GOALS:

• learn to identify basic aesthetic values;
• develop the ability to distinguish between these values ​​in aesthetic and artistic reality;
• acquire initial skills in analyzing basic aesthetic values.

1. Beauty as historically the first and main aesthetic value.
2. The essence and features of the aesthetic development of the sublime.
3. The essence and features of comprehending the tragic.
4. Comic: essence, structure and functions.

The first historically identified and then until the 20th century main aesthetic value is beauty or beauty; for classical aesthetics these are synonyms. Beauty is, one might say, a favorite value for aesthetics, which manifests itself empirically not only in constant life perception and admiration of beauty, but also in the mythologization by consciousness of this value as having a special power that brings harmony and bliss to life. Charles Baudelaire, famous poet French symbolism, whose life was very bleak and rarely harmonious, in his poetry in the cycle “Flowers of Evil” creates “Hymn to Beauty” (1860), the ending of which is as follows:

Whether you are a child of heaven or a creature of hell,
Whether you are a monster or a pure dream,
You are an unknown, terrible joy!
You open the gates to boundlessness for us.

Are you God or Satan? Are you an Angel or Siren?
Does it really matter: only you, Queen Beauty,
You free the world from painful captivity,
Send incense and sounds and colors!

At F.M. Dostoevsky then we encounter a strong conviction that the world will be saved by beauty, although Dostoevsky also understood the complexity and inconsistency of beauty.

On the other hand, in the history of art, in addition to mythological perception, we see the desire to rationally comprehend beauty, to give it a formula, an algorithm. For a certain time this formula works, although then it becomes necessary to revise it. An absolute answer cannot be obtained in principle, because beauty is a value, and, therefore, every culture and every people has its own image and formula of beauty.

Paradox: beauty is something simple, immediately perceived, and, at the same time, beauty is changeable and difficult to define.

External reaction beauty consists entirely of positive emotions acceptance, delight. At the object level, this is due to the fact that beauty is the positive meaning of the world for a person. Any aesthetic value has the goal of harmonizing the world and man. For beauty, this is connected to its essence. Several categories can reveal the essence of the relationships from which beauty grows:

• proportionality of the object to the needs and capabilities of the subject, determined by the mastery of the world, the correspondence of the world and man;
• harmony, more precisely, harmonic unity person and reality. Harmony, order, agreement with the world here becomes decisive. Beauty is the aesthetic expression of this, and hence the joy in the experience of beauty.
• freedom- the world is beautiful where there is freedom. Where freedom disappears, beauty disappears; there is stiffness, numbness, fatigue. Beauty is a symbol of freedom.
• humanity- beauty favors the development of man, the spiritual fullness of his existence. Beauty is an aesthetic value that expresses the optimal humanity of the world and man, and this is its essence.

It is possible to feel the sublime not so much in direct sensory contact as in the beautiful, but through the imagination, for the sublime is immeasurable. The sea, the ocean, something that cannot be exhausted is an example of a force that challenges an ordinary person and which a person cannot correlate with his own strength. Mountains are perceived as sublime, because this is something unconquered, above us, this is sublime not only in space, but also in time: we are small, finite, the rocks are endless and this is breathtaking. The horizon, the starry sky, the abyss are always sublime, because they give birth to the image of infinity in our consciousness. Verticality, movement into the endless heavenly world becomes the basis of our perception of the sublime. Human perception of the world is vertical as an ascent to value limits and ideals. From Tyutchev:

“Blessed is he who visited this world in its fatal moments

The All-Good Ones called him as a companion to a feast!”

The soul rises when you understand the meaning of these events. But the second is the moral law, the difficult overcoming of initial egoism makes a person sublime, elevates him. The heroic, as an act for the sake of humanity, is a kind of sublime.

Two concepts are important when defining the sublime: pinnacle(the pinnacle manifestations of natural and social existence), noticed sensually(embodiment of the vertical, for example, religious buildings). A man cannot live without absolute values ​​that act as ultimate goals and ultimate criteria of value for a person. These absolutes, of course, go beyond the framework of ordinary repetitive everyday existence, they are not deducible from it, these are values ​​for the existence of which there are no human prerequisites.

In the beautiful, a person measures himself by the world around him, and in the sublime, a person measures himself by the absolutes of the surrounding world, which are the antithesis of everything relative, they are non-relative. The sublime is the absolute in relative world. There are such absolutes within human existence, where the beautiful and the sublime coincide, for example, truth. There is no limit to truth and the pursuit of truth, freedom too. Love is also limitless, it requires complete dedication, complete living. But endless affection old-world landowners Gogol's is an expression of beauty, and Rodin's love is sublime. And yet there are phenomena that are far from the ethically absolute. In Pushkin’s “Feast in the Time of Plague” from “Little Tragedies,” the presiding officer at a feast during a plague epidemic proclaims a hymn to the plague:

So, praise be to you, Plague!

We are not afraid of the darkness of the grave,

We will not be confused by your calling.

We drink glasses together,

And the rose maidens drink the breath -

Perhaps...full of Plague.

A man challenges the plague that destroys everyone, opposing this disaster with his spiritual strength, capable of overcoming the fear of the advancing plague. The sublime embodies internal growth person. The beautiful embodies a joyful agreement with the world; in the sublime we feel inner infinity, immortality, participation in which gives the sublime.

Beautiful is homogeneity, harmony, consistency, experienced emotionally. The sublime embodies a psychological contradiction that must be resolved through spiritual effort. Enormous forces and new horizons are opened up by man as a result of the application of these forces. If fear wins, paralysis of the will occurs and the inability to act.

In the aesthetic consciousness, the positive principle wins in the internal struggle, we fly up, we soar above the ground, and begin to experience high excitement of the soul, in which we feel our immortality through a breakthrough into infinity. The pinnacle of perception of the sublime is communion with heaven and a feeling of coincidence with the infinite.

But the beautiful and the sublime are equally necessary and complement each other. A person needs two worlds - a home one, which reproduces stable and necessary connections with the world, and a heavenly one, which affirms immensity, attracts and elevates him.

In the beautiful and sublime we find peace, in the tragic there is a loss of human values, and these can also be material values. But not every loss is tragic and not all tears are tragic. The tragedy itself determines the scale of the values ​​we are losing. In Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro, Barbarina sings an arioso about the loss of a pin. The music sparkles over the false tears of loss. But the peaks of world opera are tragedies: “Othello”, “Il Trovatore”, “Un ballo in maschera”, “La Traviata”, “Aida” by Verdi; “The Ring of the Nibelungs”, “Tristan and Isolde” by Wagner are the best tragic operas. Thus, at the heart of the tragic loss of fundamentally significant human values.

The loss of such valuables is a breakdown, a breakdown human existence in its most intimate qualities, and it is impossible to survive such losses. What are these values?

1. Loss of the Motherland. In exile, Chaliapin carried on his chest the amulet with his native land for the rest of his life. This is the spiritual and vital value of your favorite space.

2. Loss of your business, and essentially, your life. A task without which a person cannot live, and therefore it is an irreparable loss. Life needs to start over (a singer who has lost his voice, an artist who has lost his sight, a composer who has lost his hearing). The tragedy of the impossibility of creativity, which for an artist is life.

3. Loss of truth - a value without which people also cannot live. Living in a lie is unbearable for a person, we lie constantly, but the moment of truth comes!

Goodness, a clear conscience are values ​​of the same kind. Conscience, tormenting a person, punishing him, making a person feel like an executioner. Boris Godunov is a sick conscience that begins to torment him, and his life stops and breaks down. Life breaks down at the moment of loss of values. For Raskolnikov, retribution follows not in the form of condemnation and exile to hard labor, but in the fact that he does not find a place for himself and finds himself an outcast among other people. Man prefers death to trampling moral principles life. From V. Bykov: Rybak and Sotnikov. The fisherman compromises from the first minute, Sotnikov remains a moral being, going to the gallows, looking at the world with a smile. The optimism of tragedy: a person freely chooses his moral essence, life after that turns out to be impossible. The tragedy of love - a person who has found love can no longer exist without it, cannot live without his loved one. Freedom - a person is free in essence, the loss of freedom is a colossal tragedy. All together, this can be summarized in one more value - the meaning of life. Where it is not there, life is absurd. According to A. Camus, the world is devoid of meaning for a person and, therefore, the main question of life is the question of suicide.

The meaning of life is that last, intimate thing that connects us with existence. Then, when it exists, life is worth living. The situation of loss of opportunities to communicate with another person is also a loss of the meaning of life, which is accurately expressed in the films of M. Antonioni.

This is the first layer of tragedy - loss. But what is important is the inevitable, natural nature, the hidden essence of these losses. When the loss is accidental, there is no tragedy. For the Greeks, fate and fate embody the inevitability of loss. Why is this so? A person tries to extract experience from the life in which he lives. Randomness is something that is impossible to navigate and what is impossible to predict. In what is tragic for a person, the truth of life is revealed, and this is what we inevitably not only discover, but also lose. Through the tragic, we become aligned with the deep laws of existence. Randomness is variable, pattern is stable. The tragic leads to the loss of the most precious thing we have. Why is Oedipus the King a tragedy? Oedipus killed his father and married his own mother and, thereby, violated two basic patterns of life, two values ​​on which the archaic cosmos of antiquity rests; commits murder of a relative and incest, and then other patterns begin to operate. Here we see not only the objective content, but we get to the bottom of the matter, comprehend the truth, experience and overcome the conflict. This tragedy has always worried viewers.

