage (and, consequently, h). Value of Planck's constant h, obtained from these experiments, is consistent with the values found by other methods (from black body radiation and from the short-wavelength edge of the continuous X-ray spectrum). All this is proof of the correctness of Einstein’s equation, and at the same time his quantum theory of the photoelectric effect.
For explanation thermal radiation Planck proposed that light is emitted by quanta. Einstein, when explaining the photoelectric effect, suggested that light is absorbed by quanta. Einstein also suggested that light propagates by quanta, i.e. in portions. The quantum of light energy is called photon . Those. again we came to the concept of corpuscle (particle).
The most direct confirmation of Einstein's hypothesis was provided by Bothe's experiment, which used the coincidence method (Fig. 2.4).
Rice. 2.4
Thin metal foil F placed between two gas-discharge counters SCH. The foil was illuminated by a weak beam x-rays, under the influence of which she herself became a source of X-rays (this phenomenon is called X-ray fluorescence). Due to the low intensity of the primary beam, the number of quanta emitted by the foil was small. When quanta hit the counter, the mechanism was triggered and a mark was made on the moving paper tape. If the emitted energy were distributed uniformly in all directions, as follows from wave representations, both counters had to operate simultaneously and the marks on the tape would be opposite one another. In reality, there was a completely random arrangement of marks. This can only be explained by the fact that in individual acts of emission light particles appear, flying in one direction or another. This is how the existence of special light particles – photons – was experimentally proven.
A photon has energy
. For visible light wavelength λ = 0.5 µm and energy E= 2.2 eV, for X-rays λ = µm and E= 0.5 eV.
The photon has inertial mass , which can be found from the relation:
| ; |
| (2.3.2) |
Photon travels at the speed of light c= 3·10 8 m/s. Let's substitute this speed value into the expression for the relativistic mass:
 .
|
A photon is a particle that has no rest mass. It can only exist by moving at the speed of light c .
Let's find the connection between energy and photon momentum.
We know the relativistic expression for momentum:
| . | (2.3.3) |
And for energy:
| . | (2.3.4) |
The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from the surface of a metal under the influence of light.
IN 
1888 G. Hertz discovered that when electrodes under high voltage are irradiated with ultraviolet rays, a discharge occurs at a greater distance between the electrodes than without irradiation.
The photoelectric effect can be observed in the following cases:
1. A zinc plate connected to an electroscope is charged negatively and irradiated with ultraviolet light. It discharges quickly. If you charge it positively, the charge of the plate will not change.
2
.
Ultraviolet rays passing through the positive grid electrode hit the negatively charged zinc plate and knock out electrons from it, which rush towards the grid, creating a photocurrent recorded by a sensitive galvanometer.
Laws of the photoelectric effect
The quantitative laws of the photoelectric effect (1888–1889) were established by A.G. Stoletov. He used a vacuum glass balloon with two electrodes.
P 
first law
Investigating the dependence of the current in the cylinder on the voltage between the electrodes at a constant light flux to one of them, he established first law of photoelectric effect.
The saturation photocurrent is proportional to the luminous fluxatfalling on metal: I=ν∙ Φ, where ν – proportionality coefficient, called the photosensitivity of the substance.
Hence, the number of electrons knocked out of a substance in 1 s is proportional to the intensity of light incident on this substance.
Second Law
By changing the lighting conditions on the same installation, A.G. Stoletov discovered the second law of the photoelectric effect: the kinetic energy of photoelectrons does not depend on the intensity of the incident light, but depends on its frequency.
E 
If you connect the positive pole of the battery to the illuminated electrode, then at a certain voltage the photocurrent will stop. This phenomenon does not depend on the magnitude of the luminous flux.
Using the law of conservation of energy 
, Where e– charge; m
– electron mass; v– electron speed; U h – blocking voltage, it is established that if the frequency of the rays with which the electrode is irradiated is increased, then U z2 > U z1, therefore E k2 > E k1. Hence, ν
2 > ν
1 .
T 
in this way the kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of light.
Third Law
By replacing the photocathode material in the device, Stoletov established the third law of the photoelectric effect: for each substance there is a red limit of the photoelectric effect, i.e. there is a lowest frequency ν min , at which the photoelectric effect is still possible. At ν <ν min at any intensity of the wave of light incident on the photocathode the photoelectric effect will not occur.
