The foreign policy crisis of 1908 was associated with. Consequences of the Balkan Wars

Plan
Introduction
1 Prerequisites for the crisis
2 Politics of Austria-Hungary
3 Crisis
4 Political defeat Russia and Serbia

Bosnian crisis

Introduction

Bosnian crisis - international conflict, which was caused by the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary in October 1908. This diplomatic clash inflamed already tense Great Power relations and, during the first weeks of 1909, threatened to erupt into a major European war. Despite the apparent success of Austrian diplomacy, the annexation of new territories under pressure from the German elite of Austria ultimately turned out to be pyrrhic victory. National, religious and linguistic contradictions in Austria-Hungary reached critical point, which led to the collapse of the country in 1918, just ten years after annexation.

1. Preconditions for the crisis

Article 25 of the Berlin Treaty of 1878 provided that Bosnia and Herzegovina, liberated from Turkish oppression, would go to Austria-Hungary. This article was also vigorously opposed by Serbia, which had freed itself from Turkish rule, which seriously feared that the capture of Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Austrians would be a prelude to their occupation of Serbia itself - especially since the Habsburgs had long imagined themselves as defenders Slavic peoples and “collectors” of Slavic lands (Bohemia, Croatia, Slovenia, Galicia, Krakow, etc.)

In the last quarter of the 19th century, Belgrade tried to convince its patron, the Tsar, Alexandra III, the need to transfer Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Serbs in order to expand their access to the Adriatic Sea and transform the thus formed “Yugoslav” monarchy into an independent maritime power. During the period of the Union of Three Emperors, the question of the ownership of Bosnia and Herzegovina was “frozen” at the insistence of Bismarck. As soon as the union of Austrian and Russian emperors gave way to open rivalry, Austrian diplomats began to explore the possibility of annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina.

In the first decade of the 20th century, it was inexorably declining Ottoman Empire tried to reverse the vector of its development and after the Young Turk Revolution became new strength claim their rights to the Balkans. This alarmed the Viennese government, which decided to immediately use the right to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina granted to it by the Berlin Congress in 1878 for its annexation. To do this, it was necessary to overcome the opposition of not only the Sultan, but also Russia, Serbia, Montenegro and Italy.

2. Policy of Austria-Hungary

Austrian Foreign Minister Alois von Ehrenthal entered into negotiations with representatives of these powers. The first step was to reach an agreement with Italy that the Habsburgs would not interfere in the Italo-Turkish war for the possession of Tripoli. This made it possible to somewhat level out Austrian relations with Italy, which had not developed since the end of the Risorgimento, which deprived the Habsburgs of their vast possessions in the Apennines.

It was possible to reach an agreement with the Sultan by signing an agreement under which Turkey received compensation of 2.5 million pounds sterling for the annexed territories - despite the fact that Austria refused to annex the Novopazar Sanjak. The mediator in concluding this agreement was the main foreign policy ally of the Austrian court - the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, who had unlimited influence on the Sultan.

During the visit of the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs A.P. Izvolsky of Buchtold Castle in Buchlov on September 16, 1908, an informal agreement was reached, according to which, in exchange for the unhindered annexation of Bosnian lands, Austria recognized Russia's right to the passage of its warships through the Dardanelles. Both sides also agreed not to object if Bulgaria, friendly to Russia, announced the end of its vassal dependence on the Turkish Sultan.

The meaning of the agreement between Izvolsky and Buchtold was that Austria would announce the annexation of Bosnia, and Russia would simultaneously announce its rejection of the Berlin agreements on the neutral status of the straits. It was assumed that coordinated actions would neutralize the reaction from Russia’s Entente allies - France and Great Britain, who feared a strengthening Russian influence in the Mediterranean. London and Paris expressed their dissatisfaction with the developments in the Balkans with notes of protest to the Austrian government, but did not accept any decisive action in relation to Austria. In general, the issue of Bosnia and Herzegovina interested the British and French much less than the status of the Dardanelles.

Thus, thanks to the efforts of Austrian diplomacy, Serbia and Montenegro found themselves isolated. Despite their protests, Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina on October 5, 1908.

The next day (October 6), the governments of Serbia and Montenegro announced mobilization in their countries. The leadership of both countries believed that these two areas were under their sphere of influence and did not want to lose their dominance in this region. On October 8, Germany notified the Austrian government that if the conflict escalated, they could fully count on support German Empire. The Austrian government, with the support of Germany, declared that the conflict with Serbia could only be resolved by force. Austrian troops began to concentrate on the Serbian border. But Austria was not allowed to attack Serbia by Serbia’s friendly relations with Russia. The governments of Germany and Austria-Hungary understood that Russia would not stand by and watch as Austrian troops occupied Serbian lands. Russia will certainly intervene in the war between Serbia and Austria. It seemed that war between Serbia, Montenegro and Austria-Hungary had become inevitable.

4. Political defeat of Russia and Serbia

As the Serbs continued to arm themselves, Austria negotiated with several countries to keep Serbia diplomatically isolated. These negotiations bore fruit. On March 2, 1909, representatives of Russia, Great Britain, France, Italy and Germany took the side of Austria, trying to put pressure on Serbia so that it recognized the annexation as a fact. Thus, war was avoided. At the same time, Russia proposed convening an international conference to resolve the current situation, especially since England and France refused to support its position on the issue of the straits. The remaining powers preferred to adhere to the Berlin agreements of 1878.

On March 10, 1909, Serbia refused to recognize the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It seemed that a pan-European war was inevitable. On March 17, 1909, the Council of Ministers decided that Russian Empire not ready for war with Germany and Austria on two fronts. A few days later, Count Pourtales presented “proposals” (in fact, an ultimatum) to A. Izvolsky demanding recognition of the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and an end to diplomatic support for Serbia.