The art of tragedy as a genre is different from melodrama: melodrama is all accidental, all events are reversible (replaceable), the triumph of villains is temporary, tragedy is nothing accidental, everything is natural, death is inevitable. We get little spiritually from melodrama; tragedy is a deep experience. A. Bonnard argued that to cry tragic tears means to understand that it cannot be otherwise - this is the truth that tragedy reveals to us. Symbolically meaningful fate runs through the entire history of mankind. The whole tragedy is expressed in some symbols. Dostoevsky's child's tear is an aesthetic symbol of tragedy.

Finally, in the tragic we comprehend cause of loss. The reasons for the tragic: the contradictions of human existence, contradictions that cannot be resolved peacefully, they are also called antagonisms. As long as there is antagonism in the world, the world will live in tragedy. And often antagonisms are expressed true essence human relations and if there are many of them, then there is a tragic culture and a tragic life. Van Gogh's painting is the embodiment of a tragic worldview, a consciousness living in insoluble antagonism, where life is the absence of the most essential values, the life of components - hope, meaning, love. Van Gogh loved people and had no recognition during his lifetime. "Night cafe in Arles" - an atmosphere in which a person can go crazy.

What antagonisms form the basis of the tragic? The first is man - nature: the eternal struggle of man with nature. Man enters into a struggle with elements with which it is impossible to come to an agreement, and nature crushes man.

Second, the antagonism of man with his own nature, and this antagonism cannot be eliminated: the infinity of the spiritual essence of man, the subjective immortality of man, which comes into irreconcilable contradictions with the human body, his mortality, and biological limitations. Fear of death and thirst to overcome death. Condition normal life- this is freedom from the fear of death, which must be achieved through incredible spiritual efforts. Religious consciousness, through the idea of ​​the immortality of the soul, helps the believer get rid of this fear. Every person carries a tragic contradiction within himself, and every person’s life is tragic.

Third, social antagonisms: the very dynamics of human life determines social antagonisms. Social world built on irreconcilable contradictions: wars of peoples for territories, conflicts between classes, clans, groups, worldviews. The contradiction between society and the individual is every time an encroachment on individual freedom. Sometimes this conflict takes on more banal forms, but it is no less tragic: the environment devours a person, burns him. But conflicts are inherent in the human personality, which is interpreted differently in different cultures. In the culture of classicism, where duty is a feeling, a social norm and a personal desire, Phaedra dies because she cannot fulfill her duty. A person needs to make a choice between two sides self: feeling is a duty, and it is infinitely difficult. Bertolucci "Last Tango in Paris" A person learns not only by analyzing patterns, but also by practicing overcoming natural contradictions. Fate and the man who opposes fate is the very first confrontation in Greek tragedy. Different degrees of lack of freedom in relation to fate: people are initially toys in the hands of fate. Tragic guilt is the manifestation of maximum human freedom in a tragic situation. A person, realizing the inevitability of his death, freely and responsibly chooses his death. Otherwise, it will be a refusal of your destiny. Carmen cannot lie; being free is more important to her than lying. Carmen affirms freedom and love with her death. She is to blame for her death, it is a tragic guilt. But she cannot give up either love or freedom.

Why do people need to recreate and perceive the tragic in art? This complex process, where the rational is connected with the emotional, the unconscious with the conscious. The logic of perception of the tragic: begins with immersion in the abyss of horror, fear, suffering. This is shock, darkness, almost going crazy. Aristotle states: experiencing tragedy in the unity of feelings of fear and compassion. Suddenly light appears in the darkness: here a bright mind and good will are of enormous importance in a person’s life. At the level of experience, there is an almost mystical transition of weakness into strength, a dead end into dawn. The darkness leaves the soul, we begin to experience a feeling that is impossible not to experience. The Greeks called this transformation catharsis, the purification of the soul. This is why the tragic exists.

Important moments in the perception and experience of the tragic: in horror there is compassion, I become different, I rise to the suffering of another, I already rise in this. We rise, secondly, to an understanding of what is happening, and this is also a way out of the situation. We understand not only the inevitability of losses, but also their scale and the meaning of those values ​​that are lost. We want to love like Romeo and Juliet, etc. There is an introduction to fundamental values ​​at the deepest level. These values ​​compensate us for our understanding of the hopelessness of the situation. Pessimism of the mind gives rise to optimism of the will, according to A. Gramsci. And this is the moment of true elevation of man: I insist on freedom, love. Truly human principles triumph in man, do not give up their positions, and continue life. Beethoven: life is a tragedy, hurray! For the person himself, this is a statement of the person every time. Courage like inner strength, loyalty to something, the will to live, a person’s connection with life and its values ​​is each time affirmed in the tragic. That is why the tragic is ineradicable and necessary in normal human culture.

Ancient cultures already had a mechanism for ritual laughter. The meaning of the comic is humiliation and thereby revaluation of certain socially ranked values. It is no coincidence that before social upheavals there is an explosion of comic creativity. Laughter exposes outdated values ​​and deprives them of reverence. The medieval carnival performed the function of doubting the value of royal power, the unconditionality of the institutions of the church, and this was a reserve for development. Here there is a mechanism for reversing values, which contributes to a change in the proportions of worldview. In grotesque ridicule, bodily inhibitions were lifted, a feast of flesh was celebrated, which contributed to its fearless revaluation. The origins of Russian swearing are in its carnival character. The use of this vocabulary as a norm in the current period of transition and crisis for Russia is, at the very least, inappropriate, or rather destructive, in conditions where old values ​​have already been rejected and new ones have not yet taken place.

But in comedy, not everything comes down to negation. Along with the negation, some affirmation also occurs, namely, the freedom of the human spirit is affirmed. Laughing and playing, a person defends his freedom, the ability to overcome any boundaries. In Marx: humanity, laughing, parts with its past. Comicism is an affirmation of creative forces, novelty, and ideals, for the denial of false values ​​occurs with the dominance of the positive principle. But there can be the obscene laughter of a soulless person, without ideals, meaning peeping through a keyhole, and laughter caused simply by the manifestation of physicality: vulgar jokes, and cynical laughter - at everything, including sacred things, from the position of denying everything and everyone, and in relation to dear ones aspects of other people's lives.

When determining the structure of the comic, it should be noted that this is the only aesthetic value in which the subject is not only a recipient, a receiver of information; in the comic, the creative role of the subject himself is needed. In the comic there is no need for a certain distance; the subject must destroy it by trying on a comic mask, entering into a free playful relationship with reality. When this works out, something comical arises.

Comics arise when there is some contradiction in the object. To make it funny, some anti-value must be manifested in the incongruity of the object. In aesthetics this is called comic inconsistency. At first there is an internal discrepancy in the object. In the light of the ideal, incongruity becomes absurd, absurd, funny, revealing. The condition for a comic attitude is the spiritual freedom of a person, then he is capable of ridicule.

Comic incongruity is a form of existence of the comic, just as tragic conflict is a form of existence of the tragic. . Hence two interrelated abilities of the subject: wit- ability to create comic incongruity; connection of the incompatible (in the garden there is an elderberry, and in Kyiv there is a guy; shoot sparrows from a cannon). Here there is a discrepancy between essence and appearance, form and content, plan and result. As a result, a certain paradox arises, revealing the strangeness this phenomenon. The comic effect is always born according to the principle of metaphor, as in children's joke: the elephant smeared himself in flour, looked at himself in the mirror and said: “This is a dumpling!”

Subject's second edge-defining ability aesthetic taste, - the ability to intuitively sense comic incongruity and respond to it with laughter - humor. If the joke is explained, he loses everything. It is impossible to explain the comic; the comic is grasped immediately and entirely. An essential feature is the intellectuality of the comic as the need to demonstrate mental acuity; For fools, the comic does not exist; it is not defined by them. One common form of identifying comic incongruity, which involves mental acuity, is the opposition between meaning and form of expression. In literature, for example, in Chekhov’s “Notebooks”: a German woman - my husband is a great lover of going hunting; sexton in a letter to his wife in the village - I am sending you a pound of caviar to satisfy your physical needs. There in Chekhov: the character is so undeveloped that it is hard to believe that he was at the university; a small, tiny schoolboy named Trachtenbauer.

Let us turn to the modifications of the comic, and, first of all, these are modifications of an object nature:

1. Pure or formal comedy. The sublime or the tragic cannot be formal. Beautiful, as we have seen, perhaps the form of beauty is valuable in itself. Formal comedy, devoid of the slightest critical content, is a play on words, a joke, a pun. In S. Mikhalkov’s poem about an absent-minded hero: “Instead of a hat, while walking, he put on a frying pan.” Formal comedy is a paradox in its purest form, an aesthetic game of the mind, which is the “technological” basis of subsequent forms of comedy. In this case, they laugh not at something, but together with something. On this basis, meaningful comedy arises.

2. Humor- one of the modifications of the meaningful comic, and not just a feeling. Humor is comedy aimed at the phenomenon of something positive in its essence: the phenomenon is so good that we do not strive to destroy it with laughter, but nothing can be ideal, and humor reveals some of the inconsistencies of this phenomenon. Humor is soft, kind, and sympathetic laughter at its core. He gives humanity to the phenomenon, and only humor is possible in relation to friends. An old joke from a series of God’s answers to the claims of those who after death ended up not in heaven, but in hell: to the request of the priest of a rural parish, who ended up in hell, instead of a reveler and a drunkard, a local bus driver who ended up in heaven, to correct the injustice committed: the answer is everything rightly so, for when you read a prayer in the temple, your entire flock was sleeping, when this drunkard and reveler was driving his bus - all his passengers were praying to God!