Fourth Law
The photoelectric effect is almost inertialess ( t = 10 −9 s).
Photoelectric effect theory
A. Einstein, developing the idea of M. Planck (1905), showed that the laws of the photoelectric effect can be explained using quantum theory.
The phenomenon of the photoelectric effect is experimentally proven: light has an intermittent structure.
Emitted Portion E=hν retains its individuality and is absorbed by the substance only entirely.
Based on the law of conservation of energy 
.
Because 
,
,
,
.
Photon and its properties
Photon is a material, electrically neutral particle.
Photon energyE=hν or E=ħω
, because 
, ω = 2 πν
. If h= 6.63∙10 −34 J∙s, then ħ ≈
1.55∙10 −34 J∙s.
According to the theory of relativity E=mc 2 =hν, from here 
, Where m– photon mass equivalent to energy.
Pulse
, because c=νλ
. The photon pulse is directed along the light beam.
The presence of an impulse is confirmed experimentally: the existence of light pressure.
Basic properties of a photon
1. It is a particle of an electromagnetic field.
2. Moves at the speed of light.
3. It exists only in motion.
4. It is impossible to stop a photon: it either moves with v=With, or does not exist; therefore, the rest mass of the photon is zero.
Compton Effect (1923)
A 
.Compton confirmed the quantum theory of light. Interaction between a photon and an electron bound in an atom:
1. From the point of view of wave theory, light waves should be scattered by small particles:
ν race = ν Unfortunately, this is not confirmed by experience.
2. The photoelectric effect is the complete absorption of a photon.
3
.
When studying the laws of X-ray scattering, A. Compton found that when X-rays pass through matter, the wavelength increases ( λ
) scattered radiation compared to wavelength ( λ
) incident radiation. The more φ
, the greater the energy loss, and therefore the decrease in frequency ν
(increase λ
). If we assume that a beam of X-rays consists of photons that fly at the speed of light, then the results of A. Compton’s experiments can be explained: photon frequency ν
has energy E
= hν
, mass 
and impulse 
.
Laws of conservation of energy and momentum for the photon-electron system: hν
+m 0 c 2
= hν"
+mc 2 ,
,Where m 0 c 2 – energy of a stationary electron; hν
– photon energy before collision; hν"
– photon energy after collision with a photon; 
And 
– photon pulses before and after the collision; mv– impulses of an electron after a collision with a photon.
Solving the equations for energy and momentum gives a formula for the change in wavelength when a photon is scattered by electrons: 
, Where 
– Compton wavelength.
V.V. Manturov
ABOUT THE SIZE OF PHOTONS
It is shown that it is reasonable to talk about the size of a photon only when the photon is represented as a toroidal (donut). There was no discussion about how to determine the size of a donut. It turned out, however (unexpected for the author from September-October 2012) that photons arising from the descent of de Broglie waves, for example, from a free electron - their parent and carrier, are two to three orders of magnitude higher in energy intensity than those photons that are highlighted in the spectra as a result of electron emission from an excited atom (in particular) hydrogen. Does it look like it was meant to be?
The answer to the question, what is the size of a photon, is both simple and not very simple. Let's start with the fact that for radio frequency waves, talking about the size of a photon is meaningless.
Firstly, a photon as a wave of electromagnetic nature and a radio wave of the same nature differ from each other not only in lengths and, accordingly, frequencies and the energies they acquire, but also in the structure determined by the physical mechanism of their occurrence.
In fact, radio wave radiation occurs when current discharges between two electrodes of a spark gap (linear lightning is classified as electrodeless). And they spread radially to the sides from the axis of the Hertz vibrator, spark gap or oscillator. The entire set of planes of polarization of such radio waves is determined by the direction of the axis of the spark gap, the “memory” of which they retain.
Secondly, propagating in space, they, radio waves, acquire a sort of spherical shape. Although in fact they are also “born” as bagels. (All this is similar to how the shape of a balloon changes from its original, original shape when it is inflated or inflated.) Unlike a balloon, the size of radio wave donuts, transforming into an almost sphere, grows at the speed of light, and without limit. Therefore, they are “theoretically” represented as flat monochromatic.
