Informative answers to all questions of the course " Latin for doctors" in accordance with the State educational standard.
Table of contents
1. History of the Latin language
2. Term and definition
3. Medical terminology
4. General cultural humanitarian significance of the Latin language
5. Alphabet
6. Reading vowels (and consonant j)
7. Diphthongs and features of reading consonants
8. Letter combinations. Accents. Rule of brevity
9. Cases and types of declensions
10. Defining the practical basis
11. Determining the gender of nouns
12. III declension of nouns
13. Adjective
14. Two groups of adjectives
15. Adjective - agreed definition
16. Nominative plural
17. Genitive plural
18. Morphemic analysis
19. Generative stem of the word
20. Segmentation of terms
21. Term element
22. Greco-Latin doublets
23. The meaning and place of term elements in the structure derivative word
24. Formal linguistic types of clinical terms
25. Methods of word formation. Deminutives
26. Nouns with a general word-formation meaning “action, process”
27. Adjective suffixes
28. Features of the foundation
29. Prefixation
30. Infinitive
31. Imperative and subjunctive moods
32. Subjunctive. Accusative case
33. Ablative. Prepositions
34. Form - cyclical, terminological
35. Trivial names of medicinal substances
36. General requirements for names of medicines
37. Frequency segments in trivial names
38. Dosage forms
39. Liquid dosage forms. Name of drugs
40. Recipe
41. Consumption accusative case when prescribing tablets and suppositories
42. Name of chemical elements
43. Numerals and numeral prefixes
44. Adverbs and pronouns
45. Communion active voice
46. Latin-Russian dictionary A-B
47. Latin-Russian C-D dictionary
48. Latin-Russian E-F dictionary
49. Latin-Russian Dictionary G-H
50. Latin-Russian Dictionary I-J-K
51. Latin-Russian dictionary L-M
52. Latin-Russian Dictionary N-O
53. Latin-Russian Dictionary P-Q
53. Latin-Russian Dictionary R-S
55. Latin-Russian T-U dictionary
56. Latin-Russian Dictionary V-X-Z
History of the Latin language
Latin belongs to the group of Italic languages dead languages. The formation of the literary Latin language took place in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e., and it reached its greatest perfection in the 1st century. BC e., during the period of the so-called classical, or “golden” Latin. He was distinguished by a rich vocabulary, the ability to convey complex abstract concepts, scientific, philosophical, political, legal, economic and technical terminology.
This period was followed by post-classical, or “silver” Latin (I-II centuries AD), when the norms of phonetics and morphology were finally strengthened, and spelling rules were determined. Last period The existence of Latin in ancient times was the so-called late Latin (III-VI centuries AD), when the gap between written, book, Latin and colloquial Latin began to intensify.
In the countries of the Western Mediterranean by the end of the 2nd century. BC e. Latin language gained the position of official state language.
Since 43 AD. e. and until 407, the Celts (British) who inhabited Britain were also under the rule of Rome.
If in the west of Europe the Latin language in its spoken form spread, almost without encountering resistance from tribal languages, then in the depths of the Mediterranean basin (Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt) he encountered languages that had a longer written history and had a level of culture much higher than the Latin language of the Roman conquerors. Widespread in these regions, even before the arrival of the Romans, they received the Greek language, and with it Greek, or Hellenic, culture.
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A useful application for devices with the Android system. As a student planning to become a doctor, Latin is essential. The program provides an opportunity to learn about the history of the language, its terminology, some general concepts and the need and advisability of its study in the 21st century. As you know, Latin - dead language, but only because it has no carriers. In humanitarian circles it is an international language, and in the Vatican it is even the state language.
Further, in the “Recipes” section there are two subsections, the first is devoted to recipes, which presents materials for the course “Latin” for the first year, medical practice. And also the recipes necessary for the third year “Pharmacology” course, medical practice. The phonetics section is designed to explain the basic rules of pronunciation, orthoepy - everything about superscripts, stress, vowel duration, comparison with ancient Greek words, and spelling: about spelling, combination of sounds. There is also a section about chemistry in this language for students simple substances, numeral prefixes, acids, oxides, etc. The grammar section talks about the endings of cases, nouns, and adjectives.
As the name suggests, it is free, but the developers offer to support them by purchasing a paid version and thereby removing advertising.
Advertising is present here to support the development of the project. It is stated that major universities are involved in the development of the textbook. Russian Federation: Moscow state university them. Lomonosov, Novosibirsk State Medical University University, Volgograd State Medical University, Siberian State Medical University. University, Krasnoyarsk State Medical University University and others, which confirms high quality materials.
It is worth noting that advertising pops up less often than expected, the application is very easy to use, written in accessible and engaging language, the ability feedback and ongoing support of the program is also valuable.