The very next day (March 23), Nicholas II telegraphed Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany accepting all German demands. Russia recognized the annexation. This meant that Russian policy suffered a complete defeat. The Entente allies did not provide Russia with support in the Balkan problem, and even more so in the issue of the status of the straits, leaving Russia alone with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Under pressure from its ally, Serbia on March 31, 1909 was also forced to recognize the annexation of neighboring territories by the Austrians.

Formally, the conflict was settled, but feelings of bitterness from defeat continued to smolder in both Belgrade and St. Petersburg. The Balkans remained " powder keg» Europe. The explosion occurred in June 1914, when a Serbian patriot shot and killed the heir Austrian throne during the inspection of newly annexed lands (see. Sarajevo murder).

· Bosnian crisis 1908 - 1909

· The Bosnian Crisis 1908-1909 (English)

Germany and Austria-Hungary were interested in the Balkans and Turkey. This affected the interests of the Entente. By decision of the Berlin Congress of 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina (population - Serbs and Croats) were occupied by Austro-Hungarian troops for an indefinite period, although formally they were considered Turkish possessions. The fact is that Bosnia and Herzegovina has strategic importance- a springboard for strengthening influence in the Balkans. And everyone understands this. In 1908, a revolution occurs in Turkey. Sultan Abdul Hamid is overthrown, and the military from the Unity and Progress Party (known in Europe as the Young Turks) comes to power. The Constitution is introduced, and the national liberation struggle of the peoples of the Balkans begins. Naturally, she was depressed. Austria-Hungary, in turn, views this as a convenient excuse to finally subjugate Bosnia and Herzegovina. Russia …
turns out to be in difficult situation. Foreign Minister Izvolsky negotiates with Austria-Hungary Foreign Minister Ehrenthal on compensation for Russia in exchange for recognition of Austria-Hungary’s occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina: The Austrians pledged to support Russia’s demand to open Black Sea straits for the passage of Russian military ships and provide territorial compensation to Serbia. Also, Austria-Hungary withdrew its troops from the New Bazar Sanjak (Turkish province). It must be said that Izvolsky took full responsibility for the negotiations - Nicholas II knew nothing about it. The government too.

The Russian government did not agree, and demanded the convening of the participating countries of the Berlin Congress of 1878 - Russia, England, France, Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy. France and England were against it, Germany and Italy agreed conditionally, but Stolypin was openly “against”. Russia, Serbia and Türkiye spoke out against the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Despite everything, on September 29 (October 10), 1908, Austria-Hungary officially announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbia mobilized, but things did not go any further. Later, in February 1909, Türkiye would renounce its rights to Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The question arose about recognition of the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Serbia and Russia. Serbia, in turn, mobilized. Austria-Hungary concentrated its troops on the border with Serbia and demanded recognition of the annexation. She demanded the same from Russia. In addition, the Austrians demanded that Russia refuse to convene international conference. The threat was war. Germany supported Austria-Hungary and sent Russia an ultimatum: either Russia recognizes the annexation, or war. Nicholas II convened a meeting on March 8 (21), the day he received the ultimatum. And a “strange” circumstance emerged - Russia is not ready for war. Stolypin was against the war - but for other reasons. “To start a war is to start a revolution.” On March 12 (25), Nicholas II sent Wilhelm II a telegram recognizing the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This was later called “diplomatic Tsushima.” Following Russia, Serbia recognized the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This, of course, did not contribute to the popularity of Nicholas II.

Russia is beginning a program to reorganize its army and navy and equip it with new types of weapons. In August 1909 the Council was abolished national defense, and all military institutions, including the General Staff, were subordinated to the War Ministry. In 1910, a new deployment of the army was approved according to the principle uniform distribution troops.

Against the backdrop of the Bosnian crisis, there is a rapprochement between Italy and Russia. In 1909, a treaty on the Balkans was concluded.

Prerequisites for the crisis

In the first decade of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire, which was inexorably declining, tried to reverse the vector of its development; after the Young Turk Revolution, the ruling circles of the Ottoman Empire with renewed vigor began to claim their rights to Bosnia and Herzegovina. This worried the Austro-Hungarian government, which set a course for the annexation of provinces and was looking for only a convenient excuse to implement its plans. To do this, it was necessary to overcome the opposition of not only the Ottomans, but also Russia, Great Britain, France, Italy, Serbia and Montenegro.

Politics of Austria-Hungary

Austrian Foreign Minister Alois von Ehrenthal entered into negotiations with representatives of the interested powers. The first step was to reach an agreement with Italy that the Habsburgs would not interfere in the Italo-Turkish War for the possession of Libya. This made it possible to somewhat level out Austrian relations with Italy, which had not developed since the end of the Risorgimento, which deprived the Habsburgs of their vast possessions in the Apennines. It was possible to reach an agreement with the Sultan by signing an agreement under which Turkey received compensation of 2.5 million pounds sterling for the annexed territories - despite the fact that Austria refused to annex the Novipazar Sanjak. The mediator in concluding this agreement was the main foreign policy ally of the Austrian court - the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, who had unlimited influence on the Sultan.

During the meeting Russian minister Foreign Affairs of A.P. Izvolsky with his Austrian colleague Alois von Ehrenthal, held in the castle Buchlau (Bukhlov), on September 15-16, 1908, a preliminary informal agreement was reached, according to which, in exchange for Russia's recognition of the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Austria recognized the right of Russia for the unhindered passage of its warships through the Black Sea straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles. Both sides also agreed not to object if Bulgaria announced the end of its vassalage to the Ottoman Empire. It is worth noting that Izvolsky did not have the authority to conduct such negotiations, and for his Austrian colleague, Aehrenthal, as it turned out later, it was very important to at least create the appearance of them. According to Izvolsky’s contemporaries, the meaning of his preliminary informal agreement with Aehrenthal was that at a suitable moment for the two powers, Austria-Hungary would announce the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Russia would simultaneously announce its rejection of the Berlin agreements on the neutral status of the Black Sea straits. It was assumed that coordinated actions would neutralize the reaction from Russia's Entente allies - France and Great Britain, who feared the strengthening of Russian influence in the Mediterranean.