As for photons of no more than centimeter wavelengths, they are, first of all and forever, donuts, toroids of constant size. Since the size of a photon determines the length of its electromagnetic wave, and therefore the frequency. And since a photon is a de Broglie wave left by an electron (charged particle) or left by it,. And the de Broglie wave (DBW) arises, is born with the beginning of the movement of a charged particle. It, the VDB, is formed in the form of a toroid (donut), in the hole of which there is a charged particle, an electron - its parent and carrier. The VDB “sits” on the electron, accompanying it in motion. And only when the VDB and its parent and carrier leave each other, their continuation becomes a photon, which inherits the direction of motion of both the electron and the VDB. Thus, we see that, unlike radio waves, no oscillator, either simple or the most ingeniously invented one, takes absolutely any part in the emergence of both VDB and photon. Nature acted simply, pragmatically and rationally: it did not supply every photon with an oscillator. It limited itself to the fact that each VDB and each photon are self-sufficient: they have a unique wavelength. Hence the unambiguous size of the photon. Therefore, they do not need to be equipped with oscillators. After all, it was only a person who needed to know the frequency of the photon. So let him calculate it, since the wavelength and frequency are uniquely related through the speed of light. Thus, the second and significant difference between VDBs and photons and their related radio waves in nature is that photons and VDBs do not need oscillators.
This was thought until recently and was thought correctly, but not in all cases, as it turned out, Nature limited itself to this (see below).
Thirdly. Photons and VDBs not only do not propagate radially, but retain their size throughout the entire time they cover universal distances. This is due to the fact that in their “device” Nature has incorporated a tightening mechanism, the “hoop” effect. This effect was not known to physicists, as well as the fact that the basis of this contraction effect is a kind of “rod” (the fourth difference) in the form of a magnetic flux quantum. The magnetic field in it amounts to thousands of Tesla (remember: P.L. Kapitsa managed to reach about 50 Tesla with the help of an explosion).
It is precisely these features (there are others) that make the photon look like a corpuscle, like a particle. It turns out that the formation of an electromagnetic wave in the form of a donut with such a quantum of magnetic flux is nothing more than a particle. And yet this is not a particle, but a wave in the form of a toroidal soliton, which always contains one quantum of magnetic flux, enclosed (tightened) by many surface circulations of the vector potential. Therefore, both the magnetic and electric fields of both the VDB and the photon are always perpendicular to each other, which confirms Maxwell’s electrodynamics. The differences between VDBs and photons, on the one hand, and radio waves, on the other hand, are shown more fully in ,.
All solitons are more or less (tsunami) similar to corpuscles. The medium from which they are sculptured does not flow out of their volume, but is preserved. This is another difference. Look at the smoke rings exhaled by a skilled smoker, or from Wood's box, or from the crater of Mount Etna.
Retreat. And maybe only in the “body” of the tsunami, spreading radially from the place of origin, the mass (volume) of the acquired water, although theoretically preserved, is due to a change size(2πR, where R is the distance from the source of tsunami formation) decreases, the thickness of the “donut” becomes thinner. The tsunami in December 2004 was generated by a long (more than 100 km) linear fault and therefore brought down its thickness of the linear part of the “donut”, which had not had time to “lose weight,” and, consequently, all of its almost original destructive power onto the densely populated coasts of Indonesia. It, a tsunami, moved in the form of an almost straight segment of a “donut”, and did not lose its energy, spreading kilometers inland to the shore, land, and delivered destructive blows, like a hard and elastic rubber shaft, which largely retains its diameter due to linearity. the thickness of the donut.
The photon moves or spreads flat (perpendicular) to its velocity vector, i.e. along the axis of the toroid. And let us remind you that radio waves are radial from the axis of the spark gap. A photon is a quantum of energy and a quantum of magnetic flux, contracted by many circulations of the vector potential to the form of a donut toroid, is a corpuscular solenoid with a clearly formed geometry, and, consequently, size. Let us immediately state that the size of a toroidal photon is the sum of two transverse thicknesses of the donut body plus the diameter of the hole remaining from the electron. A VDB cannot exist without a hole and an electron in it, since at first there was an electron (charged particle). Which (charge) began to move or was already moving.