The lack of native speakers makes this language the subject of debate about phonetics and the meaning of words, but the cooperation of specialists from different universities helps maintain it as an international language not only in the medical environment. FREE is an excellent application for Android devices that will help you understand and love Latin.
A. I. Shtun
Latin for doctors
1. History of the Latin language
Latin belongs to the group of Italic dead languages. The formation of the literary Latin language took place in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e., and it reached its greatest perfection in the 1st century. BC e., during the period of the so-called classical, or “golden” Latin. He was distinguished by his rich vocabulary, ability to convey complex abstract concepts, scientific, philosophical, political, legal, economic and technical terminology.
This period was followed by post-classical, or “silver” Latin (I-II centuries AD), when the norms of phonetics and morphology were finally strengthened, and spelling rules were determined. The last period of the existence of Latin in ancient times was the so-called late Latin (III-VI centuries AD), when the gap between written, book, Latin and colloquial Latin began to intensify.
In the countries of the Western Mediterranean by the end of the 2nd century. BC e. Latin gained the position of the official state language.
Since 43 AD. e. and until 407, the Celts (British) who inhabited Britain were also under the rule of Rome.
If in the west of Europe the Latin language in its spoken form spread, almost without encountering resistance from tribal languages, then in the depths of the Mediterranean basin (Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt) it encountered languages that had a longer written history and had a level of culture much higher than Latin language of the Roman conquerors. Even before the arrival of the Romans, the Greek language became widespread in these regions, and with it the Greek, or Hellenic, culture.
From the very first cultural contacts between the Romans and Greeks and throughout the history of ancient Rome, the latter experienced the ever-increasing influence of highly developed Greek culture in the economic, state, social and spiritual areas of life.
Educated Romans tended to read and speak Greek. Borrowed Greek words entered the colloquial and literary Latin language, especially actively after the rule of Rome in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. Greece and the Hellenistic countries were included. From the 2nd century BC e. Rome began to assimilate the vocabulary of Greek science, philosophy and medicine, partially borrowing along with new concepts the terms denoting them, slightly Latinizing them.
At the same time, another process – education – developed more actively. Latin words scientific content, i.e. terms.
When comparing the two classical languages, their significant differences are visible.
The Latin language was noticeably inferior in its word-forming potential to the Greek, which had a remarkable ability to put into linguistic forms the first discovered, described phenomena, facts, ideas of biological and medical content, to easily create more and more new names almost transparent in meaning through in various ways word formation, especially through stem formation and suffixation.
2. Term and definition
The word “term” (terminus) is Latin in origin and once had the meaning “limit, boundary.” A term is a word or phrase that serves to unambiguously and accurately designate (name) a special, scientific concept in a certain system special concepts(in science, technology, production). Like any common noun, a term has content, or meaning (semantics, from the Greek semantikos - “denoting”), and a form, or sound complex (pronunciation).
Unlike all other common nouns, which denote everyday, everyday, so-called naive ideas, terms denote special scientific concepts.
Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary defines the concept as follows: “A thought that reflects in a generalized form the objects and phenomena of reality and the connections between them by fixing common and specific signs, which are the properties of objects and phenomena and the relationships between them.” A concept has content and scope. The content of a concept is the totality of the characteristics of an object reflected in it. The scope of a concept is a set (class) of objects, each of which has characteristics that make up the content of the concept.
Unlike ordinary everyday concepts, a special scientific concept is always a fact scientific concept, the result of a theoretical generalization. The term, being a sign of a scientific concept, plays the role of an intellectual tool. With its help, we formulate scientific theories, concepts, regulations, principles, laws. The term is often a herald of a new scientific discovery or phenomenon. Therefore, unlike non-terms, the meaning of a term is revealed in a definition, a determination that is necessarily attributed to it.
Definition(lat. definitio) is the formulation in a concise form of the essence of the term being termed, i.e., denoted by the term: only the main content of the concept is indicated. For example: ontogenesis (Greek on, ontos - “existent”, “being” + genesis - “generation”, “development”) - a set of successive morphological, physiological and biochemical transformations of the organism from its origin to the end of life; aerophiles (Latin аеr – “air” + philos – “loving”) are microorganisms that receive energy only from the oxidation reaction of oxygen in the environment.
As we see, the definition not only explains the meaning of the term, but establishes this meaning. The requirement to determine what a particular term means is equivalent to the requirement to give a definition of a scientific concept. In encyclopedias, special explanatory dictionaries, in textbooks the concept (term) introduced for the first time is revealed in definitions. Knowledge of the definitions of those concepts (terms) that are included in the curriculum of the disciplines is mandatory requirement for a student.