As Count V.N. Kokovtsov, who was the Russian Minister of Finance at that time, noted in his memoirs, “during hospitable conversations in Bukhlau, Izvolsky acted out an episode from Krylov’s fable - “The Crow and the Fox.”

Bosnian crisis 1908-1909

The next day (October 6), the governments of Serbia and Montenegro announced mobilization in their countries. The ruling circles and intelligentsia of both states believed that Bosnia-Herzegovina is a historically Serbian province, it should be integrated into the all-Serbian cultural space and divided between them, like the Novipazar Sanjak.

On March 10, 1909, Serbia refused to recognize the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On March 17, 1909, the Council of Ministers of Russia at its meeting stated that the Russian Empire was not ready for war with Germany and Austria-Hungary on two fronts. Due to this, Russia had to restrain Serbia from attacking Austria-Hungary; such a rash step could well provoke a pan-European war.

And then Germany said its weighty word. March 22 German Ambassador in Russia, Count Pourtales presented his Russian colleague Izvolsky with “proposals for resolving the crisis” (more like an ultimatum), in which Russia was asked to give an immediate, clear, unambiguous answer about consent or refusal to recognize the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and made it clear that a negative answer would entail an attack Austria-Hungary to Serbia; an additional demand was made for the cessation of diplomatic support to Serbia. Fearing that Russia would be drawn into the war, Prime Minister P. A. Stolypin came out categorically against direct confrontation with Germany and Austria-Hungary, pointing out that “to unleash a war means to unleash the forces of revolution.” The very next day, Emperor Nicholas II telegraphed Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany agreeing to accept all German demands. This meant that Russian Balkan policy was a complete fiasco, which contemporaries, remembering the recently ended unsuccessful Russo-Japanese War, called “diplomatic Tsushima.” Under pressure from its ally, Serbia was also forced to recognize the annexation on March 31, 1909.

Formally, the conflict was settled, but feelings of bitterness from defeat continued to smolder in both Belgrade and St. Petersburg. In addition, thanks to the efforts of Austrian and German diplomacy, Russia’s allies, Serbia and Montenegro, found themselves isolated, and Russia’s prestige was dealt another sensitive blow. The Balkans remained the “powder keg” of Europe for a long time. The explosion occurred in June 1914, when Serbian terrorist Gavrilo Princip shot and killed the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Franz Ferdinand, during an inspection of the newly annexed lands (see Sarajevo Murder).

Bosnian crisis 1908-1909 led to a deepening of contradictions between the Entente and the Triple Alliance, being one of the stages on the way to the First World War. The crisis irreversibly damaged relations between Russia and Serbia on the one hand and Austria-Hungary on the other and almost led to a major European war. Germany made it clear to Russia and the Entente that it would provide Austria-Hungary with any necessary help, up to the military. Italy's withdrawal from the Triple Alliance began. Serious contradictions also emerged within the Entente: the allies did not provide Russia with significant support in the Bosno-Herzegovina issue and were not ready to satisfy Russia’s claims in the Eastern Question as a whole, leaving Russia alone with Germany and Austria-Hungary. At the same time, they themselves “kept the gunpowder dry.” According to a number of researchers, at the turn of 1908-1909. Great Britain concentrated more than half of the ships of its fleet in the metropolis. Apparently, the British ruling circles did not consider the Bosnian crisis a timely and convenient occasion to oppose the Triple Alliance.

As for the main “heroes” of the crisis, the crisis affected political career Izvolsky: he soon resigned as Minister of Foreign Affairs and was sent as ambassador to France; Russian foreign policy agency, for a long time which remained a very closed body, directly subordinate to the emperor, finally came under the full control of the Government and the Chairman of the Council of Ministers: politics became more transparent, and decisions more balanced. Aehrenthal received the title of Count after the annexation was recognized by the remaining Great Powers on April 9, 1909.

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Links

• Astafiev I. I. Russian-German diplomatic relations 1905-1911 M., 1972;
• Bestuzhev I.V. Struggle in Russia on issues foreign policy. 1906-1910. M., 1961;
• Vinogradov K. B. Bosnian crisis of 1908-1909. Prologue of the First World War. L.: Publishing house Leningrad University, 1964;
• Zayonchkovsky A. M. Around the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. // Red Archive, 1925, T.3 (10), pp. 41-53;
• Ignatiev A.V. Russian-English relations on the eve of the First World War (1908-1914). M., 1962;
• History of diplomacy. Volume II. The author of the volume is V. M. Khvostov. Edited by A. A. Gromyko, I. N. Zemskov, V. A. Zorin, V. S. Semenov, S. D. Skazkin, V. M. Khvostov. M., State Publishing House political literature, 1963;
• Milyukov, P. N. The Balkan crisis and the politics of A. P. Izvolsky. St. Petersburg, 1910;
• Pisarev Yu. A. Great powers and the Balkans on the eve of the First World War. M., Publishing house Nauka, 1985;
• Poletika N.P. Sarajevo Murder. Research on the history of Austro-Serbian relations and Balkan policy of Russia in the period 1903-1914. M., Publishing house: Krasnaya Gazeta, 1930;
• Fay Sidney Bradshaw. The origins of the world war. Vol. 1-2, New York 1928. / Fey S. B. Origin of the World War. T. 1-2, M., 1934;
• Pribram, A. F. Austrian foreign policy 1908-1918. With a foreword by G. P. Gooch. London, 1923;
• (English)