3. Satire- This is a complement to humor, but it is aimed at phenomena that are negative in essence. Satire expresses an attitude towards a phenomenon that is, in principle, unacceptable to humans. Satirical laughter is hard, evil, revealing, destructive laughter. In art, satire and humor are inextricably linked, one imperceptibly transforms into the other - as in the works of Ilf and Petrov, Hoffmann. When we talk about times of crisis and cruelty, the eras of humor recede, and the times of satire intensify.

4. Grotesque- comic incongruity in fantastic form. Gogol's nose leaves its owner. The scale of the vice, which is considered grotesque. The grotesque is based on a hyperbole of vice and bringing it to cosmic proportions. The grotesque has two sides: a mocking side, a mocking side, and a playful side. Not only horror, but also delight is caused by the extremes of life.

Irony and sarcasm- two more categories of the comic, subjective modifications, denoting a certain type of position, features of the comic attitude. Irony is a comedy in which the subject is involved, but the meaning is veiled by the subject himself. Irony has two layers - textual and subtextual. The subtext seems to deny the text, forming some contradictory unity with it. Irony also requires intelligence. Irony is hidden comedy, blasphemy under the guise of praise.

Pure comedy, humor, satire, grotesque - this is comic as it grows.

Sarcasm is the antithesis of irony. This is an open emotional expression of attitude and indignant pathos, angry intonation expressing an indignant protest position.

To summarize, it should be noted that the emergence of aesthetic values ​​is deeply natural and necessary, they are internally connected with each other, they form a system that concretizes a certain socio-cultural situation. Any aesthetic values ​​are a transformed form of expression of a person and the world of his values. Our whole life is an attempt to create our own world and gain satisfaction from its arrangement. But in reality it is multifaceted and is described, among other things, by the aesthetic values ​​of the beautiful, the sublime, the tragic, and the comic.

Beautiful- a situation of harmony of a person with his world of values, the zone that is accessible to a person, a zone of freedom and proportionality.

Sublime- a fundamentally different turn of the existential circle - the struggle for new values, the desire to expand oneself spiritually, to establish oneself at a new level. But here a person comes to the brink of not only acquisition and growth, but the inevitability of loss of value, reduction of the human world, and this is already a transition to another aesthetic value:

Tragic, expressing the inevitability for a person of loss of fundamental values, where the victory of life occurs, but in a limited area.

Comic- the antipode of the tragic. We freely fight for new values, voluntarily abandoning the life world. The comic is the great orderly of culture.

On the borders there are symbioses: sublime-beautiful (beautiful, stretching into infinity), tragicomic - comic in form, tragic in essence, laughter through tears (Don Quixote, heroes of Charles Chaplin; imperfections of the external order do not coincide with imperfection in essence, a suffering person can also be funny).

These four values ​​describe the cycle of a person in his value existence. Aesthetic consciousness, not being rational in nature, preserves a person’s orientation in significant situations of life, and in this ideological significance of aesthetic values.

Before the Bible was published in its entirety in Russian, people used the Bible in Church Slavonic. Currently, you can order the Bible in various translations, you can choose the design of the text and covers, there are editions with illustrations by famous artists.

On November 14, 1712, Tsar Peter I issues a decree on the publication of a new translation of the Bible. With the death of Peter I in January 1725, work on the publication was suspended. Peter's successor, Empress Catherine I, in November 1725 issued a decree to continue publishing the Bible, but it was previously prescribed: “ however, first... consider it in Holy Synod common with those who straightened it, and agree with the ancients Greek Bibles our Church, so that in future no disagreement and no sin in the translation... will be found" In May 1727, the Empress died, and in 1741, after a palace coup, according to the will of Catherine I, her daughter, Elizaveta Petrovna, ascended the throne. From that time on, she issued decrees on the translation of the Bible.

On December 18, 1751, the Elizabethan Bible was published in 4 volumes. All changes made when correcting the translation were agreed upon; the notes to the text formed a separate volume, almost equal in volume to the text of the Bible itself. Hieromonk Gideon (Slonimsky) corrected the errors and typos of the first edition, and in 1756 the 2nd edition of the Elizabethan Bible was published with additional notes in the margins and engravings by Doré. In 1762, the 4th edition was printed in Moscow, and in 1784 the 8th edition of the Elizabethan Bible was published.

In 1813, the Russian Bible Society (RBS) was founded in Russia. In 1815, Emperor Alexander I ordered the president of the RBO, Prince Golitsyn, “ so that St. To the Synod, His Majesty’s sincere and precise desire to provide the Russians with a way to read the word of God in their natural Russian language, which is more intelligible to them than the Slavic dialect in which the books of Holy Scripture are published in our country" The question of the Russian translation of the Bible was raised again. The RBO assumed responsibility for the publication, and the translation was entrusted to members of the St. Petersburg Theological Academy.

In 1818, the 1st edition of the Gospels was published in the translation of Pavsky and Drozdov in Russian and Church Slavonic. This translation was based on the Greek text of the New Testament of Christian Frederick Matthaei (Matthaei Novum Testamentum Graece) published in 1807. And then in 1819 the 3rd (stereotypical) edition of the Gospels was published along with the book of the Acts of the Apostles. For the first time, the New Testament was completely printed in parallel in Russian and Church Slavonic in January 1822. In 1823, the RBO published the New Testament only in Russian. Then they began to translate the books of the Old Testament, and already in November 1823 the Pentateuch was printed in Russian in St. Petersburg, and supervision was entrusted to Pavsky Gerasim Petrovich, the chairman of the committee. In May 1824, Aleksandr Nikolaevich Golitsyn resigned from the title of President of the RBO, refusing at the same time the post of Minister of Public Education. Therefore, Metropolitan Seraphim was appointed president of the RBO. On June 8, 1824, the Supreme Decree prohibited the publication of the Pentateuch. True, the decree did not stop the publishers, and they produced 10 thousand copies of the Pentateuch of Moses. This decree applied to a specific edition, and not to all books of the Bible. It was proposed to print the Bible in its entirety, dividing it into 5 volumes, following the example of the Slavic Bible of the Moscow Synodal edition, the first volume of which ends with the book of Ruth. And already in 1825, the RBO, during the revision of Pavsky and Drozdov, published the Eight Books. Then, on April 12, 1826, the Highest Rescript addressed to Seraphim, by decree of Emperor Nicholas I, ordered: “ suspend all its (Bible Society) activities without exception" As a result, the activities of the RBO were stopped and work on the Russian translation of the Bible was suspended.

Professor of the St. Petersburg Theological Academy, Chistovich Ilarion Alekseevich, wrote: “ After the closure of the Bible Society, the translation of the Bible was continued by private individuals, convinced of the benefits of the work and thus laying the foundation for the subsequent publication of the Bible in Russian, undertaken already during the reign of Alexander II." He was referring to translations of the Old Testament from Hebrew into Russian language Archpriest Pavsky and Archimandrite Makariy Glukharev. Despite the ban of the Synod, G. P. Pavsky continued to translate the Bible into Russian. In 1838, third-year students at the academy asked the academic authorities for permission to reproduce the translations and lithographically printed the Old Testament in Pavsky’s translation, which was made strictly from the Hebrew, Masoretic text. Chistovich wrote: “ This was the first translation experience holy books of the Old Testament into Russian, made by a scientist who spoke superlatives knowledge of Jewish and Russian languages. Neither before him nor after him was there a scientist or professor who so happily and to such an extent combined the knowledge of the Jewish language with the knowledge of the Russian language. Subsequent translators, one way or another, more or less, relied on his work, and we do not know that any of them denied him essential merits" Pavsky was a strong proponent of “pure” translation from the Hebrew text. The concept of translation of the Synod was somewhat different. While working at the RBO, Pavsky was forced to follow the official position, and in his home and educational translations he remained completely true to his convictions. Because Pavsky's translation was so divergent from the Slavic, it aroused resistance and was banned. All of his lithographed editions were confiscated.

Pavsky is not the only one who translated the books of the Old Testament into Russian. A student of Archpriest of Pavsky and Moscow Metropolitan Philaret (Drozdov), Archimandrite Macarius (Glukharev), being a second-year graduate of the St. Petersburg Theological Academy in 1837, began translating the books of the Old Testament independently and managed to complete his work in 1847 before his death.

The work of resuming the translation of the Bible into Russian at the official level began in 1856 just in connection with the coronation of the new Emperor Alexander II. Therefore, on September 10, the Synod met in Moscow and Metropolitan of Moscow Philaret (Drozdov) raised the issue “ about delivery to the Orthodox people way to read the Holy Scriptures for home edification with the most convenient understanding possible" In 1858, Moscow Metropolitan Filaret (Drozdov) obtained permission from the emperor to translate and print the Holy Scriptures in Russian. The translation was carried out by four theological academies (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kazan and Kyiv) under the leadership of the Synod (the highest administration of the Russian Orthodox Church). A lot of work was done to ensure that the Russian translation corresponded as closely as possible to the texts of the ancient originals, and also had literary merits.

In 1860, the St. Petersburg Theological Academy published the Gospels; the translation was guided by the New Testament of 1822. Forty years after the 1st edition of the New Testament in Russian, in 1862 the 2nd edition was published, but somewhat improved and in a more modern Russian language. The books of the New Testament were translated from ancient Greek (Koine).