3. Medical terminology
Modern medical terminology is a system of systems, or a macroterminal system. The entire set of medical and paramedical terms, as noted, reaches several hundred thousand. The content plan of medical terminology is very diverse: morphological formations and processes characteristic of the human body normally and in pathologies at various stages of their development; human diseases and pathological conditions; forms of their course and signs (symptoms, syndromes), pathogens and carriers of diseases; factors environment, affecting positively or negatively the human body; indicators of hygienic standardization and assessment; methods of diagnosis, prevention and therapeutic treatment of diseases; surgical approaches and surgical operations; organizational forms of providing medical and preventive care to the population and sanitary and epidemiological services; apparatus, devices, instruments and others technical means, equipment, furniture for medical purposes; medicines, grouped according to the principle of their pharmacological action or therapeutic effect; individual medicines, medicinal plants, medicinal raw materials, etc.
Each term is an element of a specific subsystem, for example, anatomical, histological, embryological, therapeutic, surgical, gynecological, endocrinological, forensic, traumatological, psychiatric, genetic, botanical, biochemical, etc. Each subterminal system reflects a specific scientific classification concepts accepted in this science. At the same time, terms from different subsystems, interacting with each other, are in certain semantic relations and connections at the macroterminal system level.
This reflects a dual trend of progress: further differentiation of the medical sciences, on the one hand, and their increasing interdependence and integration, on the other. In the 20th century the number of highly specialized subterminal systems expressing concepts related to the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases affecting primarily individual organs and systems (pulmonology, urology, nephrology, neurosurgery, etc.) has increased significantly. Over the past decades, highly specialized dictionaries of cardiology, oncology, radiology, immunology, medical virology, and hygienic sciences have reached impressive sizes.
Within the framework of the macroterm system, almost the leading role belongs to the following subsystems:
1) anatomical and histological nomenclature;
2) a complex of pathological-anatomical, pathological-physiological and clinical terminological systems;
3) pharmaceutical terminology.
It is these subsystems that are the objects of study in the course of the Latin language and the basics of medical terminology.
4. General cultural humanitarian significance of the Latin language
Studying a Latin course in medical institute pursues strictly professional goal– prepare a terminologically competent doctor.
Annotation
Informative answers to all questions of the course “Latin for doctors” in accordance with the State educational standard.
A. I. Shtun
1. History of the Latin language
2. Term and definition
3. Medical terminology
4. General cultural humanitarian significance of the Latin language
5. Alphabet
6. Reading vowels (and consonant j)
7. Diphthongs and features of reading consonants
8. Letter combinations. Accents. Rule of brevity
9. Cases and types of declensions
10. Defining the practical basis
11. Determining the gender of nouns
12. III declension of nouns
13. Adjective
14. Two groups of adjectives
15. Adjective - agreed definition
16. Nominative plural
17. Genitive plural
18. Morphemic analysis
19. Generative stem of the word
20. Segmentation of terms
21. Term element
22. Greco-Latin doublets
23. The meaning and place of term elements in the structure of a derivative word
24. Formal linguistic types of clinical terms
25. Methods of word formation. Deminutives
26. Nouns with a general word-formation meaning “action, process”
27. Adjective suffixes
28. Features of the foundation
29. Prefixation
30. Infinitive
31. Imperative and subjunctive moods
32. Subjunctive. Accusative case
33. Ablative. Prepositions
34. Form – cyclical, terminological
35. Trivial names of medicinal substances
36. General requirements for names of medicines
37. Frequency segments in trivial names
38. Dosage forms
39. Liquid dosage forms. Name of drugs
40. Recipe
41. Use of the accusative case when prescribing pills and suppositories
42. Name of chemical elements
43. Numerals and numeral prefixes
44. Adverbs and pronouns
45. Active participle
46. Latin-Russian dictionary A-B
47. Latin-Russian Dictionary C-D
48. Latin-Russian Dictionary E-F
49. Latin-Russian Dictionary G-H
50. Latin-Russian Dictionary I-J-K
51. Latin-Russian dictionary L-M
52. Latin-Russian Dictionary N-O
53. Latin-Russian Dictionary P-Q
53. Latin-Russian Dictionary R-S
55. Latin-Russian Dictionary T-U
56. Latin-Russian Dictionary V-X-Z
A. I. Shtun
1. History of the Latin language
Latin belongs to the group of Italic dead languages. The formation of the literary Latin language took place in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e., and it reached its greatest perfection in the 1st century. BC e., during the period of the so-called classical, or “golden” Latin. He was distinguished by his rich vocabulary, ability to convey complex abstract concepts, scientific, philosophical, political, legal, economic and technical terminology.