See also

Excerpt characterizing the Bosnian crisis

Prince Andrey left the next day in the evening. The old prince, without deviating from his order, went to his room after dinner. The little princess was with her sister-in-law. Prince Andrei, dressed in a traveling frock coat without epaulettes, settled down with his valet in the chambers assigned to him. Having examined the stroller and the packing of the suitcases himself, he ordered them to be packed. In the room there remained only those things that Prince Andrei always took with him: a box, a large silver cellar, two Turkish pistols and a saber, a gift from his father, brought from near Ochakov. Prince Andrei had all these travel accessories in great order: everything was new, clean, in cloth covers, carefully tied with ribbons.
In moments of departure and change of life, people who are able to think about their actions usually find themselves in a serious mood of thought. At these moments the past is usually reviewed and plans for the future are made. Prince Andrei's face was very thoughtful and tender. He, with his hands behind him, quickly walked around the room from corner to corner, looking ahead of him, and thoughtfully shaking his head. Whether he was afraid to go to war, or sad to leave his wife - maybe both, but, apparently, not wanting to be seen in such a position, hearing footsteps in the hallway, he hastily freed his hands, stopped at the table, as if he was tying the cover of a box, and assumed his usual, calm and impenetrable expression. These were the heavy steps of Princess Marya.
“They told me that you ordered a pawn,” she said, out of breath (she was apparently running), “and I really wanted to talk to you alone.” God knows how long we will be separated again. Aren't you angry that I came? “You have changed a lot, Andryusha,” she added, as if to explain such a question.
She smiled, pronouncing the word “Andryusha”. Apparently, it was strange for her to think that this stern, handsome man was the same Andryusha, a thin, playful boy, a childhood friend.
-Where is Lise? – he asked, only answering her question with a smile.
“She was so tired that she fell asleep in my room on the sofa. Ax, Andre! Que! tresor de femme vous avez,” she said, sitting down on the sofa opposite her brother. - She's a perfect child, so sweet cheerful child. I loved her so much.
Prince Andrei was silent, but the princess noticed the ironic and contemptuous expression that appeared on his face.
– But one must be lenient towards small weaknesses; who doesn't have them, Andre! Don't forget that she was brought up and grew up in the world. And then her situation is no longer rosy. You have to put yourself in everyone's position. Tout comprendre, c "est tout pardonner. [Whoever understands everything will forgive everything.] Think about what it must be like for her, poor thing, after the life to which she is accustomed, to part with her husband and remain alone in the village and in her situation? This very hard.
Prince Andrei smiled, looking at his sister, as we smile when listening to people whom we think we see right through.
“You live in a village and don’t find this life terrible,” he said.
- I'm different. What to say about me! I don’t wish for another life, and I cannot wish for it, because I don’t know any other life. Just think, Andre, for the young and secular woman be buried in best years life in the village, alone, because daddy is always busy, and I... you know me... how poor I am in ressources, [interests.] for a woman accustomed to to a better society. M lle Bourienne is one...
“I don’t like her very much, your Bourienne,” said Prince Andrei.
- Oh no! She is very sweet and kind, and most importantly- a pathetic girl. She has no one, no one. To tell the truth, I not only don’t need her, but she’s shy. You know, I have always been a savage, and now I’m even more so. I love being alone... Mon pere [Father] loves her very much. She and Mikhail Ivanovich are two persons to whom he is always affectionate and kind, because they are both blessed by him; as Stern says: “we love people not so much for the good they have done to us, but for the good we have done to them.” Mon pere took her as an orphan sur le pavé, [on the pavement], and she is very kind. And mon pere loves her reading style. She reads aloud to him in the evenings. She reads great.
- Well, to be honest, Marie, I think it’s sometimes hard for you because of your father’s character? - Prince Andrei suddenly asked.
Princess Marya was at first surprised, then frightened by this question.
– ME?... Me?!... Is it hard for me?! - she said.
– He has always been cool; and now it’s getting hard, I think,” said Prince Andrei, apparently on purpose to puzzle or test his sister, speaking so easily about his father.
“You are good to everyone, Andre, but you have some kind of pride of thought,” said the princess, more following her own train of thought than the course of the conversation, “and this is a great sin.” Is it possible to judge a father? And even if it were possible, what other feeling than veneration [deep respect] could arouse such a person as mon pere? And I am so satisfied and happy with him. I only wish that you all were as happy as I am.
The brother shook his head in disbelief.
“The one thing that’s hard for me, I’ll tell you the truth, Andre, is my father’s way of thinking in religious terms. I don’t understand how a person with such a huge mind cannot see what is clear as day and can be so mistaken? This is my only misfortune. But even here in lately I see a shadow of improvement. Lately his ridicule has not been so caustic, and there is one monk whom he received and spoke to him for a long time.
“Well, my friend, I’m afraid that you and the monk are wasting your gunpowder,” said Prince Andrei mockingly but affectionately.
- Ah! mon ami. [A! My friend.] I just pray to God and hope that He will hear me. Andre,” she said timidly after a minute of silence, “I have a big request to ask of you.”
- What, my friend?
- No, promise me that you won’t refuse. It will not cost you any work, and there will be nothing unworthy of you in it. Only you can console me. Promise, Andryusha,” she said, putting her hand into the reticule and holding something in it, but not yet showing it, as if what she was holding was the subject of the request and as if before receiving the promise to fulfill the request, she could not take it out of the reticule this is something.
She looked timidly and pleadingly at her brother.
“Even if it cost me a lot of work...”, answered Prince Andrei, as if guessing what was the matter.
- Think whatever you want! I know you are the same as mon pere. Think what you want, but do it for me. Please do it! My father’s father, our grandfather, wore it in all the wars...” She still didn’t take what she was holding out of the reticule. - So you promise me?
- Of course, what's the matter?
- Andre, I will bless you with the image, and you promise me that you will never take it off. Do you promise?
“If he doesn’t stretch his neck by two pounds... To please you...” said Prince Andrei, but at that very second, noticing the distressed expression that his sister’s face took on at this joke, he repented. “Very glad, really very glad, my friend,” he added.
“Against your will, He will save and have mercy on you and turn you to Himself, because in Him alone there is truth and peace,” she said in a voice trembling with emotion, with a solemn gesture holding in both hands in front of her brother an oval ancient icon of the Savior with a black face in silver chasuble on a silver chain of fine workmanship.
She crossed herself, kissed the icon and handed it to Andrey.
- Please, Andre, for me...
Rays of kind and timid light shone from her large eyes. These eyes illuminated the entire sickly, thin face and made it beautiful. The brother wanted to take the icon, but she stopped him. Andrei understood, crossed himself and kissed the icon. His face was at the same time tender (he was touched) and mocking.