Due to the fact that the language has changed over forty years, it was decided to carefully re-prepare the translation of the Old Testament. For this purpose, in 1860, a special committee was elected at the St. Petersburg Theological Academy. The translation of the Old Testament was done by professors of the St. Petersburg Theological Academy: Golubev M. A., Lovyatin E. I., Savvaitov P. I. (archaeologist and historian), Khvolson D. A. (Christian Jewish origin). Gulyaev M.S. (professor at the Kyiv Theological Academy) also worked a lot on the translation. The translation of the books of the Old Testament was carried out from the Hebrew (Masoretic) text of the Bible. However, the translators were guided by the Septuagint in Greek and the Vulgate, Latin translation Jerome, as well as the previously made Russian translation.

In 1863, the St. Petersburg Theological Academy, under the leadership of Golubev and Khvolson, published the Pentateuch in Russian, which was based on the Masoretic text, as well as the Russian translation of the Pavsky Old Testament published in 1838 and the translation of Macarius in 1847. By 1871, under the leadership of Levinson and Khvolson, the books of Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1-2 Kings, 1-2 Chronicles, 1 Esdras, Nehemiah, Esther, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs were published in St. Petersburg. In 1875, the Old Testament was published in Russian, edited by Levinson and Khvolson in London. And in the same year, the Moscow, Kazan and Kiev academies published the remaining books of the Old Testament, canonical and non-canonical.

IN 1876 year, the complete Bible was published in Russian for the first time under the leadership of the Synod, and the Old Testament contained canonical and non-canonical books. When translating the Hebrew Masoretic text of the Old Testament, words were introduced into the Russian text (in brackets) that were not in the Hebrew original, but were present in the Septuagint in Greek and the Elizabethan Bible in Church Slavonic. One of the shortcomings of this edition of the Bible was that the “textual” brackets were no different in appearance from brackets - punctuation marks. It should be noted that this was the Old Russian language, which was subject to reform in 1917 and then in 1956. The language of this Bible has undoubted literary merit. Thanks to its emotionality and rhythm, the Russian translation is close in form to prose poems. For example, in this version of the Bible there are words and they are written as follows: miro [miro], fimiam [incense], light [light], holy [holy].

IN 1882 year, the British and Foreign Bible Society in London published the Synodal Translation containing only canonical books. In this edition, they tried to remove from the Russian text of the Old Testament the words and expressions introduced into it from the Greek and Slavic versions (the New Testament part of the Russian translation was not revised). Unfortunately, because the “textual” brackets were not distinguished from other brackets (punctuation marks), this attempt led to the fact that almost all words and expressions that were placed in brackets in the 1876 edition were completely removed from the Old Testament year. This error was repeated in the publication prepared by the American Bible Society in 1947 year.

IN 1907 was the year canonical published Bible in Russian in St. Petersburg for the British Bible Society. This version was made based on the 1882 edition.

IN 1912 published in St. Petersburg 13th edition Russian Bible with non-canonical books. It is this publication that in the future will be taken as the main one for subsequent editions of the Moscow Patriarchate.

After the reform of the Russian language, in 1917 The Bible was published in Moscow with non-canonical books, taking into account the new rules of the Russian language. In accordance with the reform, the letter “yat” in words Ѣ/ѣ was replaced by Her, “fita” Ѳ/ѳ → (F/f), “and decimal” І/і → (And/and), “Izhitsa” Ѵ/ѵ → (And/and). The hard sign was excluded ( b/b) at the end of words and parts difficult words, but was preserved as separator (rise, adjutant). The rule for writing prefixes has changed to salary, now all of them (except With-) ended with With before any voiceless consonant and on h before voiced consonants and before vowels ( break → break, break apart → break apart, break apart → make way). In the genitive and accusative cases of adjectives and participle endings -ago, was replaced by -Wow, A -yago → -him(For example, new → new, best → best, early → early), in the nominative and accusative plurals of the feminine and neuter genders -yya, was replaced by -s, A -ія → -е (new → new). Word forms feminine plural one, one, one, one, one were replaced by they, alone, alone, alone, alone, and the word form of the genitive case singular her (naya) were replaced by her (her). However, some scientific publications related to the publication of old works and documents, as well as publications, the collection of which began even before the revolution, were published according to the old spelling (except title page and, often, prefaces) until 1929.

IN 1923 was published in Russia canonical bible, which was based on Bernard Goetze, an evangelical pastor in Poland. This is what Getze himself writes in his memoirs: “ Most of all, I was convinced that the Lord had entrusted me with the task of publishing the Russian Bible in a new version, printed in a clear and easy-to-read font. And least of all could I imagine myself being able to cope with such a huge and important work. Several employees and I were preparing this publication without informing anyone about our work. And only when the manuscript was ready for printing, we spoke with it openly. We were not talking about a new translation of the Bible, we only changed a few outdated expressions. Individual chapters were divided into subtitles corresponding to the editions of the Bible in other languages ​​and supplemented with many references to parallel passages. Particularly important verses are typed in bold. Besides. The Bible came with explanatory notes and color maps. In the course of this work, we used the advice of our Russian friends, missionaries, preachers, priests and students of the Bible school... We left old spelling with the exception of the letter ъ, by removing which we were able to reduce the volume of the book by approximately 70 pages. The New Russian Bible was published two months before the start of World War II. 4,000 copies managed to sell out in a very short time at the very beginning of the war. The remaining 6,000 copies were destroyed by the Gestapo. I have preserved documents proving this" Christians from many countries, especially Holland and Switzerland, took a large part in financing this expensive publication. Among those who helped was also the brother of the Swedish king, Prince Oscar Bernadotte. Second world war began on September 1, 1939 with the offensive German army to Poland.

IN 1926 year, under the leadership of Ivan Stepanovich Prokhanov, the organizer of the evangelical Christian movement in Russia, the Bible was published in Leningrad ( canonical), which was based on the 1882 edition. It was 1st edition of the Bible after the Russian language reform of 1917 year, which sold out very quickly, so in 1928 the 2nd edition of the Bible was published. After this, the Bible in the Soviet Union was published in limited editions under the strict control of government agencies.

IN 1947 year, the American Bible Society publishes canonical The Bible, which is based on the 1st edition of Prokhanov. In the 1947 edition the set was made in two columns with parallel places in the middle, it was this arrangement of the text that became the main one in the editions of the Bible of evangelical believers. Unfortunately, from this edition not only the insertions from the Septuagint, taken in brackets, were removed, but also words from the Hebrew original (in those places where brackets were used as a punctuation mark). As a result of such edits, the text of the Synodal Bible has changed greatly in relation to the original version.

From 1953 to 1970, work was underway in Russian emigrant circles abroad on the so-called Paris-Brussels translation of the New Testament. The main work on this was carried out by Bishop Cassian (Bezobrazov), Vasiliev A., Kulomazin N. The translation was made according to the Nestlé edition and was published by the British and Foreign Bible Society. The translators tried to get as close as possible to the modern spoken language.

IN 1956 year, another reform followed and the Publishing Department of the Moscow Patriarchate began to bring the text into compliance with the new rules of the Russian language, the form of which is known to us today. The 1917 edition was taken as the basis for the text of the Bible in Russian., which was considered the most perfect. This is a rather rare publication, narrow format (it was provided by Count Sheremetev, who then lived in one of the buildings of the Novodevichy Convent, where the Publishing Department was located). The work proceeded as follows. The book was unbound and distributed to several typists, who retyped the text, translating it into a new orthography; at the same time every verse Bibles should have been typed from the red line. Following the typists, proofreaders joined the work; there were also several of them. They were given two tasks: firstly, to prevent omissions and typos, and secondly, to make some corrections, which can be called more editorial than proofreading. The text was reviewed through sixteen editions of the Russian Bible of the 19th and 20th centuries, “with frequent comparisons ... with the texts of the Slavic, Greek and Hebrew Bibles”; it repeats the text of previous synodal editions, “except for a few careful corrections of a grammatical nature in order to somewhat bring the language of the old translation of the Holy Bible closer to modern Russian speech and small additions towards bringing the Russian Bible closer to the Slavic.”

Corrected consistently participles on -shi : arrived shi> when I got there I found shi> having found it, came shi> having arrived, etc., except in cases where the form is without -shi not used (lit shi etc.). Forms instrumental case singular of nouns on -ь and on -ye they began to write with a soft sign, for example: mercy And yu > merciful b yu, saved And I eat > saved b I eat. Some more have been changed word forms:

purchase b>purchase And, will bring b> will bring And; conc. e in > conc O in, soc e in > soc O in, sword e m > sword O m; I'll get lost wait> lost wait Xia (and other forms); r A wait > p O wait (and other forms); deputy really o > deputy really e stv o, etc.

However, in some cases, when “the grandeur and solemnity of the events described require greater proximity to liturgical language», old forms were retained (by grace, salvation). Moreover, “in the texts special significance or in texts that have become familiar to Russian ears Orthodox man especially near and dear ones,” forms that are practically not used in modern Russian were preserved , but bringing the Russian Bible closer to the Slavic, with liturgical texts. This Slavisms type 2 s th, pole s th, seventh s th, in a number of places preserved in all publications examined by the references; holy s th, holy A hey, he's alive s y, alive A th, noun A go (mainly in relation to the Lord), persons e, persons e m, shower e yu; house s, son ov, der ev, take as a wife; writing By I giving, is that Java et; pronouns this, this one; adverbs And prepositions how long, so that, moreover etc.