This period was followed by post-classical, or “silver” Latin (I-II centuries AD), when the norms of phonetics and morphology were finally strengthened, and spelling rules were determined. The last period of the existence of Latin in ancient times was the so-called late Latin (III-VI centuries AD), when the gap between written, book, Latin and colloquial Latin began to intensify.
In the countries of the Western Mediterranean by the end of the 2nd century. BC e. Latin gained the position of the official state language.
Since 43 AD. e. and until 407, the Celts (British) who inhabited Britain were also under the rule of Rome.
If in the west of Europe the Latin language in its spoken form spread, almost without encountering resistance from tribal languages, then in the depths of the Mediterranean basin (Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt) it encountered languages that had a longer written history and had a level of culture much higher than Latin language of the Roman conquerors. Even before the arrival of the Romans, the Greek language became widespread in these regions, and with it the Greek, or Hellenic, culture.
From the very first cultural contacts between the Romans and Greeks and throughout the history of ancient Rome, the latter experienced the ever-increasing influence of highly developed Greek culture in the economic, state, social and spiritual areas of life.
Educated Romans tended to read and speak Greek. Borrowed Greek words entered the colloquial and literary Latin language, especially actively after the rule of Rome in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. Greece and the Hellenistic countries were included. From the 2nd century BC e. Rome began to assimilate the vocabulary of Greek science, philosophy and medicine, partially borrowing along with new concepts the terms denoting them, slightly Latinizing them.
At the same time, another process developed more actively - the formation of Latin words of scientific content, i.e. terms.
When comparing the two classical languages, their significant differences are visible.
The Latin language was noticeably inferior in its word-formation potential to the Greek, which had a remarkable ability to put into linguistic forms the first discovered, described phenomena, facts, ideas of biological and medical content, to easily create more and more new names, almost transparent in meaning, through various methods of word formation, especially by bases and suffixations.
2. Term and definition
The word “term” (terminus) is Latin in origin and once had the meaning “limit, boundary.” A term is a word or phrase that serves to unambiguously and accurately designate (name) a special, scientific concept in a certain system of special concepts (in science, technology, production). Like any common noun, a term has content, or meaning (semantics, from the Greek semantikos - “denoting”), and a form, or sound complex (pronunciation).
Unlike all other common nouns, which denote everyday, everyday, so-called naive ideas, terms denote special scientific concepts.
The Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary defines the concept as follows: “A thought that reflects in a generalized form the objects and phenomena of reality and the connections between them by fixing general and specific features, which are the properties of objects and phenomena and the relationships between them.” A concept has content and scope. The content of a concept is the totality of the characteristics of an object reflected in it. The scope of a concept is a set (class) of objects, each of which has characteristics that make up the content of the concept.
Unlike ordinary everyday concepts, a special scientific concept is always a fact of a scientific concept, the result of a theoretical generalization. The term, being a sign of a scientific concept, plays the role of an intellectual tool. With its help, scientific theories, concepts, provisions, principles, and laws are formulated. The term is often a herald of a new scientific discovery or phenomenon. Therefore, unlike non-terms, the meaning of a term is revealed in a definition, a determination that is necessarily attributed to it.
Definition(Latin definitio) is the formulation in a concise form of the essence of the term being termed, i.e., denoted by the term: only the main content of the concept is indicated. For example: ontogenesis (Greek on, ontos - “existent”, “being” + genesis - “generation”, “development”) - a set of successive morphological, physiological and biochemical transformations of the organism from its origin to the end of life; aerophiles (Latin аеr – “air” + philos – “loving”) are microorganisms that receive energy only from the oxidation reaction of oxygen in the environment.
As we see, the definition not only explains the meaning of the term, but establishes this meaning. The requirement to determine what a particular term means is equivalent to the requirement to give a definition of a scientific concept. In encyclopedias, special explanatory dictionaries, and textbooks, a concept (term) introduced for the first time is revealed in definitions. Knowledge of the definitions of those concepts (terms) that are included in the curriculum of the disciplines is a mandatory requirement for the student.
3. Medical terminology
Modern medical terminology is a system of systems, or a macroterminal system. The entire set of medical and paramedical terms, as noted, reaches several hundred thousand. The content plan of medical terminology is very diverse: morphological formations and processes characteristic of the human body normally and in pathologies at various stages of their development; human diseases and pathological conditions; forms of their course and signs (symptoms, syndromes), pathogens and carriers of diseases; environmental factors that positively or negatively affect the human body; indicators of hygienic standardization and assessment; methods of diagnosis, prevention and therapeutic treatment of diseases; surgical approaches and surgical operations; organizational forms of providing medical and preventive care to the population and sanitary and epidemiological services; devices, devices, tools and other technical means, equipment, furniture for medical purposes; medicines grouped according to their pharmacological action or therapeutic effect; individual medicines, medicinal plants, medicinal raw materials and...