- Merci, mon ami. [Thank you, my friend.]
She kissed his forehead and sat down on the sofa again. They were silent.
“So I told you, Andre, be kind and generous, as you always have been.” Don’t judge Lise harshly,” she began. “She is so sweet, so kind, and her situation is very difficult now.”
“It seems that I didn’t tell you anything, Masha, that I should blame my wife for anything or be dissatisfied with her.” Why are you telling me all this?
Princess Marya blushed in spots and fell silent, as if she felt guilty.
“I didn’t tell you anything, but they already told you.” And it makes me sad.
Red spots appeared even more strongly on Princess Marya’s forehead, neck and cheeks. She wanted to say something and could not say it. The brother guessed right: the little princess cried after dinner, said that she foresaw an unhappy birth, was afraid of it, and complained about her fate, about her father-in-law and her husband. After crying, she fell asleep. Prince Andrei felt sorry for his sister.
“Know one thing, Masha, I cannot reproach myself for anything, I have not reproached and will never reproach my wife, and I myself cannot reproach myself for anything in relation to her; and it will always be so, no matter what my circumstances. But if you want to know the truth... do you want to know if I'm happy? No. Is she happy? No. Why is this? Don't know…
Saying this, he stood up, walked up to his sister and, bending down, kissed her on the forehead. His beautiful eyes shone with an intelligent and kind, unusual sparkle, but he looked not at his sister, but into the darkness of the open door, over her head.
- Let's go to her, we need to say goodbye. Or go alone, wake her up, and I’ll be right there. Parsley! - he shouted to the valet, - come here, clean it up. It's in the seat, it's on the right side.
Princess Marya stood up and headed towards the door. She stopped.
– Andre, si vous avez. la foi, vous vous seriez adresse a Dieu, pour qu"il vous donne l"amour, que vous ne sentez pas et votre priere aurait ete exaucee. [If you had faith, you would turn to God with a prayer, so that He would give you the love that you do not feel, and your prayer would be heard.]
- Yes, is that so! - said Prince Andrei. - Go, Masha, I’ll be right back.
On the way to his sister’s room, in the gallery connecting one house to another, Prince Andrei met the sweetly smiling Mlle Bourienne, who for the third time that day had come across him with an enthusiastic and naive smile in secluded passages.
- Ah! “je vous croyais chez vous, [Oh, I thought you were at home,” she said, for some reason blushing and lowering her eyes.
Prince Andrei looked at her sternly. Prince Andrei’s face suddenly expressed anger. He said nothing to her, but looked at her forehead and hair, without looking into her eyes, so contemptuously that the Frenchwoman blushed and left without saying anything.
When he approached his sister’s room, the princess had already woken up, and her cheerful voice, hurrying one word after another, was heard from the open door. She spoke as if, after a long abstinence, she wanted to make up for lost time.
– Non, mais figurez vous, la vieille comtesse Zouboff avec de fausses boucles et la bouche pleine de fausses dents, comme si elle voulait defier les annees... [No, imagine old Countess Zubova, with false curls, with false teeth, like as if mocking the years...] Xa, xa, xa, Marieie!
Prince Andrei had already heard exactly the same phrase about Countess Zubova and the same laugh five times in front of strangers from his wife.
He quietly entered the room. The princess, plump, rosy-cheeked, with work in her hands, sat on an armchair and talked incessantly, going over St. Petersburg memories and even phrases. Prince Andrei came up, stroked her head and asked if she had rested from the road. She answered and continued the same conversation.
Six of the strollers stood at the entrance. It was dark outside autumn night. The coachman did not see the pole of the carriage. People with lanterns were bustling about on the porch. The huge house glowed with lights through its large windows. The hall was crowded with courtiers who wanted to say goodbye to the young prince; All the household were standing in the hall: Mikhail Ivanovich, m lle Bourienne, Princess Marya and the princess.
Prince Andrei was called into his father’s office, who wanted to say goodbye to him privately. Everyone was waiting for them to come out.
When Prince Andrei entered the office, the old prince, wearing old man's glasses and in his white robe, in which he did not receive anyone except his son, was sitting at the table and writing. He looked back.
-Are you going? - And he began to write again.
- I came to say goodbye.
“Kiss here,” he showed his cheek, “thank you, thank you!”
-What are you thanking me for?
“You don’t hold on to a woman’s skirt for not being overdue.” Service comes first. Thank you, thank you! - And he continued to write, so that splashes flew from the crackling pen. - If you need to say something, say it. I can do these two things together,” he added.
- About my wife... I’m already ashamed that I’m leaving her in your arms...
- Why are you lying? Say what you need.
- When it’s time for your wife to give birth, send to Moscow for an obstetrician... So that he is here.
The old prince stopped and, as if not understanding, stared with stern eyes at his son.
“I know that no one can help unless nature helps,” said Prince Andrei, apparently embarrassed. “I agree that out of a million cases, one is unfortunate, but this is her and my imagination.” They told her, she saw it in a dream, and she is afraid.
“Hm... hm...” the old prince said to himself, continuing to write. - I'll do it.
He drew out the signature, suddenly turned quickly to his son and laughed.
- It's bad, huh?
- What's bad, father?
- Wife! – the old prince said briefly and significantly.
“I don’t understand,” said Prince Andrei.
“There’s nothing to do, my friend,” said the prince, “they’re all like that, you won’t get married.” Don't be afraid; I won't tell anyone; and you know it yourself.
He grabbed his hand with his bony little hand, shook it, looked straight into his son’s face with his quick eyes, which seemed to see right through the man, and laughed again with his cold laugh.
The son sighed, admitting with this sigh that his father understood him. The old man, continuing to fold and print letters, with his usual speed, grabbed and threw sealing wax, seal and paper.
- What to do? Beautiful! I'll do anything. “Be at peace,” he said abruptly while typing.
Andrei was silent: he was both pleased and unpleasant that his father understood him. The old man stood up and handed the letter to his son.
“Listen,” he said, “don’t worry about your wife: what can be done will be done.” Now listen: give the letter to Mikhail Ilarionovich. I am writing to tell you to good places used it and did not hold it as an adjutant for a long time: a nasty position! Tell him that I remember him and love him. Yes, write how he will receive you. If you are good, serve. Nikolai Andreich Bolkonsky’s son will not serve anyone out of mercy. Well, now come here.
He spoke in such a rapid-fire manner that he did not finish half the words, but his son got used to understanding him. He led his son to the bureau, threw back the lid, pulled out the drawer and took out a notebook covered in his large, long and condensed handwriting.
“I must die before you.” Know that my notes are here, to be handed over to the Emperor after my death. Now here is a pawn ticket and a letter: this is a prize for the one who writes the history of Suvorov’s wars. Send to the academy. Here are my remarks, after me read for yourself, you will find benefit.