At the same time, “a larger number of archaisms were preserved in the earlier books of Holy Scripture in order to highlight their deep antiquity and fundamental significance for history human race", which is consistent with the thought of Saint Philaret of Moscow about the need, when translating from Slavic into Russian, to highlight the greatness of texts speaking about such events as the creation of the world and man, the life of the ancient patriarchs, the giving of the law to the chosen people, miracles and battles of the era of Joshua, etc. .p.

The 1956 Bible also retained this feature: capitalizing the names of peoples , since the peoples in the Bible act as collective individuals, who (according to the prophet Daniel and other books) have special Guardian Angels.

Punctuation strived bring it closer to the modern norm , but done it was inconsistent . So, for example, direct speech was not highlighted in quotation marks , except in cases where the speaker is quoting someone else's statement (sometimes his own, but said earlier). Direct speech began after the colon with a small letter , A consisting of two or more interrogative sentences – after sign question Same with a small letter . In contrast to this each verse necessarily began with a capital letter, regardless of what character was at the end of the previous verse . There are many cases when it would be necessary to remove or add a comma between homogeneous members proposals, there is great discrepancy in the selection introductory words, sometimes in adjacent paragraphs. There are many other, more complex cases.

The 1956 Bible was published in a circulation of 25,000 copies, but for the Soviet era, with its sometimes millions of copies, this was not so much.

In 1968, the Publishing Department released a new edition of the Bible in Russian. More than ten years have passed since 1956, and the new edition was prepared by a completely different group of references - students who studied at the Moscow Theological Academy, who worked in the publishing house under the direct supervision of A.I. Prosvirnin.

Based on the 1912 edition of the Bible, and not the 1917 edition, as in 1956. The task was set eliminate the shortcomings that existed in the 1956 edition year.

For example, the format was criticized: because every verse in the 1956 Bible started on a new line, book came out bulky, with her it was inconvenient to work. It was decided merge poems into a single block, dividing the text of each chapter into paragraphs according to meaning. At the same time, the font size was chosen large enough to make it easy to read, and the book format was supposed to be more compact.

When new Bible typed at the printing house, its volume turned out to be such that it turned out to be impossible to bind the book into one volume, and the idea arose to publish the Bible in two volumes: the Old and New Testaments separately. “Then,” according to the memoirs of Bishop Pitirim, “someone let it slip at the Council for Religious Affairs: “Pitirim is publishing the Bible in two volumes.” The rumor reached high authorities. There they were indignant: “What kind of Bible is this in two volumes? The Bible was always in only one volume! No extensions!” I had to retype everything with petite. Published in one volume, but so small that it was impossible to read.”3 However, the text of the New Testament in this edition was still printed in a fairly large font, unlike the Old Testament.

Since they made a new set, it worked again group of proofreaders, which, starting from o orthography and punctuation edition 1912 years, I tried to bring the text closer to modern standards, however consistently carry out throughout the book the modern norm failed. If we compare the punctuation of the two editions Bibles - 1956 and 1968, is discovered, What in the placement of punctuation marks both in the first and second cases there is a well-known voluntarism, and it is impossible to say in which edition the norm is maintained more consistently. Same one can also say about spelling and grammatical corrections.

At the same time the new edition has been enriched with additional maps, two of them took place on the endpapers. The 1968 edition was published in two versions: in green and white “gift” binding, and in the latter case The New Testament part was accompanied by colored inserts - icons of the Savior and the four evangelists.

Circulation: 25,000 copies. to the 1968 edition year Attached is a list of typos, noticed already at the stage of “blank sheets”; these typos were corrected in 1976 year, in the next edition of the Bible, dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the publication of the Synodal translation. The 1968 Bible was reprinted almost unchanged several times: in 1976 (50,000 copies), 1979 (50,000 copies), 1983 (75,000 copies), 1988 (100,000 copies), 1990 (50,000 copies) and in 1999 (10,000 copies). Editions 1976 , 1979 And 1983 years are stereotypical: they released with matrices 1968 year.

In 1988, on the 1000th anniversary of the Baptism of Rus', it was decided to release a commemorative edition of the Bible, but, as one of the participants put it, working group, "we got by" little blood»: didn't make a new set, and instructed proofreaders to proofread the Bible from one of the previous editions. A number of typos were discovered, which retouchers corrected. already V typographical films (Punctuation was almost left untouched, since too many corrections would have to be made). In addition, in this edition in the book block three additional cards were inserted, as a result of which it increased by four stripes, and in the travel map of the Apostle Paul there was a typo in the title Dead Sea. During the reshoots, the format of the publication was slightly increased, but still the 1988 book does not seem as cumbersome as the 1956 Bible. The main advantage of this publication is its largest circulation: 100,000 copies.

1988 edition has been reprinted twice: in 1990 year, without changing the format, and in 1999 year, together with the Russian Cultural Foundation, in an original binding (part of the edition was made in velvet) and with an increase in format, which practically coincided with the very format of 1956, which at one time caused criticism.

On the eve of the celebration 2000 anniversary of the Nativity of Christ, the Moscow Patriarchate Publishing House began work on a new typesetting edition of the Bible using computer technology. As a starting point the text was taken, which at that time the Publishing House used for official purposes– when checking biblical quotations in official periodicals. The biblical text, as well as parallel passages to it, was compiled from several parts borrowed from the Internet and laser disks that appeared at that time. The reference text was scanned from a 1999 Bible..

All this the material was distributed to four proofreaders, who were given two tasks: firstly, read the text according to the 1999 edition years, so that there are no omissions or typos, secondly, mark those places that do not comply with modern standards of spelling, punctuation and grammar.

The proofreaders did their work, and it turned out that there were quite a few typos in the original text (in the electronic Bible publications), sometimes even changing the meaning of the statement, which is unacceptable for a sacred text. For example, in the book of Joshua ( Nav. 2, 12) the harlot Rahab says to the spies: swear to me Lord by your God, and in the original electronic text stood by our God. Typos of this kind of course have been corrected.

Regarding proposals for normalization of spelling, punctuation and partly grammar, then the proofreaders made so many proposals that it was impossible to include all of them in the text in a short time. Nevertheless has been fixed writing words and phrases that the 1956 and 1968–1999 editions retained outdated spelling: come > come, plank > plank, grown > grown, dipped > dipped, confess > confess, preach > preach, crowned > crowned, silversmith (artisan) > silversmith, silversmith (coin) > silversmith, called > called, forever and ever > forever and ever, however (e) > however w (e), that is > that is.

Another problem has emerged: in what order should I do it? links to parallel places? Now they are given in the Russian Bible in the same order as in the Slavic Bible. Meanwhile, in the Slavic Bible, the references placed immediately after the verse did not refer to the verse as a whole, but to smaller parts of the text; at the same time the following signs were used: star, cross, two stars, two crosses etc. In the Russian Bible, references are assigned to the verse as a whole, and although their sequence is the same as in the Slavic Bible, since indications of a more detailed division of the text have been removed, the sequence of references seems illogical: the books of the Bible are not mentioned according to in order, but in disarray. In addition, parallel passages, especially to non-canonical books, require additions, some of which have been proposed by proofreaders, but this work has not yet been completed.

For the 2000 Bible an elegant computer headset was chosen - “ Academic", and the book was specially laid out in such a way as to make a voluminous, impressive volume. Thanks to the efforts of sponsors (the Pink Bird company and others), the book received a luxurious design: color illustrations with gold embossing, leather binding with a gold edge. The price of such a Bible makes it inaccessible to believers, and its circulation is very modest - 1000 copies.

In 2008 year, the Publishing Council of the Russian Orthodox Church prepared a new edition of the Bible in Russian. The main task was to publish the book at a high printing level, but to make it affordable for everyone. In recent years, believers have often been forced to purchase a Bible published not by a church publishing house, but by the Russian Bible Society, simply because this publication was cheaper. This problem has now been resolved.

Work was again carried out to bring the text of the Bible into compliance with the spelling norms of the modern Russian language. The spelling of a number of words has been corrected:

two m s there > two ms there (1 Kings 30, 21, etc.);

three I'm with tami > three I'm with tami (2 Chron. 14, 9, etc.);

four eu naked > four Yahoo naked (Ezek. 40, 47, etc.);

lies f-b ogov > lie fuck og (2 Chron. 13, 9, etc.);

to happiness And>to happiness e(Job 21, 13, etc.);

confession A those who confess > confess at who live (Isa. 48:1, etc.);

before ъи took > prev s chose (Acts 22:14, etc.);

before ъи children > pred s children (Luke 1:17, etc.);

give water to all nations from it > give water to all nations from it (Jer. 25:15);

deduce b> output And(1 Kings 28, 11, etc.);

n and in ek > n aw ek (Joshua 14:9, etc.);

n and in eki > n aw eki (1 Kings 3, 13, etc.);

shower e yu > shower O yu (Gen. 2, 7, etc.);

Mrs. e yu > madam O yu (Isa. 24:2, etc.);

with a sling e yu > from sling O yu (1 Kings 17, 40, etc.);

persons e> persons O(Gen. 2, 7, etc.);

father e in >father O in (2 Chron. Prayer of Manasseh, etc.);

pole s th > pole O th (John 19, 14, etc.);

seven s th > seventh O th (Heb. 4, 4, etc.);

holy s th > holy O th (Deut. 7, 6, etc.);

alive s th > alive O th (John 6, 51, etc.);

holy A th > holy O th (John 20, 22, etc.);

alive A th > alive O go (John 6, 69, etc.).