Latin belongs to the group of Italic dead languages. The formation of the literary Latin language took place in the 2nd–1st centuries. BC e., and it reached its greatest perfection in the 1st century. BC e., during the period of the so-called classical, or “golden” Latin. He was distinguished by his rich vocabulary, ability to convey complex abstract concepts, scientific, philosophical, political, legal, economic and technical terminology.
This period was followed by postclassical, or “silver” Latin (1st–2nd centuries AD), when the norms of phonetics and morphology were finally strengthened, and spelling rules were determined. The last period of the existence of Latin in ancient times was the so-called Late Latin (III–VI centuries AD), when the gap between written, book, Latin and colloquial Latin began to intensify.
In the countries of the Western Mediterranean by the end of the 2nd century. BC e. Latin gained the position of the official state language.
Since 43 AD. e. and until 407, the Celts (British) who inhabited Britain were also under the rule of Rome.
If in the west of Europe the Latin language in its spoken form spread, almost without encountering resistance from tribal languages, then in the depths of the Mediterranean basin (Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt) it encountered languages that had a longer written history and had a level of culture much higher than Latin language of the Roman conquerors. Even before the arrival of the Romans, the Greek language became widespread in these regions, and with it the Greek, or Hellenic, culture.
From the very first cultural contacts between the Romans and Greeks and throughout the history of ancient Rome, the latter experienced the ever-increasing influence of highly developed Greek culture in the economic, state, social and spiritual areas of life.
Educated Romans tended to read and speak Greek. Borrowed Greek words entered the colloquial and literary Latin language, especially actively after the rule of Rome in the 2nd–1st centuries. BC e. Greece and the Hellenistic countries were included. From the 2nd century BC e. Rome began to assimilate the vocabulary of Greek science, philosophy and medicine, partially borrowing along with new concepts the terms denoting them, slightly Latinizing them.
At the same time, another process developed more actively - the formation of Latin words of scientific content, i.e. terms.
When comparing the two classical languages, their significant differences are visible.
The Latin language was noticeably inferior in its word-formation potential to the Greek, which had a remarkable ability to put into linguistic forms the first discovered, described phenomena, facts, ideas of biological and medical content, to easily create more and more new names, almost transparent in meaning, through various methods of word formation, especially by bases and suffixations.
2. Term and definition
The word “term” (terminus) is Latin in origin and once had the meaning “limit, boundary.”
A term is a word or phrase that serves to unambiguously and accurately designate (name) a special, scientific concept in a certain system of special concepts (in science, technology, production). Like any common noun, a term has content, or meaning (semantics, from the Greek semantikos - “denoting”), and a form, or sound complex (pronunciation).
Unlike all other common nouns, which denote everyday, everyday, so-called naive ideas, terms denote special scientific concepts.
The Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary defines the concept as follows: “A thought that reflects in a generalized form the objects and phenomena of reality and the connections between them by fixing general and specific features, which are the properties of objects and phenomena and the relationships between them.” A concept has content and scope. The content of a concept is the totality of the characteristics of an object reflected in it. The scope of a concept is a set (class) of objects, each of which has characteristics that make up the content of the concept.
Unlike ordinary everyday concepts, a special scientific concept is always a fact of a scientific concept, the result of a theoretical generalization. The term, being a sign of a scientific concept, plays the role of an intellectual tool. With its help, scientific theories, concepts, provisions, principles, and laws are formulated. The term is often a herald of a new scientific discovery or phenomenon. Therefore, unlike non-terms, the meaning of a term is revealed in a definition, a determination that is necessarily attributed to it.
Definition(Latin definitio) is the formulation in a concise form of the essence of the term being termed, i.e., denoted by the term: only the main content of the concept is indicated. For example: ontogenesis (Greek on, ontos - “existent”, “being” + genesis - “generation”, “development”) - a set of successive morphological, physiological and biochemical transformations of the organism from its origin to the end of life; aerophiles (Latin аеr – “air” + philos – “loving”) are microorganisms that receive energy only from the oxidation reaction of oxygen in the environment.
As we see, the definition not only explains the meaning of the term, but establishes this meaning. The requirement to determine what a particular term means is equivalent to the requirement to give a definition of a scientific concept. In encyclopedias, special explanatory dictionaries, and textbooks, a concept (term) introduced for the first time is revealed in definitions. Knowledge of the definitions of those concepts (terms) that are included in the curriculum of the disciplines is a mandatory requirement for the student.
