There are only two actions in battle - correct combat and maneuver, but it is impossible to count all the changes in correct combat and maneuver. Correct combat and maneuver mutually generate each other and this is like a cycle that has no end. Who can exhaust them?
"The Art of War"
The reign of Ivan the Terrible was a time of great revolutionary changes within the Russian state, including the Russian army. Under Ivan the Terrible Russian state was constantly at war with powerful neighbors. In the beginning, the tip of the Russian foreign policy was aimed at the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, these fragments of the once powerful Golden Horde. And when they were conquered, Ivan IV got involved in a long and difficult Livonian War with powerful Poland, Lithuania and Sweden.
During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, numerous reforms were carried out in the state, which affected the most various areas. And although all these reforms are attributed to the name of the Tsar and Grand Duke Ivan IV, they were in fact the fruits of the labors of other statesmen, the Archpriest of the Annunciation Cathedral Sylvester and the Tsar's lieutenant Alexei Fedorovich Adashev. Thanks to them, a circle of enlightened people formed around the young sovereign, which Prince Andrei Kurbsky called the “Chosen Rada.” In addition to Sylvester, Adashev, Prince Kurbsky, it included the princes Vorotynsky, Odoevsky, Serebryany, Gorbaty, and the Sheremetev brothers.
The elected Rada duplicated the autocracy and worked for the glory of Russia. The program that the Rada implemented was a national program, focused on “state” and “zemstvo” interests in their unity.
It was thanks to the Elected Rada that the Russian army was able to capture the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and include them in the kingdom of Moscow, which unprecedentedly increased the authority of Moscow and eliminated the constant threat from the Volga to the borders of the state and gave the treasury great trade benefits associated with the exploitation of the Volga trade route.
But let's look at the Russian army of that time. After all, it is military art target this study. What has changed and what remains from past times?
1. Sagittarius
The city militias, which Prince Dmitry Ivanovich used as infantry, and used very effectively, were hopelessly outdated by the time of Ivan the Terrible. It was no longer possible to rely on non-professionals, and the reason for this was the use of firearms.
Therefore, the state needed infantry from professionals. But at the same time, it should not cost the treasury too much. What to do in this case?
Under Ivan IV, Streltsy regiments were created. Streltsy were chosen from free people of good behavior, and they were placed in lifelong service, giving them plots of land for farming and assigning them a sovereign salary.
The streltsy regiments were on foot, with the exception of the sovereign's stirrup regiment. They fought on foot and were armed with arquebuses and then muskets. Also, each archer had a saber and a reed. On the last one, he placed his arquebus when firing. European musketeers used a special stand for this. The fact is that the first muskets were very heavy and it was difficult to fire an aimed shot from them without a stop. The caliber of the musket was 23 mm. The barrel length was 1.8 meters, weight from 50 to 60 grams. It could fire bullets at a distance of 200–300 meters.
The squeaks and muskets were loading quite for a long time Therefore, the archers lined up in rows and, having fired the first shot, went to the second row and reloaded their weapons there. And the second row, becoming the first, fired the next salvo.
This is very reminiscent of the formation of European musketeers, which was called “korokole” (snail). The first rank placed their muskets on their rests and fired a volley at the enemy. Then this line divided and went to the rear of the formation to load the muskets. This maneuver was then repeated by the second rank. Then the third.
A warrior armed with a arquebus fought with a saber or reed when approaching the enemy. The arquebus was useless in hand-to-hand combat due to its heavy weight. It was subsequently, when the weight of the musket was reduced that, in the presence of a bayonet, it itself became a very formidable weapon not only for long-range, but also for close combat.
Streltsy settled in settlements and received numerous benefits from the government. Total quantity Streltsov to end of XVI century amounted to 12 thousand people. That is, Russia quickly responded to the demands of the time in the field of improving the art of war associated with the use of firearms.
2. Artillery and engineering units
Under Ivan IV, gunners appeared in Rus', as artillery became an integral part of the Russian army. And along with the artillerymen, various auxiliary services appeared that helped the army during wars and campaigns. The troops always had mending workers, collar workers, carpenters, and blacksmiths. They also settled in settlements and also received benefits from the government as persons performing government service.