Introductory word So throughout the text was separated by commas.

For the book, special “biblical” paper was used, thin and at the same time durable, which made the book block more compact. A new typeface was chosen - “Literary”, clearly readable, but airy enough in design so that the text on the back is less visible. The volume of the book (1376 pages) and the nature of the layout (two-column, with the title of the book, chapter and verse number indicated in the footer, with parallel places under each column) repeats other editions of the Bible of the Moscow Patriarchate, to which the flock of the Russian Orthodox Church has become accustomed for half a century. The text of the New Testament, according to already established tradition, was printed more than large print than the Old Testament.

At the end of 1815, Emperor Alexander I gave the Society the task of “providing Russians with a way to read the word of God in the natural Russian language.” The Synod instructed the Commission of Theological Schools to select appropriate people from the St. Petersburg Academy and entrusted this task to them. Archimandrite was appointed head of the team of translators. Filaret. The group included: Rev. Gerasim Pavsky, expert on the Hebrew language, archimandrite. Moses and the rector of the St. Petersburg Seminary, Archimandrite. Polycarp.

The Committee, specially formed at the Society, was supposed to consider the quality of the translation. The Emperor himself looked through the text and even the preface to it.

In 1818, 10,000 copies of the Four Gospels were printed. By 1819 the Acts were translated, by 1821 the entire New Testament was completed, and in 1822 the Psalter was completed. All these translations sold out extremely quickly in several editions (the Psalter in one year - in 12 editions) and in a huge number copies.

In order to speed things up, separate books of Scripture were entrusted to the Moscow and Kyiv Academies. In 1825, only the first volume of the Old Testament was prepared (up to and including the book of Ruth), but it was not published due to the death of the emperor. Alexander I and the imminent closure of the Society.

The fact is that by this time the connection between the Bible Society and Masonic-mystical circles was becoming more and more clear. The most zealous followers of the old Freemasons, starting with Novikov, and the mystical sect of Tatarinova were among the members of the Bible Society. At the meetings of the Society, calls began to be heard more and more often to tear away the “decrepit shrouds” from the Greek Church, to reveal its “errors,” to “revitalize the true faith,” etc.

The Society sympathized with everything and everything that sought “salvation” outside the canonical Church clung to the Society; it became the focus of all kinds of mystical sects, even Khlysty.

In addition to translating biblical books, which, by the way, contained many serious errors, the Society published and distributed various mystical books and brochures that flooded libraries and schools throughout Russia.

Novikov’s student, Freemason A. Labzin, director of the Society, showed particular zeal in this direction. He published a number of his mystical works, and in 1806 he founded a special press organ, the Zion Messenger. The magazine was soon banned, but Labzin continued his publishing in the same spirit. With the opening of the Society in which he played main role, relying on the then disposition of the emperor and Golitsyn towards mysticism, he further developed his activities.

In 1817 he was allowed to resume the Zion Messenger, which, contrary to the general rule, was submitted to secular censors for review. All literature published by the Society was mostly translated, of Protestant-mystical origin and content. The Church was subjected to special attacks there.

Metropolitan Seraphim (Glagolevsky), being a zealous champion of the biblical cause in the first years of the Society’s existence, over time was unable to come to terms with the direction of the Society’s activities and led an active struggle against it.

Emperor Alexander I, in the end, without depriving Golitsyn of his trust, advised him to renounce the presidency of the Bible Society and the title of Minister of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education. Metropolitan Seraphim was appointed President of the Society in May 1824. Despite his statement that he could not combine in one person the title of first-present member of the Synod with the position of President of the Society, his request for resignation was not granted. The Emperor could not yet abandon the Society.

Only Archimandrite Photius (Spassky) managed to prove to the sovereign how destructive the freedom with which secular censorship approves harmful books is. On November 17, 1824, the sovereign ordered that books about faith should not be published without spiritual censorship.

When imp. Nicholas I, at the insistence of Metropolitan Seraphim and Shishkov, the Society was closed by the Imperial Decree of April 12, 1826. Subsequently, the dissemination of Scripture among the non-Orthodox met with no obstacles. In 1831, the “Evangelical Bible Society in Russia” was opened specifically for Protestants. Some of the property of the closed Company was transferred to him.

With the advent of the Russian translation of the Bible, the possibility arose of reviving the Bible Society for the Russian population. In 1869, the Society for the Dissemination of the Holy Scriptures in Russia was established. This Society, unlike the closed one, did not translate or publish anything itself, but only contributed to the distribution of books published with the blessing of the Synod.

The main method of distribution was book distribution, carried out by experienced and dedicated people. Since 1880, the Society has been assisted by annual subsidies from the American Bible Society. In 1871, the “Department for the Distribution of Spiritual and Moral Books” was opened at the Moscow Society of Lovers of Spiritual Enlightenment and was under the patronage of the Empress.

With the closure of the Bible Society, the publication of the prepared translation of the Holy Scriptures into Russian was stopped. The printed first eight books of the Bible were not put on sale. Only the Slavic-Russian New Testament remained in circulation.

When in 1826 Metropolitan Philaret spoke at the Synod about continuing the translation, Metropolitans Seraphim and Eugene spoke out against it (translating Scripture into the vernacular - they say it profanes Scripture itself).

Since 1830, private experiments began to appear in translating Scripture into Russian directly from Hebrew. The first such experience belongs to the famous Altai missionary Makariy (Glukharev). In 1840 he presented his work to the Synod. He insisted on publishing the complete Russian Bible, but his desire did not meet with approval in the Synod. Moreover, prayer penance was imposed on him. But he continued his work and by 1843 he had translated all the Old Testament books.

At the same time, the same work was carried out by Archpriest. G. Pavsky in St. Petersburg. As a professor of Hebrew at the St. Petersburg Academy, for 20 years he translated all the teaching and prophetic books at lectures, and at home he had a translation of the Song of Songs. In 1839-41. these translations were lithographed by students for their own purposes in the amount of 500 copies without his knowledge and became widespread far beyond the Academy.

Due to some errors and unfortunate expressions, in 1844 the Synod determined that all copies should be withdrawn from use. Pavsky himself was tested in the purity of his faith and lost his position as a teacher of the law to the Heir to the Throne. In connection with the Pavsky case, Chief Prosecutor Protasov insisted on giving the Church Slavonic text a mandatory “canonical” meaning. His point of view was shared by Metropolitan Seraphim.

The translation of Scripture into Russian from Hebrew was also resolutely opposed by a member of the Synod, the highly revered Metropolitan Philaret (Amphitheaters). He defended the authority of a single text from seventy interpreters.

In such a situation, the translation of Scripture into Russian could not, of course, be carried out. Only in 1856, when all the members of the Synod and the highest hierarchs gathered for the coronation of Alexander II in Moscow, Metropolitan. Filaret managed to convince the church leadership of the need for such work. The Synod determined, Supremely approved in May 1858, that “translation into Russian, first of the books of the New Testament, and then gradually of other parts of the Holy Scriptures, is necessary and useful, but not for use in churches, for which the Slavic text should remain inviolable, but only as an aid to the understanding of the Holy Scriptures.”

In 1860, the work of translation was distributed among four Academies. The translations were reviewed at home by members of the Synod, then the translation was sent to the Metropolitan of Moscow. Filaretu and his remarks were again discussed at the Synod. In the same year, a Russian translation of the Four Gospels was published, and in 1862 - the Acts and Epistles of the Apostles with the Apocalypse.

In 1868, the first part of the Old Testament was published, and by 1875 the publication of the entire text was completed. The complete Bible in Russian translation in one volume was published in 1876.

History of the Russian Bible

In the tenth century, the Bible was translated into a language understandable to the inhabitants of ancient Rus'. It was translated by two monks and missionaries Cyril and Methodius. Some historians of Russia call them “the first teachers and educators of the Slavs.” They made their translation of the Bible into the Slavic language using the Slavic alphabet they developed. This alphabet, called “Cyrillic” after one of its creators, marked the beginning of Russian writing.
Over the centuries, the Russian language has evolved and changed, but the ancient Slavic translation of the Bible by Cyril and Methodius remained in use for many centuries. The language of this Bible began to be called Church Slavonic.

With the advent of printing in Rus', they first began to print books of the Holy Scriptures in the Church Slavonic language. In 1564, the founder of the printing business in Russia, the first printer, Ivan Fedorov, published the book “Apostle,” which included the Scriptures of the New Testament: the Acts of the Apostles and their Epistles. This book in the ancient Slavic language was the first to be published in Russia. And in 1581, the complete Bible was printed in Church Slavonic for the first time. However, in its text there were sometimes errors and inaccuracies. In subsequent editions, efforts were made to correct these errors.

By decree of Empress Elizabeth, a carefully corrected Church Slavonic Bible, the so-called “Elizabethan”, was published in 1751, the text of which was verified with the ancient Greek translation - the Septuagint. The Elizabethan Bible, almost unchanged, is still used in the liturgical practice of the Russian Orthodox Church.

However, it is clear that only those who know well can read and understand the text of this Bible. Church Slavonic language. Over the centuries, this language has become more and more different from the developing Russian language and is becoming more and more incomprehensible to the people. Therefore, starting from the 16th century, attempts were made to translate the Bible into Russian.