3. Medical terminology
Modern medical terminology is a system of systems, or a macroterminal system. The entire set of medical and paramedical terms, as noted, reaches several hundred thousand. The content plan of medical terminology is very diverse: morphological formations and processes characteristic of the human body normally and in pathologies at various stages of their development; human diseases and pathological conditions; forms of their course and signs (symptoms, syndromes), pathogens and carriers of diseases; environmental factors that positively or negatively affect the human body; indicators of hygienic standardization and assessment; methods of diagnosis, prevention and therapeutic treatment of diseases; surgical approaches and surgical operations; organizational forms of providing medical and preventive care to the population and sanitary and epidemiological services; devices, devices, tools and other technical means, equipment, furniture for medical purposes; medicines grouped according to their pharmacological action or therapeutic effect; individual medicines, medicinal plants, medicinal raw materials, etc.
Each term is an element of a certain subsystem, for example, anatomical, histological, embryological, therapeutic, surgical, gynecological, endocrinological, forensic, traumatological, psychiatric, genetic, botanical, biochemical, etc. Each subterminal system reflects a certain scientific classification of concepts adopted in this science. At the same time, terms from different subsystems, interacting with each other, are in certain semantic relationships and connections at the level of the macroterm system.
This reflects a dual trend of progress: further differentiation of the medical sciences, on the one hand, and their increasing interdependence and integration, on the other. In the 20th century the number of highly specialized subterminal systems expressing concepts related to the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases affecting primarily individual organs and systems (pulmonology, urology, nephrology, neurosurgery, etc.) has increased significantly. Over the past decades, highly specialized dictionaries of cardiology, oncology, radiology, immunology, medical virology, and hygienic sciences have reached impressive sizes.
Within the framework of the macroterm system, almost the leading role belongs to the following subsystems:
1) anatomical and histological nomenclature;
2) a complex of pathological-anatomical, pathological-physiological and clinical terminological systems;
3) pharmaceutical terminology.
It is these subsystems that are the objects of study in the course of the Latin language and the basics of medical terminology.
4. General cultural humanitarian significance of the Latin language
Studying a Latin language course at a medical institute has a purely professional goal - to prepare a terminologically literate doctor.
However, to master any language, it is necessary to improve your cultural and educational level and broaden your horizons.
In this regard, Latin aphorisms and sayings that express a generalized, complete thought in a laconic form are useful, for example: Fortes fortuna juvat - “Fate helps the brave”; Non progredi est regredi - “Not going forward means going backward.”
Also interesting are proverbs like: Omnia mea mecum porto - “I carry everything that is mine with me”; Festina Lente– “Hurry slowly”, etc. Many aphorisms are individual lines, statements of famous ancient writers, philosophers, politicians. Of considerable interest are aphorisms in Latin belonging to modern scientists: R. Descartes, I. Newton, M. Lomonosov, C. Linnaeus and others.
Most of the Latin aphorisms, sayings and proverbs, included in the material of individual lessons and presented in a list at the end of the textbook, have long become catchphrases. They are used in scientific and fiction literature, and in public speaking. Some Latin aphorisms and sayings relate to issues of life and death, human health, and the behavior of a doctor. Some of them are medical deontological (Greek deon, deonios - “ought” + logos - “teaching”) commandments, for example: Solus aegroti suprema lex medkorum - “The good of the patient - supreme law doctors"; Primum noli nocere! - “First of all, do no harm!” (the first commandment of a doctor).
In the international vocabulary of many languages of the world, especially European ones, Latinisms occupy a significant place: institute, faculty, rector, dean, professor, doctor, associate professor, assistant, graduate student, laboratory assistant, preparator, student, dissertation candidate, audience, communication, credit, discredit, decree, credo, course, curator, supervise, prosecutor, cadet, ply, competitor, competition, excursion, sightseer, degree, gradation, degradation, ingredient, aggression, congress, progress, regression, lawyer, legal adviser, consultation, intelligence, intellectual, colleague, college, collection, petition, appetite, competence, rehearsal, tutor, conservator, conservatory, conserve, observatory, reserve, reservation, reservoir, valence, valerian, currency, devaluation, disabled, prevail, equivalent, statue, monument, ornament, style, illustration, etc.
Only in the last few years on the pages of newspapers and magazines, in the speeches of deputies, new words for our political life have appeared Latin origin: pluralism (pluralis - “multiple”), conversion (conversio - “transformation”, “change”), consensus (consensus - “agreement”, “agreement”), sponsor (sponsor - “trustee”), rotation (rotatio - “ circular motion"), etc.
5. Alphabet
Latin alphabet used in modern textbooks, reference books and dictionaries, consists of 25 letters.
Table 1. Latin alphabet
In Latin they are written with a capital letter proper names, names of months, peoples, geographical names and adjectives formed from them. In pharmaceutical terminology, it is customary to capitalize the names of plants and medicinal substances.