Basis for engineering troops was established under Ivan III. It was he who invited several foreign military engineers into the service and they were called “rozmysli.” It is known that under Ivan IV there were Russian “thoughts”.
During the campaign of Ivan IV to Kazan, the Russian army had 150 heavy and medium cannons, not counting small ones. But these were guns that were only attached to the army, and there were also fortress guns in cities. But the composition of this fortress artillery was extremely diverse and it is difficult to talk about its numbers.
Siege weapons were of large caliber up to 2.5 pounds.
The regimental artillery had small guns up to 8 pounds.
Consequently, artillery was then divided into siege, field, regimental and fortress. And, from this it follows that the statement that regimental artillery first appeared under King Gustav Alolf among the Swedes is incorrect. The Russians had it earlier!
3. Datochny people - auxiliary infantry
Under Ivan IV, the so-called “dacha people” were called up. These were peasant militias that were used as auxiliary troops. For example, for working with shovels for filling up shafts during assaults on fortresses, for dragging heavy objects, transporting ammunition and other very important matters in war.
4. Foreign mercenary squad:
These units consisted of mercenaries, who were also recruited from representatives of mercenary soldiers from Europe. They were well organized, but their services were expensive. Under Tsar Ivan IV, under his son Fyodor Ivanovich, under Tsar Boris Godunov, there was a German squad in the army. However, not only Germans served there, but in Rus' at that time all foreigners were called Germans.
Cavalry:
1. Noble cavalry
The main part of the Russian armed forces under Ivan IV continued to consist of cavalry units formed from nobles. It was a noble militia. Heaviness military service, falling on service man, according to the law of September 20, 1555, it was as follows: from 100 quarters (200 acres) of arable land, the owner had to send one fully armed and equipped warrior to serve. “On a horse in full armor,” as it was said.
But during the campaigns, service people also received money from the royal treasury. In the 16th century, the service of a nobleman began at the age of 15 (according to the legal code of 1550).
Until his 15th birthday, the boy was considered a “minor.” And then, after he was drafted into the regiment, he was called “novik,” which means “new recruit.”
Then the “novice”, depending on his service qualities, was given an estate and a salary.
Moreover, deduction was used when the sons were given another estate during the life of their father. Although basically the son received his father's property on condition of fulfilling his official duties. The difference between the conditional (temporary) holding of a nobleman and patrimonial (hereditary) was eliminated only under Peter I.
Local law made it possible for the Moscow government to collect from 50 to 100 thousand cavalry at any time. noble militia. The gathering of the militia was appointed by decree, which determined the place of gathering troops and supplies, the number of warriors and the timing of reporting to the assembly point.
2. Boyar children
This was also the category of people who had to serve in the cavalry and they complained of estates for the service from the great sovereign. But they were lower in hierarchy than the nobles, but higher than the Cossacks. They served to protect the borders of the Russian state.
The need to protect the borders of the Moscow state required great forces. And for these purposes, the Moscow sovereigns used the Cossacks. Under Ivan IV, the city Cossacks also became local, but unlike the latter, permanent troops. They were mostly on horseback. But they belonged to the light cavalry and were used for security service and reconnaissance.
4. Tatar cavalry
After the conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan by Ivan IV, the Moscow sovereigns began to willingly accept newly baptized Tatars into the service. They received local salaries, but in a much smaller amount than landowners of Russian origin. These units were also light cavalry.
5. Sovereign Regiment - Horse Guards of the Tsars
Under Ivan IV there was also something reminiscent of the later Peter the Great's Guard. The “Sovereign Regiment” and the regiment of mounted (mounted) archers were a selected army that was equipped and armed with excellent luxury.
Armament of Russian soldiers under Ivan IV:
1. Cavalry:
The cavalry's weapons consisted of a bow and arrows, a battle axe, a dagger, a flail and spears. The wealthiest warriors had sabers. But among the troops of the nobility there was a diversity of weapons. Everything depended on the personal wealth of each nobleman.
2. Infantry:
The weapons of the archers and city Cossacks consisted of a arquebus or a samopal, a sword and a reed.
The armament of the remaining foot warriors was very different. From firearms - squeaks or self-propelled guns, throwing weapons - crossbows, cold weapons - swords, cutlasses, slingshots, owls.
Tactical division of the army into units:
The Russian army was divided into the following tactical units.