In preparation for war, both blocs were strengthening their positions in the Balkans and the Middle East.

Plans of Germany and Austria-Hungary in the Balkans:

1. Germany had plans to subordinate Turkey to its influence, especially after it managed to obtain a concession for the construction of the Baghdad railway.

2. Austria-Hungary wanted to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina; sought to subordinate Serbia and Bulgaria to its influence and oust Russia from there; reach the shores of the Aegean Sea.

England, which always viewed the countries of the Middle East as a bridge from Europe to India, could not reconcile with these plans. Russia could not allow this either; the subordination of Turkey and the Balkans to the influence of Germany and Austria would mean a threat to the security of the entire Russian south from Black Sea coast to the Transcaucasian border.

In 1908-1909 The Bosnian crisis broke out. Austria-Hungary, relying on the support of Germany, taking advantage of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire caused by the Turkish revolution and the rising liberation movement in the Balkans, annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The failure of Russian diplomacy to achieve a review of the status of the Black Sea straits for consent to the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina led to the conclusion Russian agreements With Italy about maintaining the status quo in the Balkans and about joint actions against any violation current situation. It was signed in Racconigi(near Turin) October 24, 1909 This actually meant Union of Russia And Italy, directed against Turkey and Austria. The agreement accelerated the start Italo-Turkish War 1911–1912 gg. for Libya and, oddly enough, the beginning of the Balkan wars. After all, it was precisely after observing Turkey’s defeat in the Italo-Turkish war that the Balkan countries hastened to formalize Balkan Union and start a war against the Porte.

October 6, 1908 government Serbia And Montenegro announced in their countries mobilization. Russia, under pressure from Germany, was forced to recognize this action of the Austrian government, since it was not ready to prevent it by military means. Under pressure from his ally, Serbia March 31, 1909 also was forced to recognize the annexation, April 9, 1909, the remaining great powers agreed to this.

Consequences Balkan crisis 1908–1909:

1. Relations between Russia and Serbia on the one hand and Austria-Hungary on the other have deteriorated.

2. In contrast to the Entente, Germany became even closer to Austria-Hungary.

3. There has been a move away from Italy from the Triple Alliance.

4. Serious contradictions were revealed within the Entente: the allies did not provide Russia with significant support in the Bosnian-Herzegovina issue (“kept their gunpowder dry”) and were not ready to satisfy Russia’s claims in the Eastern Question, in general, leaving Russia alone with Germany and Austria-Hungary .

First Balkan War (1912–1913).August 6(19), 1911 A Russian-German treaty was signed, which concerned only the policies of both countries towards Persia and Turkey, as well as problems associated with the construction of the Baghdad road.

Terms of the Russian-German Potsdam Agreement:

1. Russia has pledged not to interfere with the construction of the railway Berlin – Baghdad, and also committed to obtaining a concession from Iran for the construction of the railway Tehran – Haneqin on the Iran-Turkey border.

2. Germany recognized the presence of “ special interests» Russia in Northern Iran and pledged not to seek concessions there, and also gave assurances that it would not build a branch of the Baghdad railway north of Haneqin.

Despite all efforts, the German side failed to tear Russia away from the Entente. At the end September 1911, by sending Turkey ultimatum, Italy started a war to conquer Tripoli And Cyrenaica. The situation in the Balkans aggressive actions Austria-Hungary and the Italo-Turkish War pushed the Balkan states into an alliance against Turkey. Russia supported the unification of their forces, but against Austria-Hungary and Germany.

The goals of the Balkan countries in the war with Turkey:

1. Serbia advocated the division of Macedonia and Albania, as Serbia sought to gain access to the Adriatic Sea.

2. Bulgaria demanded the annexation of all Macedonian territory, they sought to gain access to Aegean Sea, annexing Thessaloniki and Western Thrace. First Bulgarian Tsar Ferdinand I dreamed of creating Whole Bulgaria- an empire that was supposed to cover the whole eastern part Balkan.