A = (mc/e) v (1)
and previously de Broglie obtained the wavelength of his name,
λ = (h/mv), (2)
we have (the formulas below are written without vector symbols)
λA = (hc/e) (3)
λ = (hc/eA), (4)
but in , is established from (1) and the relation mcv = eA = E = hν
λ = hc/(hν), (6)
where (hν) is the photon energy quantum. There is no need to open the brackets in (6): here lies the criterion necessary for calculations - the photon energy quantum or VDB. After all, we are talking about the size of a photon whose energy is given (hν). All that's left is pure arithmetic. The Z size of the photon and VDB is equal to
Z = 4(λ/2π) + hole diameter (6Z)
Let's give a few examples.
Example No. 1. What is the wavelength of de Broglie and a photon of a gamma quantum of magnitude 511000 eV? Such two gamma quanta are emitted during the so-called annihilation of an electron and a positron. In fact, a real recombination of two opposite charges-ions occurs with the preservation of the material particles themselves, as in the recombinations of atomic and molecular ions. Because they are in the singular and five or more orders of magnitude smaller in size and mass, they do not lose their ionic status. It is not lost, it is preserved.
Now we will use the formula (6) we obtained. But in order not to suffer with numerical calculations, let us take into account that according to Einstein, the entire mass of the electron (positron) during annihilation is supposedly “converted” into energy, into the gamma quantum of 0.511 MeV given by us, i.e. 0.511 MeV = m e c 2. Let us substitute exactly the right side (m e c 2) of this numerical value into the denominator (6). We get Compton electron wavelength
λ e = h/m e c = 2.426 310 58* 10 -10 cm (7)
But this is a de Broglie wave, and, therefore, a photon. And at the same time their size (6Z).
We have arrived at a contradiction. In fact, it is known, after all, that with the so-called. annihilation, an electron and a positron collide and form a dumbbell dipole (e+e-), the size of which is known as twice the classical radius of the electron
R e = e 2 /mc 2 (8)
And this is the smallest distance to which an electron and a positron approach during a collision (recombination) and remain in this pressed state. They seemed to cling to each other.
R e = α 2 a o = 2.817 940 92 *10 -13 cm, (9)
where a 0 =0.529 177 249*10 -8 cm – Bohr radius, this is the radius of the orbit closest to the core.
A comparison of (7) and (9) shows that they differ by three orders of magnitude. But in both cases we are talking about the recombination of an electron and a positron.
What's the matter? The fact is that an electron and a positron during a collision (annihilation) do not transform into energy in the form of two gamma quanta of 0.511 MeV each, which are actually emitted, but form a dipole in the form of a dumbbell (e+e-) with charges separated by distance (8) and (9). And it “dives” into the Dirac sea and becomes one of the nodes of the infinite lattice of “dark matter”. In order for the masses of the electron and positron not to be converted into energy, this pair (at an “infinite” distance from each other) has enough (exactly as much as needed) Coulomb energy, as evidenced by (8).
And in (7) the wavelength of de Broglie and photons that turned into gamma quanta of 0.511 MeV is given. Thus, (9) is the size of the particles, electron and positron, and the hole that they form in the VDB and leave behind when leaving it, and (7) is the length of their de Broglie waves and, accordingly, photons.
I wonder what the speed of an electron is at the moment of collision with a positron, those. at the moment of their so-called annihilation? As is known, the momentum of a photon or gamma quantum is determined by the formula
M e v = E/c (*)
We know the energy: E = 0.511 MeV = m e c 2 Substitute into (*) and get v = c. We emphasize: V = C. The electron reached the speed of light, and its mass did not increase in any way. And this is confirmed by the radiation of exactly the same (exactly 0.511 MeV) gamma quanta in magnitude by many universal luminaries in galaxies. No deviations.
Example No. 2. It is known that the charge of a proton is the same as that of a positron. The thought arises that Compton electron length(and this is the size of the VDB) seems to correspond to the energy level of the orbital electron, as if, falling on a hydrogen nucleus, it had acquired an orbit of radius (7). Let us assign n = 0 to it.
It is now generally accepted that the main thing quantum number is a sequence of integers n = 1,2.3,4,5,. We therefore did not mean that theoretically there is Andn = 0. And this is very important!!! For supporters of the idea of hydrino.