In the first half of the 16th century, a native of Polotsk, doctor of medicine, Francis Skaryna, translated all the Scriptures of the Old Testament into the contemporary language of southwestern Russia. The translation he made from Jerome's Latin Bible was published in 1517-1525. in Prague and Vilna (now Vilnius). In 1703, Tsar Peter I decided to publish the New Testament in Russian. He instructs the German pastor Gluck, known for his philological works, to translate it. Working in Moscow, Pastor Gluck completes the translation. But in 1705, Pastor Gluck died, and after his death the translation he left behind disappeared. Some historians believe that this translation was stolen and destroyed by opponents of the dissemination of Holy Scripture in a language understandable to the people, who were afraid that this would serve as the beginning of a reform movement in Russia.

In 1813, an important event took place in the spiritual life of Russia: the Russian Bible Society was founded, which set as its goal the printing and distribution of books of Holy Scripture among the peoples of the country. It was decided to sell them at a cheap price and distribute them free of charge to the poor. In 1815, after returning from abroad, Emperor Alexander I ordered “to provide Russians with a way to read the Word of God in their natural Russian language.” The question of the Russian translation of the Bible was raised again.

The Russian Bible Society took responsibility for publishing the books of Holy Scripture in Russian; the translation was carried out under the leadership of the St. Petersburg Theological Academy. Finally, in 1818, the first edition of the four Gospels, in parallel in Russian and Slavic, came out of print, and in 1822 the New Testament was printed in its entirety for the first time. Then they began to translate and print the books of the Old Testament. At the same time, translations of the Holy Scriptures were made into the languages ​​of other peoples of Russia.

But some representatives of the highest church authorities had a negative attitude towards the activities of the Bible Society. They believed that the Bible should be in the hands of the clergy and that the people should not be allowed to read and study it on their own. In 1824, Metropolitan Seraphim asked the Tsar to ban the Bible Society. In April 1826, by decree of Emperor Nicholas I, the activities of the Society were terminated. By this time, the printing house of the Russian Bible Society had managed to print about a million copies of the books of the Holy Scriptures in 26 languages ​​of the peoples of Russia.
After the Society's activities were banned, work on the Russian translation of the Bible was suspended. In 1825 the sale of the New Testament in Russian was stopped.

However, supporters of the publication of the Russian Bible, despite the oppression, did everything possible to achieve their goal, believing that another favorable time would come, and the people would receive the Holy Scriptures at native language. Only in 1858, thirty-two years after the prohibition of the activities of the Bible Society, the hopes of the advocates of publishing the Russian Bible came true: Emperor Alexander II allowed the translation and printing of the Holy Scriptures in Russian. The translation was to be carried out under the direction of the Synod (the highest authority of the Orthodox Church).

A lot of work has been done to ensure that the Russian translation of the books of the Holy Scriptures corresponds as closely as possible to the texts of the ancient originals, and also has literary merits. In 1862, forty years after the first edition of the Russian New Testament, its second edition, somewhat improved, was published in more modern Russian.

It was decided to re-carefully prepare a translation of all the books of the Old Testament. For this purpose, in 1860, a special committee was elected at the St. Petersburg Theological Academy. The translation of the Old Testament was done by professors of the St. Petersburg Theological Academy: M.A. Golubev, E.I. Lovyagin, P.I. Savvaitov, a famous archaeologist and historian, D.A. Khvolson, a Christian of Jewish origin, Doctor of Philosophy from the University of Leipzig. Professor of the Kyiv Theological Academy M.S. Gulyaev also worked a lot on the translation.

The translation of the Old Testament was done from the ancient Hebrew original. The translators were also guided by the Greek text of the Septuagint, used the Latin translation of Jerome and the previously made Russian translation. Finally, in 1876, the complete Russian Bible came out of print for the first time. Its text is sometimes called “synodal”, since it was published under the auspices of the Synod. This happened almost three centuries after the appearance of the first printed Church Slavonic Bible.

The language of the Russian Bible, accurate in its rendering of the sacred original, has undoubted literary merits. Thanks to its emotionality and rhythm, the Russian translation is close in form to prose poems. The publication of the Russian Bible was important event in the history of Russian Christianity and Russian culture. Reading the Holy Scriptures in their native language, millions of people found genuine spiritual values ​​in it, gained faith and peace with God.

Review of Russian Bible translations

Elizabethan Bible in Church Slavonic, 1751.

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Archbishop MEFODIUS (M. A. Smirnov): “The Epistle of the Holy Apostle Paul to the Romans, with an interpretation confirmed by the sayings of the Holy Fathers and other important writers,” Moscow, 1792 (second edition, revised, published in 1815).

Archim. FILARET (V. M. Drozdov):“Notes guiding a thorough understanding of the book of Genesis, which also includes a translation of this book into the Russian dialect,” 1819; Moscow, 1867. (This work was reprinted in the early 1990s in the series “Patristic Heritage” under the title “Creations of St. Philaret, Metropolitan of Moscow and Kolomna on the book of Genesis”, as well as by V.A. Kabanov under the title “GENESIS in translation Philaret Metropolitan of Moscow", M.: 2002)

RBO“Our Lord Jesus Christ Holy Gospel, from Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, in Slavic and Russian dialect”, St. Petersburg, 1819; "Our Lord Jesus Christ New Testament, in Slavic and Russian", St. Petersburg, 1821. “Our Lord Jesus Christ New Testament”, St. Petersburg, 1821; Leipzig, 1850; London, 1854, 1855, 1861. (In 2000, the RBO carried out a reprint of this translation from the 1824 edition: “The New Testament in the translation of the Russian Bible Society.”)

RBO(under the leadership of Archbishop Philaret [V.M. Drozdov] and Archpriest G.P. Pavsky) published the Octateuch, 1825 (“The Bible. Eight Books of the Old Testament. Pentateuch. Joshua. Judges. Ruth”, London, 1861, 18622); “The Psalter, or the Book of Praises in Russian”, St. Petersburg, 1822; Leipzig, 1852; London, 1858.

G. P. Pavsky translated the Gospel of Matthew, 1819 (this work was included in the translation of the New Testament of 1821). He also independently translated all the books of the Old Testament in 1820-1835 (the books of Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Proverbs of Solomon were published in 1861-1866; translations of the remaining books were not published).

Archim. Macarius (M. Ya. Glukharev) translated almost all the books of the Old Testament in 1834-1845 (the translation was carried out from Hebrew, and not from Church Slavonic); his translations (of some prophetic books in two editions) were published in Moscow in the 1860s. (Since 2000, the RBO has been reprinting this translation, originally published in the Orthodox Review magazine: “The Pentateuch of Moses in the translation of Archimandrite Macarius.”)

"Bible. The Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, translated from Hebrew, regardless of the insertions in the original and its changes in the Greek and Slavic translations. Old Testament. The first section, which contains the Law, or the Pentateuch. Translation by Vadim", London, 1860.

Ep. Agafangel (A.F. Soloviev):“The Book of Job with brief explanations in Russian translation”, Vyatka 1860, 1861; this text was republished by V.A. Kabanov entitled “JOB. Translated by Agafangel, Archbishop of Volyn and Zhitomir. (1861)"

I. P. Maksimovich translated the following books: Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Ecclesiastes (published in the 1860s).

M. S. Gulyaev translated the books of Kings, Chronicles (published 1861-1864).

M. A. Golubev, D. A. Khvolson, E. I. Lovyagin, P. I. Savvaitov translated and published the entire Old Testament in 1861-1871. It was this work that served as the basis for the Synodal Translation of the Old Testament.

RBO. Synodal translation. Complete Russian Bible. 1876. The most popular Russian translation. To this day it is published in huge quantities.

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Download the Geneva Bible - Synodal translation with commentaries (18.3 MB)

L. I. Mandelstam translated the Torah in 1862, as well as the Psalms. Literal translation in favor of Russian Jews", Berlin, 1864, 1865, 1872.

Book P. (pseudonym?): “Books of Holy Scripture in the Russian translation of the book. P. (historical books)", St. Petersburg, 1865.

V. A. Levinson, D. A. Khvolson translated the entire Old Testament, which was published in London in 1866-1875 (this two-volume work was regularly published in Vienna and Berlin until 1914 under the title “The Holy Books of the Old Testament, Translated from the Hebrew Text. For Jewish Use”).

I. Gorsky-Platonov:“Psalms in Russian translation”, 1868, as well as “The Book of Exodus”, 1891.

A.-I. L. Pumpyansky:"Psalms of David. Jewish text with Russian translation", Warsaw, 1872, as well as Proverbs of Solomon, St. Petersburg, 1891.

O. N. Steinberg translated the books of Joshua, Judges, 1874-1875, “The Book of the Prophet Isaiah with a literal Russian translation”, Vilna, 1875; “The Pentateuch of Moses with a literal Russian translation,” 1899.

Ep. Porfiry (K. A. Uspensky):“The Book of Esther in Russian translation from the Greek text”, 1874; “The Psalter in Russian translation from Greek”, Kyiv, 1874-1875; St. Petersburg, 1893, “The Four Books of Maccabees”, Kyiv, 1873.

I. G. Gershtein, L. O. Gordon translated the Pentateuch, which was published in 1875.

P. A. Yungerov translated from ancient Greek language about fifteen Old Testament books. They were originally published in Kazan, 1882-1911.

L. N. Tolstoy: “Connection, translation and study of the 4 Gospels”, Geneva, 1892-1894; Moscow, 1907-1908;

V. A. Zhukovsky: “The New Testament of Our Lord Jesus Christ”, Berlin, 1895, 1902.

K. P. Pobedonostsev: “The Holy Gospel of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John in Slavic and Russian languages ​​with the addition of the Russian text in a new edition”, St. Petersburg, 1903; “The Epistles of the Apostle Paul in a new Russian translation”, St. Petersburg, 1905; "New Testament. Experience in improving the translation into Russian of the sacred books of the New Testament", St. Petersburg, 1906.