Notes
1. Most letters of the Latin alphabet are pronounced the same as in various Western European languages, however, some letters in these languages are called differently than in Latin; for example, the letter h is called in German“ha”, in French it is “ash”, in English it is “ech”, and in Latin it is “ha”. Letter j in French called “zhi”, in English – “jay”, and in Latin – “iot”. Latin letter“s” in English is called “si”, etc.
2. It must be borne in mind that the same letter can mean a different sound in these languages. For example, the sound designated by the letter g is pronounced in Latin as [g], and in French and English before e, i - as [zh] or [jj]; in English j is read as [j].
3. Latin spelling is phonetic, it reproduces the actual pronunciation of sounds. Compare: lat. latina [Latin], English. latin - Latin.
The difference is especially noticeable when comparing vowels in Latin and English. In Latin, almost all vowels are always pronounced the same way as the corresponding vowels in Russian.
4. As a rule, names not from the Latin language, but from other languages (Greek, Arabic, French, etc.) are Latinized, that is, they are formatted in accordance with the rules of phonetics and grammar of the Latin language.
6. Reading vowels (and consonant j)
In Latin, “E e” is read as [e]: vertebra [ve "rtebra] - vertebra, medianus [media "nus] - median.
Unlike Russians, no Latin consonants are softened before the sound [e]: anterior [ante "rior] - front, arteria [arte"ria] - artery.
“I i” is read as [and]: inferior [infe"rior] - lower, internus [inte"rnus] - internal.
At the beginning of a word or syllable before vowels i is read as a voiced consonant [th]: iugularis [yugulya "rice] - jugular, iunctura [junktu"ra] - connection, maior [ma"yor] - large, iuga [yu"ga] - elevation.
In the indicated positions in modern medical terminology, instead of i, the letter J j - yot is used: jugularis [jugulya "rice", juncture [junktu"ra], major [ma"yor], juga [yu"ga].
The letter j is not written only in words borrowed from Greek language, since there was no sound [th] in it: iatria [ia "tria] - healing, iodum [io "dum] - iodine.
To convey the sounds [ya], [yo], [ie], [yu], combinations of letters ja, jo, je, ju are used.
Y y (upsilon), in French “y”, reads like [and]: tympanum [ti"mpanum] - drum; gyrus [gi"rus] - gyrus of the brain. The letter "upsilon" is used only in words Greek origin. It was introduced by the Romans to represent the letter upsilon of the Greek alphabet, which was read as German [i]. If Greek word was written through i (Greek iota), read as [and], then it was transcribed into Latin through i.
In order to correctly write medical terms, you need to know some of the most common Greek prefixes and roots in which “upsilon” is written:
dys– [dis-] – a prefix that gives the term the meaning of a disorder, a disorder of function: dysostosis (dys + osteon – “bone”) – dysostosis – a disorder of bone formation;
hypo– [hypo-] – “under”, “below”: hypoderma (hypo + + derma – “skin”) – hypodermis – subcutaneous tissue, hypogastrium (hypo-+ gaster – “belly”, “stomach”) – hypogastrium – hypogastrium;
hyper– [hyper-] – “above”, “over”: hyperostosis (hyper + + osteon – “bone”) – hyperostosis – pathological growth of unchanged bone tissue;
syn-, sym– [sin-, sim-] – “with”, “together”, “together”: synostosis (syn + osteon – “bone”) – synostosis – connection of bones through bone tissue;
mу(o)– [myo-] – the root of a word indicating the relationship to muscles: myologia (myo + logos – “word”, “teaching”) – myology – the study of muscles;
phys– [phys-] – the root of the word, indicating in anatomical terms the relation to something growing in a certain place: diaphysis – diaphysis (in osteology) – the middle part of the tubular bone.
7. Diphthongs and features of reading consonants
In addition to the simple vowels [a], [e], [i], [o], [and], in the Latin language there were also two-vowel sounds (diphthongs) ae, oe, ai, e.
The digraph ae is read as [e]: vertebrae [ve "rtebre] - vertebrae, peritonaeum [peritone "um] - peritoneum.
The digraph oe is read as [e], more precisely, like the German o or French oe: foetor [fetor] - bad smell.
In most cases, the diphthongs ae and oe found in medical terms, served to convey the Greek diphthongs ai and oi in Latin. For example: oedema [ede "ma] - swelling, oesophagus [eso" phagus] - esophagus.
If in the combinations ae and oe the vowels belong to different syllables, that is, they do not constitute a diphthong, then a separation sign () is placed above the “e” and each vowel is pronounced separately: diploе [diploe] - diploe - spongy substance of the flat bones of the skull; аеr [aer] – air.