3. Greece also laid claim to Thrace, Macedonia and Albania.

4. Montenegrins sought to occupy large Turkish ports on the Adriatic and Novopazar Sanjak.

Negotiations dragged on. The main difficulty in creating the Balkan Union was how to reach an agreement on the division of Macedonia between Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece, and Thrace between Greece and Bulgaria. Bulgarian-Serbian Treaty the defensive alliance was signed only March 13, 1912 May 12, 1912, Bulgaria And Serbia signed military convention in case of war against Turkey or Austria. May 29 to the union Slavic states joined Greece, which did not want to be left without territorial gains at the expense of Turkey. Later alliance treaty signed Montenegro And Bulgaria.Petersburg wanted to keep the Balkan countries from attacking Turkey, but it was not possible to do this.

On September 26 (October 9), 1912, Montenegro, opening hostilities, marked the beginning of the First Balkan War. On October 5 (18), 1912, Serbia and Bulgaria declared war on Turkey, and the next day - Greece. The Balkan countries were quickly defeated Turkish troops and occupied most of the territory that belonged to Turkey in Europe. On December 16, 1912, at a conference in London, negotiations began between representatives of the warring countries of Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey on the development peaceful conditions. . On May 30, 1913, a peace treaty was signed between Turkey, where the Young Turks came to power, on the one hand, and Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria and Montenegro, on the other. At the very beginning of the London Conference, the ambassadors of six countries decided to create an autonomous Albania. Supreme power was abandoned in the country to the Turkish Sultan, however, under the control of six European powers, but in fact a protectorate of Austria-Hungary and Italy was established. This was done in order to deprive Serbia of access to the Adriatic. Russia could not prevent this. After the war, a dispute arose between the allies about the ownership of Macedonia, Thrace, and northern Albania. Montenegro did not occupy Shkoder, Greece did not annex Thrace. Bulgaria was dissatisfied with the Serbian claims to Macedonia. None of the founding states of the Balkan Union was fully satisfied with the London Treaty and the result of the war.

Second Balkan War (29 June– July 29, 1913). First Balkan War, despite the opposition of Austria-Hungary and Germany, strengthened Serbia's position and influenced its position in the Balkan region, important in the event of war in Europe. That's why Austrian diplomacy And Germany was aimed at ensuring that if not eliminated Balkan bloc, then at least significantly will weaken b. Influenced by German and Austrian diplomacy Greece And Serbia began to conspire about a joint struggle against Bulgaria and June 1, 1913 signed the corresponding agreement.

In the hope that she will be supported by Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria June 29, 1913 without declaring war, she opened military operations against the Serbs and Greeks. Started Second Balkan War.

Goals of the powers in the Second Balkan War:

1. Serbs, not having received access to the Adriatic Sea as a result of the First Balkan War, they wanted to annex to their country Macedonia And Thessaloniki, thus gaining access to the Aegean Sea.

2. Greeks it was necessary to expand the borders of their country as much as possible. Later, after the First World War, arose Great idea Venizelos– recreation Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople (Istanbul).

3. Romania, which was not part of the union, also had territorial claims to Bulgaria dreaming about Dobruja.

The Bulgarian command and Tsar Ferdinand, when starting the war, did not take into account the fact that the situation in Europe had changed. Germany held off Austria-Hungary, since Germany was taking decisive measures to strengthen the army, which should have been completed only by the beginning of 1914. In addition, Germany did not want Romania to transfer to the Entente.

Bulgarian troops suffered defeats, which prompted them to oppose it July 12 Turkey, A July 14– Romania.July 30 in Bucharest opened conference, on which August 10, 1913 was signed peace treaty.

Terms of the Bucharest Peace Treaty:

1. Greece received South Macedonia, Thessaloniki, Part western Thrace, island Crete And islands in the Aegean Sea.

2. Serbia got it most Macedonia, which was previously owned by Bulgaria.

3. Romania found Southern Dobruja.

4. Türkiye got my part back Thrace And Adrianople(currently the city Edirne).

5. Bulgaria lost not only its recent conquests, but also part of its old territory. Despite significant territorial losses, the central part of Thrace, conquered from the Ottoman Empire, remained part of Bulgaria.

Consequences of the Balkan Wars:

1. The Balkan Wars led to the liberation of the Slavic peoples from the Turkish yoke.

2. The Balkan bloc ceased to exist, which was to the advantage of Germany and Austria-Hungary.

3. Germany and Austria-Hungary lost Romania, which, together with Serbia and Greece, was now under the influence of the Entente.

4. Serbia lost Russian support, but strengthened significantly. Serbia, having again failed to achieve access to the Adriatic Sea during the war, wanted to annex the north of Albania, which ran counter to the policies of Austria-Hungary and Italy. The Balkans became the powder keg of Europe.

In October 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed neighboring Bosnia and Herzegovina, leaving Europe on the brink great war. For several months, the entire Old World waited with bated breath for the outcome. Everyone was watching the attempts of diplomats and politicians to avoid disaster. These events became known as the Bosnian crisis. As a result, the great powers managed to come to an agreement, and the conflict was smoothed out. However, time has shown that it is the Balkans that are the explosive point of Europe. Today the Bosnian crisis is seen as one of the preludes to the First World War.

Prerequisites

After completion of 1877 - 1878. An international congress was held in Berlin, which officially consolidated the new balance of power in the Balkans. According to Article 25 of the treaty signed in the German capital, Bosnia, which formerly belonged to the Ottoman Empire, was occupied by Austria-Hungary. However, this decision was challenged by the delegation from Serbia. The country itself had just liberated itself from Turkish rule, and its government feared that concessions to the Habsburg Empire would lead to the Austrians eventually capturing Belgrade.

These fears had their own basis. For a long time, the Habsburgs had been building the image of collectors of Slavic lands (the Slavs made up 60%. This was due to the fact that the emperors in Vienna could not unite Germany under their scepter (Prussia did this), and eventually turned their gaze to the east. Austria already controlled Bohemia , Slovenia, Croatia, Slovakia, Bukovina, Galicia, Krakow, and I didn’t want to stop there.