A. Efros: “Song of Solomon”, St. Petersburg, “Pantheon”, 1909; “Song of Solomon. Translation from Hebrew", St. Petersburg, 1910, Book of Ruth, Moscow 1925.

Ep. Antonin (A. Granovsky): “The Book of Proverbs of Solomon. Russian translation of the book from a parallel critical edition of the Hebrew and Greek texts with the application of the Slavic text", 1913 .

Probatov Vasily. Poetic transcriptions of the Gospel and the book of Psalms. First half of the 20th century.

Download Probatov Vasily. Poetic transcriptions of the Gospel and the book of Psalms (491 Kb)

Ep. Cassian (Bezobrazov) and others: “The New Testament of Our Lord Jesus Christ”, B.F.B.S., London, 1970 (subsequently reprinted many times by various organizations, most recently by the Russian Bible Society).

Download the New Testament translated by Cassian (Bezobrazov a) (347 Kb)

S. S. Averintsev published a translation of the book of Job in “Poetry and Prose of the Ancient East”, Moscow, 1973; "World of the Bible", Moscow, 1993.
“Collected Works / Ed. N.P. Averintseva and K.B. Sigov. Translations: Gospels. Book of Job. Psalms. Per. from ancient Greek and ancient Hebrew.”, K.: SPIRIT AND LITERA, 2004.

D. Yosifon: “Five Books of the Torah”, Yerushalayim, 1975; "The First and Last Prophets", Yerushalayim, 1978; "Ketuvim", Yerushalayim, 1978.

K. I. Logachev: “The Gospel according to John in the new Russian translation”, OBO, 1978; “The Book of the Acts of the Apostles. Translation from the "text of the majority"", "Literary studies", 1991.

Living Bibles International: "Started Christian faith. Retelling the seven books of the New Testament", 1984.

World Bible Translation Center: “Good News from God. New Testament. Translation from Greek text", Moscow, 1989; “Good News. New Testament. New translation from the Greek text", Moscow, 1990; "The Bible. Modern translation of biblical texts", Moscow, 1993; 1997.

Download the Bible translated by World Bible Translation Center (1.6 MB)

L. Lutkovsky: “Gospel”, Moscow: Friendship of Peoples, 1991.

Download the Gospels. Translation by Leonid Lutkovsky (294 Kb)

E. G. Yunz: “The Book of Ecclesiastes”, journal. "Questions of Philosophy", vol. 8, 1991;
“The Gospel as presented by Luke”, M.: Protestant, 1994;
"The Book of Jonah", journal. "The World of the Bible", vol. 4. M.: 1997;
"The Book of Ruth", journal. "The World of the Bible", vol. 5. M.: 1998.

M. I. Rizhsky: “The Book of Job: From the history of the biblical text”, Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1991.
“The Book of Ecclesiastes”, Novosibirsk, 1995.

International Bible Society : “Word of Life. The New Testament in Modern Translation,” Living Bible. Int., Stookholm, 1991;

"The Bible for Our Lives, New Testament", 1999;
"Being. Translation of the International Bible Society", BBI, 1998

Work is underway to translate the entire Old Testament into modern Russian.

V. N. Kuznetsova: “Good News: The New Testament translated from ancient Greek”, Moscow, RBO, 2001.

I. Sh. Shifman: “Teaching. Pentateuch of Moses", Moscow: Republic, 1993.

P. Gil(under general editorship G. Branovera): “The Pentateuch and Hephtharoth. Hebrew text with Russian translation and classical commentary "SONCHINO", "GESHARIM" 5761/"Bridges of Culture", Moscow, 2001, 2006.

Geli Vishenchuk: “New Testament Scriptures. Comments. Second, revised edition", AMG Int., Chattanooga, 2001.

V. A. Gromov(editor): “The New Testament of Our Lord Jesus Christ, edited by V. A. Gromov,” USA, Evangelical Bible Translators, Int., ed. "Esther", Ukraine, 1997; "Gospel of the Kingdom", 2000.

S. V. Lezov: “As presented by Mark” in his book “History and Hermeneutics in the Study of the New Testament”, Moscow: Eastern Literature, 1996.

Pearl of the Carpathians: “The Gospel according to Matthew, Mark, Luke, John and the Acts of the Apostles”, GBV, Germany, 1997.

K. G. Kapkov: “Canonical Gospels. New Russian edition", Moscow, 1997.

Slavic Bible Foundation: “The Gospel of Mark. Gospel of John. Epistle to the Romans. Apocalypse", St. Petersburg, 1997.

Live Stream: “New Testament. Restorative translation", Anaheim, 1998.

M. G. Seleznev(editor of the series “Old Testament. Translation from Hebrew”) and others: “The Book of Genesis”, Russian State University for the Humanities, 1999;
“Exodus”, Russian State University for the Humanities, 2000;
“Parables. Book of Ecclesiastes. Book of Job", Russian State University for the Humanities, 2001;
“The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah”, RBO, 2001. (A translation of the entire Old Testament into modern Russian is planned to be published by 2009, and work is also underway to create a Hebrew-Russian interlinear translation of the Old Testament)

Dov-Ber Haskelevich(under general editorship G. Branovera): “Tehilim. With a new Russian translation and a brief commentary,” Jerusalem: SHAMIR, 5759/1999.

Al Salam: “The Holy Book. Semantic translation of selected items from Taurat and Injil", Bishkek, 2000.

M. P. Kulakov: “New Testament in modern Russian translation”, 2000;
"New Testament and Psalter in modern Russian translation", 2002.

SHAMASH(translation from English A. Dolbina, V. Dolbina): "The Jewish New Testament / A Jewish Translation of the New Testament by David Stern<англ. изд. 1989 г.>", Finland, 2001.

Hieromonk Ambrose (Timrot): “Psalter. New translation from the Greek text of 70 interpreters", M.: 2002.

"Central Asian Scripture in Russian": “Holy Scripture. / Meaningful translation of Taurat, the Book of Prophets, Zabur and Injil", Istanbul Publishing House, 2003.

WatchTower: "Christian Greek Scriptures - New World Translation", Rome, 2001.

K. I. Logachev: “Greek-Russian New Testament for translators and interpreters of the Holy Scriptures (16).

The Epistle of St. Paul the Apostle to the Galatians,” Bible Association, Bible Institute, 1992;
“Greek-Russian New Testament (20-21). First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians", Institute of Biblical Textual Studies and Biblical Translations of St. Petersburg State University, 1995.

A. A. Alekseev(chief editor) and others: “The Gospel of Luke in Greek with interlinear Russian translation”, Institute of Bible Translation, Stockholm - Moscow, 1994;
“The Gospel of Matthew in Greek with interlinear Russian translation”, Stockholm - Moscow: Institute of Bible Translation, 1997;
“New Testament in Greek with interlinear translation into Russian”, St. Petersburg: RBO, 2001.

D. P. Reznik: “The Epistle of James in Greek with interlinear translation into Russian”, Kyiv: Mission “Serving the Chosen People”, 1997 .

A. Vinokurov: “Interlinear translation of the Old and New Testaments into Russian” (Project in at the moment is at the stage of its development), 2002-2007.

V. Zhuromsky(chief ed.): “Interlinear Greek-Russian New Testament / Literal Modern Translation", Zhytomyr, "Ukrainian Society of Grace", 2006.

Translation of the books of Jonah and Job by Ilya Karpekin. Made on the basis English translation Sir Lancelot C. L. Brenton.

Pavlodar translation. 2007. This translation of the letter of the Apostle Paul to Ephesus is a pilot project of the creators of the website www. adventist.kz. It represents an attempt to overcome the eternal dilemma of biblical translations - what is better - to be closer to the letter of the original or to express the author’s thoughts in modern language. In parallel with the expressive paraphrase in modern Russian, there is an ancient Greek original with interlinear translation so that the reader can compare the texts and independently draw conclusions regarding their meaning.

When developing this publication, four different dictionaries of the ancient Greek language were used, and the experience of creating about 20 of the best translations into Russian and English was studied. The critics were linguists, proofreaders and people with theological education from different CIS countries.

By decree of Peter I). Its text was verified with the ancient Greek translation - the Septuagint. The Elizabethan Bible, almost unchanged, is still used by the Russian Orthodox Church. However, it is clear that only those who know the Church Slavonic language well can read and understand the text of this Bible. Over the centuries, this language has become more and more different from the developing Russian language and is becoming more and more incomprehensible to the people. Therefore, attempts were made to translate the Bible into the Russian language used in life.

Early private translations

Back in 1683, clerk Abraham Firsov translated the Psalter from the Polish Protestant edition into contemporary Russian, but Patriarch Joachim did not allow this translation to be published. Twenty years later, Peter I sent the captive pastor Gluck to Moscow, who was translating the Bible into Russian. His translation also has not survived.

The Bible in modern Russian translation

On June 1, 2011, the second complete translation of the Bible into Russian, created in Russia, was published - the translation of the Russian Bible Society. The work was carried out for more than 15 years.

The translation reflects the expressive originality of biblical texts belonging to various historical eras, literary genres and language styles. The translators sought, using all the richness of Russian literary language, convey the semantic and stylistic diversity of Holy Scripture. The translators paid special attention to the emotional component of the text in order to enliven the text and make it more understandable for modern readers.

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