But the electron in the hydrogen atom does not fall on the nucleus, on the proton, and the electron is not captured by the nucleus. Why? Yes, because Nature could not allow hydrogen atoms to “annihilate” in the same way as in the case discussed above. Hydrogen atoms, more precisely, their proton nuclei, are building material, bricks from which Nature has built and is building more and more complex elements of Mendeleev’s periodic system. Protons do not have the right to turn into (p + e-) = n. Otherwise, neither the Big Bang, nor the Higgs bosons, nor anything else would have helped. The universe would not have come into being. The universe exists due to the impossibility of such an outcome. It is assumed that, apparently, for the same reason, spectropists never discovered lines in the spectrum of hydrogen in the range from n = 1 to the n = 0 we introduced. Hydrino does not occur.
Dark matter performs its electrodynamic functions and more. And it is very possible that dark matter also serves as a kind of building material for nucleons and nuclei. Almost one hundred percent of the Universe consists of hydrogen and helium. And everything swirls in whirlwinds, burns with stellar nuclear cauldrons, explodes, is absorbed by black holes and is reborn again. And even life, unknown how, arises, evolves, spreads, reaches high intellectual heights and peaks, and is thereby maintained. Due to the fact that it seems that the optical range of light (and GOD said: LET THERE BE LIGHT!!!) is limited to Rydberg 13.6 eV.
Example No. 3. Let us determine the value of the energy quantum of the de Broglie wave of the electron in the main stationary orbit of the hydrogen atom, i.e. for n = 1. To do this, we use formulas (4) or (5). Let it be (5)
We cannot do without the formula (1) we found. Let us replace v in (1) with v = c/137 = αс
hν = mc 2 /137 = αmc 2 (10)
And since the numerator on the right in (10) corresponds to an energy quantum of 511,000 eV, we get
hν = (511000 /137)eV (10a)
This will be (on a slide rule) approximately 3730eV. And since,
A = (emc/ ћn), (11)
Then at n = 2 the energy level of the electron and its VDB will decrease to approximately 1865 eV. But then it turns out to be absurd, completely absurd!!!??? And we will repeat. There are no such energies in the radiation spectrum of the hydrogen atom. The entire spectral range of the hydrogen atom, i.e. its entire ionization energy is
R∞ = 13.605 6981 eV. (12)
What's the matter? Let's compare this in frequencies.
Let us express the frequencies (which are equivalent to their energy quanta) of photons and de Broglie waves that arise when the VDB leaves (leaves) an electron, both freely moving and orbital at n = 1. Let us denote them as follows: ν λ .
ν λ = (с/λ) = (mce 2 /hћ) = c/2πr (13)
It is easy to see that the frequency is equal to the number of revolutions of the electron per second.
Let us represent the Rydberg frequencies ν∞ in the same way
ν ∞ = cR = c(me 2 /4πћ 3 c) = e 2 /4πћr (14)
The ratio of (13) to (14) shows us that their foundations are based on energy arsenals that are fundamentally different in size
(ν λ / ν ∞) = 2.137 = 2/α (15)
Now let’s divide (10a) by (15) and get the ionization energy of the hydrogen atom 13.6 eV.
I can't wrap my head around this.
And yet, the first conclusion is this: the frequencies of both photons and VDBs, caused by the disappearance of the VDB from the free and ground-state electron, its parent and carrier (VDB, abandoned by the electron or having left it), are in principle based on the energy arsenal, which in 2.137 = 2/α times the energy of photons in the spectral range of hydrogen atoms.
Note. Looking on the Internet at the page “What is a photon?” (it was from there that I learned that physicists are concerned with the question of what the size of a photon is), and somehow I came across an article by F.M. Konarev “Misconceptions of Niels Bohr.”
F. Konarev, as it turned out, encountered this absurdity back in 1993. But he did not dig deeper, and therefore was apparently unable to determine the magnitude of the energy bond of the electron located in the lower orbit (n = 1): “The bond energy E 1 of the electron (with the nucleus - VM, see below) at the moment of its stay it at the first energy level of this atom is equal to the ionization energy E J of the hydrogen atom, that is, E 1 = Ej = 13.60 eV. When an electron absorbs a photon with an energy of 10.20 eV and moves to the second energy level, its binding energy with the nucleus decreases and becomes equal to 3.40 eV. Naturally, when a photon is absorbed by an electron, their energies add up, and we must write...: 13.60 + 10.20 = 23.80 (28).”