Lull

After 1878, Bosnia remained under Austrian occupation, although it legal status was never finally determined. This issue was postponed for some time. Serbia's main partner in international politics was Russia (also a Slavic and Orthodox country). In St. Petersburg, the interests of Belgrade were systematically defended. The Empire could have put pressure on the Habsburgs, but did not do so. This was due to the signing of Russia, Germany and Austria. Countries gave each other guarantees of non-aggression in the event of war.

This system of relations suited Alexander II and Alexander III, so the Bosnian crisis was forgotten for a short time. The “Union of the Three Emperors” finally collapsed in 1887 due to contradictions between Austria and Russia related to Bulgaria and Serbia. After this break, Vienna ceased to be bound by any obligations to the Romanovs. Gradually, militaristic and aggressive sentiments towards Bosnia grew more and more in Austria.

Interests of Serbia and Turkey

The Balkans have always been a huge cauldron with colorful ethnic population. The peoples were mixed together, and it was often difficult to determine whose land was by majority rule. This was the case with Bosnia. In the second half of the 19th century, 50% of its population were Serbs. They were Orthodox, and the Bosnians were Muslim. But even them internal contradictions pale before the Austrian threat.

Another party to the conflict was the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish state had been in power for many decades. Before this empire belonged to the entire Balkans and even Hungary, and its troops twice besieged Vienna. But at the beginning of the 20th century, no trace remained of the former splendor and greatness. The Ottoman Empire owned a small piece of land in Thrace and was surrounded in Europe by hostile Slavic states.

Shortly before the Bosnian crisis occurred, the Young Turk Revolution broke out in Turkey in the summer of 1908. The power of the sultans was limited, and the new government again began to loudly declare its claims to the former Balkan provinces.

Actions of Austrian diplomacy

In order for the Austrians to finally annex Bosnia, they needed to confront not only the Turks, but also many European powers: Russia, France, Great Britain, Italy and Serbia. The Habsburg government, as usual, decided to first come to an agreement with the powers of the Old World. Negotiations with diplomats from these countries were led by Alois von Ehrenthal, who served as Foreign Minister.

The Italians were the first to compromise. They were persuaded to support Austria-Hungary in exchange for the fact that Vienna would not interfere in their war with Turkey for the possession of Libya. The Sultan agreed to finally cede Bosnia after he was promised compensation of 2.5 million pounds. Traditionally, Austria was supported by Germany. Wilhelm II personally put pressure on the Sultan, over whom he had great influence.

Negotiations between Russia and Austria-Hungary

The Bosnian crisis of 1908 could have ended in disaster if Russia had opposed annexation. Therefore, the negotiations between Aehrenthal and Alexander Izvolsky (also Minister of Foreign Affairs) were especially long and persistent. In September, the parties came to a preliminary agreement. Russia agreed to the annexation of Bosnia, while Austria promised to recognize the right of the military Russian ships freely pass through the Black Sea straits controlled by Turkey.

In fact, this meant a rejection of the previous Berlin agreements of 1878. The situation was complicated by the fact that Izvolsky negotiated without sanction from above, and Erenthal played a double game. The diplomats agreed that the annexation would take place a little later, when a convenient agreed upon moment arrived. However, just a few days after Izvolsky’s departure, the Bosnian crisis began. provoked by Austria, which on October 5 announced the annexation of the disputed province. After this, Izvolsky refused to comply with the agreement.

Reaction to annexation

Discontent Vienna decision expressed by the authorities of Russia, Great Britain and France. These countries have already created the Entente - an alliance directed against the strengthening Germany and its faithful ally Austria. Notes of protest poured into Vienna.

However, Britain and France took no other decisive action. London and Paris treated the Bosnian issue much more indifferently than the problem of ownership of the Black Sea straits.

Mobilization in Serbia and Montenegro

If in the West the annexation was “swallowed”, then in Serbia the news from Vienna led to popular unrest. On October 6 (the day after the annexation), the country's authorities announced mobilization.

The same was done in neighboring Montenegro. In both Slavic countries, they believed that it was necessary to go to the rescue of the Serbs living in Bosnia, who faced the threat of Austrian rule.

Climax

On October 8, the German government notified Vienna that in the event of an armed conflict, the empire could count on the support of its northern neighbor. This gesture was important for the militarists in the Habsburg monarchy. The leader of the "militant" party was the chief General Staff Conrad von Hetzendorff. Having learned about German support, he invited Emperor Franz Joseph to talk to the Serbs from a position of strength. This is how the Bosnian crisis of 1908 became a serious threat to peace. Both great powers and small states began to prepare for war.

Austrian troops began to converge on the border. The only reason for the lack of an order for an attack was the understanding of the authorities that Russia would stand up for Serbia, which would lead to much big problems than one “small victory”.

Bosnian crisis 1908 - 1909 briefly described in this article. Undoubtedly, he affected too many interests in the political arena.

Results and consequences

In Russia, the government stated that the country was not ready for a war on two fronts against Germany and Austria, if it still supported the Serbs to the end. Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin was principled. He did not want war, fearing that it would lead to another revolution (this is what happened in the future). In addition, just a few years ago the country was defeated by the Japanese, which indicated the deplorable state of the army.

Negotiations remained in limbo for several months. Germany's move was decisive. The country's ambassador to Russia, Friedrich von Purtales, gave St. Petersburg an ultimatum: either Russia recognizes the annexation, or a war will begin against Serbia. Remained the only way end the Bosnian crisis of 1908 - 1909, the results of which echoed throughout the Balkans for a long time.

Russia put pressure on Serbia, and the latter recognized the annexation. The Bosnian crisis of 1908 ended without bloodshed. political results affected later. Although outwardly everything ended well, the contradictions between the Serbs and Austrians only intensified. The Slavs did not want to live under the rule of the Habsburgs. As a result, in 1914, in Sarajevo, a Serbian terrorist killed the heir to the Austrian monarchy, Franz Ferdinand, with a pistol shot. This event became the reason for the outbreak of the First World War.