The au diphthong is read as: auris [au "rice] - ear. The eu diphthong is read as [eu]: ple"ura [ple"ura] - pleura, neurocranium [neurocranium] - brain skull.
Features of reading consonants
A double reading of the letter “С с” is accepted: as [k] or [ts].
How [k] is read before the vowels a, o, and, before all consonants and at the end of the word: caput [ka "put] - head, head of bones and internal organs, cubitus [ku "bitus] - elbow, clavicula [beak" - collarbone, crista [kri "sta] - crest.
How [ts] is read before the vowels e, i, y and the digraphs ae, oe: cervicalis [cervical fox] - cervical, incisure [incizu "ra] - notch, coccyngeus [kokzinge "us] - coccygeal, coelia [tse "lia ] – abdominal cavity.
“H h” is read as the Ukrainian sound [g] or German [h] (haben): homo [homo] - man, hnia "tus [gna" tus] - gap, crevice, humerus [gume "rus] - humerus.
“K k” is found very rarely, almost exclusively in words of non-Latin origin, in cases where it is necessary to preserve the sound [k] before the sounds [e] or [i]: kyphosis [kypho"zis] - kyphosis, kinetocytus [kine"to -citus] – kinetocyte – mobile cell (words of Greek origin).
“S s” has a double reading – [s] or [z]. As [s] is read in most cases: sulcus [su"lkus] - groove, os sacrum [os sa"krum] - sacrum, sacral bone; back [fo"ssa] - pit, ossa [o"ssa] - bones, processus [protse"ssus] - process. In the position between the vowels and consonants m, n in words of Greek origin, s is read as [z]: chiasma [chia"zma] - cross, platysma [platy"zma] - subcutaneous muscle of the neck.
“X x” is called a double consonant, since it represents the sound combination [ks]: radix [ra "dix] - root, extremitas [extra "mitas] - end.
“Z z” is found in words of Greek origin and is read as [z]: zygomaticus [zygoma "ticus] - zygomatic, trapezius [trapezius] - trapezoidal.
8. Letter combinations. Accents. Rule of brevity
In Latin, the letter “Q q” is found only in combination with cu before vowels, and this letter combination is read as [kv]: squama [squa "me] - scales, quadratus [quadra "tus] - square.
The letter combination ngu is read in two ways: before vowels as [ngv], before consonants - [ngu]: lingua [li "ngva] - language, lingula [li "ngulya] - tongue, sanguis [sa "ngvis] - blood, angulus [angu" luc] – angle.
The combination ti before vowels is read as [qi]: rotatio [rota "tsio] - rotation, articulatio [article "tsio] - joint, eminentia [emine "ntsia] - elevation.
However, ti before vowels in the combinations sti, xti, tti is read as [ti]: ostium [o"stium] - hole, entrance, mouth, mixtio [mi"xtio] - mixture.
In words of Greek origin there are digraphs ch, рh, rh, th, which are graphic signs for conveying the corresponding sounds of the Greek language. Each digraph is read as one sound:
сh = [x]; рh = [ф]; rh = [p]; th = [t]: nucha [nu"ha] - neck, chorda [chord] - chord, string, phalanx [fa"lanks] - phalanx; apophysis [apophysis] – apophysis, process; thorax [to "raks] - chest entrance, rhaphe [ra" fe] - seam.
The letter combination sch is read as [сх]: os ischii [os and "schii] - ischium, ischiadicus [ischia "dicus] - ischium.
Rules for placing stress.
1. The emphasis is never on last syllable. In two-syllable words it is placed on the first syllable.
2. In three-syllable and polysyllabic words, the stress is placed on the penultimate or third syllable from the end.
The placement of stress depends on the duration of the penultimate syllable. If the penultimate syllable is long, then the stress falls on it, and if it is short, then the stress falls on the third syllable from the end.
Therefore, to place stress in words containing more than two syllables, it is necessary to know the rules for the length or shortness of the penultimate syllable.
Two rules of longitude
Longitude of the penultimate syllable.
1. A syllable is long if it contains a diphthong: peritona"eum - peritoneum, perona"eus - peroneal (nerve), dia"eta - diet.
2. A syllable is long if a vowel comes before two or more consonants, as well as before double consonants x and z. This longitude is called positional longitude.
For example: colu"mna - column, pillar, exte"rnus - external, labyri"nthus - labyrinth, medu"lla - brain, medulla, maxi"lla - upper jaw, metaca"rpus - metacarpus, circumfle"xus - circumflex.
Rule of brevity
The vowel that comes before a vowel or the letter h is always short. For example: tro"chlea - block, pa"ries - wall, o"sseus - bone, acro"mion - acromion (brachial process), xiphoi"deus - xiphoid, peritendi"neum - peritendinium, pericho"ndrium - perichondrium.
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