And the spectrum gives 3.40 eV. As we see, he, Konarev, could not cope with the illogical energy balances when an external photon influenced the electron of the main energy level, and he became “furious.”
Let's omit a number of his theoretical calculations and hear the angry:
“An amazing fact. For almost a hundred years we believed that the electron in an atom revolved around the nucleus, like a planet around the sun. But the law of formulas for the spectrum of the hydrogen atom...(which he derived, but we omitted them because we did not agree with the initial aspects - VM) denies the orbital motion of the electron. There is no energy in this law corresponding to the orbital motion of the electron, which means it does not have such motion.”
Therefore, F. Kanarev decided that Niels Bohr was mistaken and thereby caused damage to science and humanity. Well, apparently, over these two decades (since 1992), many have read his claims to the founders of certain achievements of science and worldview. And they were also surprised. And the author of these lines, too, sinfully fell into this trap. Until you can call it anything else.
In fact, when acting on a ground state atom with a photon, we actually believed that the energy of this photon is added to the energy of the electron located in the first, ground state. But it turned out that this is not so. This can be explained: the electron got to this energy level not due to energy manipulations in the spectral zone, not only due to the spectral radiation of the previously excited hydrogen atom. He gets there in approximately the same way as planets get into the lair of the Sun and stars. Suppose the planet was at first independent with its kinetic energy, and when it fell into the sphere of gravity of the Sun, it turned out that its kinetic energy, the planet, was not enough to overcome the aggressive force of the sun. And she was captured, perhaps with some excess energy. So it is in this case with the hydrogen atom. There is an excess of kinetic energy, but it is two orders of magnitude lower than the critical one.
But be that as it may, there is an analogy here: a hydrogen atom is formed from a proton-nucleus and an electron, independent of each other, with an accompanying de Broglie wave sitting on it. Moreover, this pair, the electron and its VDB, already had a kinetic energy equal to
α.0.511 MeV = ~3730 eV
This energy state (level) of the electron in the n = 1 orbit is not without reason called the ground state. It, the main one, serves as an almost insurmountable border separating zones with levelsn = 0.1 from the zone with levelsn = 2,3,4,… In these zones, the laws of the formation and existence of VDBs and photons are fundamentally different. Outside the spectral zone of the hydrogen atom, the kinetic energy of the electron obeys law (11) multiplied by e.
EA = (hν) = mc(e 2 / ћn) = mcv, (16)
those. decrease in inverse proportion to the principal quantum number, and in the spectral zone (n = 2,3,4,...) - according to Rydberg’s law, i.e. (1/n 2).
It was shown above how different the energy arsenals are, on the basis of which the physical processes of the formation of VDBs and photons (in the first zone) and the formation of spectra (in the second zone) take place in them. Nature, as it were, separated the arsenal of energy intended for the emergence of life and its prosperity from the arsenal of energy of its inanimate part.
If VDBs and photons in the main (let’s call it that for brevity) zone are formed in the form of a toroid (donut) even before the capture of a free electron by a proton, then about the shape of VDBs and photons in the spectral zone - there is no reason to either insist on this analogy or deny it. After all, it turns out that in terms of energy they are 2.137 times (15) less, but this also means that their dimensions according to de Broglie’s formula (2) and ours (6) are many times larger. This means that we do not know for sure what the shapes of photons in the spectral range are. We also do not know how the division of energy and the initial quantum of magnetic flux occurs in an atom. The physical mechanism of these metamorphoses is unknown to us.
SOURCES USED
1. ALENITSIN A.G., BUTIKOV E.I., KONDRATIEV A.S. Brief physical and mathematical reference book, M, “Science”, 1990;
2. Manturov V.V. From crystalline nucleons and nuclei to the solution to the distribution of prime numbers M, 2007;
3. Manturov V.V. Nuclear forces. Proposal for a solution, Tekhnika molodezh, 02, 2006;
4. Manturov V.V. Let's say a word about the vector potential;