The main division was the tithe (not to be confused with the ten). Tens were organized into regiments. And the regiments were reduced to army (seven regiments for each army). Ten was divided into hundreds, and dormouse was made into tens.
The Streltsy army was divided into orders of 800-1000 people. Each order was divided into hundreds, and each hundred into tens. IN wartime individual hundreds were distributed among the regiments that set out on the campaign.
Urban Cossacks were also divided into hundreds and tens. And during the campaign, individual city hundreds were assigned to regiments and carried out various assignments. They mainly served as mounted reconnaissance.
The army itself on the campaign looked like this:
A large regiment, these were the main forces of the army. And they far outnumbered the regiment.
Ertoul - a mounted forward regiment used for reconnaissance.
Guard regiment - followed immediately behind Ertoul.
Regiment Right hand and the Left Hand Regiment - during battle formation they protected the flanks of a large regiment.
Command of the Russian army:
The management of the armed forces of the Russian state in peacetime was concentrated in the Discharge Order (Discharge). City governors provided the Discharge with detailed lists for each city, nobles and boyar children.
Streltsy and gunners were in charge of the Streletsky and Pushkarsky orders.
Voivodes were appointed according to the nobility of the family. And even Ivan the Terrible established the oprichnina and executed boyars right and left, and he respected this rule.
The commander of the Big Regiment was very noble boyar, even if he didn't have much military ability. In case of low abilities, a more capable but less capable governor was appointed as a comrade to the governor of a large regiment. noble family. Because the rest of the governors would not stand under the low-water one.
Concepts military uniform under Ivan the Terrible practically did not exist. The clothing of the soldiers of most regiments was heterogeneous. In the noble cavalry, in general, everyone dressed as best they could and as far as their means allowed. The royal guards were dressed relatively uniformly. The stirrup rifle regiment had identical white caftans. Also, the royal bodyguards-rynds had white caftans embroidered with gold and were armed with the same axes. The archers also had a uniform - they dressed in identical caftans. Moreover, each order differed from the other in the color of the caftan.
As a result, I would like to especially note that the military reform of Ivan the Terrible laid the foundation for the Russian regular army. Subsequently, it was brought to perfection under Peter I and became one of the most powerful armies in Europe.
Since ancient times, the population of society has been divided into civilians and military residents. IN Kievan Rus the role of the latter was played by the princely squad. The very etymology of this word means friendship, a community of comrades. However, during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the squad as such disappeared. One of the main reasons for this disappearance is the departure of the nobility from the squad. With the disappearance of such a concept as military camaraderie, a name was formed for military people - service people.
However, that historical period There was also another status, denoting reward for service to the state - landowner. So, for example, if the title “serviceman” determined the attitude towards the sovereign, then the status “landowner” determined the actual attitude towards the land territory and population containing this military man.
That is, the previous change in the status of the ruler of the state (from prince to sovereign), which made him the manager and owner of the land, became the reason for the change in the system of recruiting troops. This system becomes local. The local legislative system of recruitment is consolidated as a result of the important military reform carried out by Ivan the Terrible.
In addition, the transition to this system was also determined by economic reasons, since with an increase armed forces there was a need to maintain this armed mass. At the same time, Moscow association Northern Rus' did not have such funds, not accompanied by a stable rise in the people's well-being (there was also no special development in industry). Subsistence farming continued to dominate. With the successful collection of Russian lands, the Moscow sovereign was able to acquire a single capital, which was soon used to support service people.
The local recruitment system that arose as a result of the military reform of Grozny had a huge number of shortcomings, the main one of which was the fickle nature of the Russian army.
It is for this reason that in the middle of the sixteenth century the so-called Streletsky army was formed, which was recruited by recruiting free people from free peasants and townspeople who were not subject to duties and taxes. Their service was lifelong, permanent and hereditary. They were given the same clothes and also supplied with weapons.
The most important area of activity " The chosen one is pleased"became transformations in the military sphere. The first step on this path can be considered the abolition of localism during military campaigns. After all, constant quarrels over who is in charge and who obeys whom, at the moment when hostilities were going on, often led to shameful defeats.
Ivan IV, as Karamzin points out, forbade the children of boyars (small feudal lords who served in the voivode’s squad) and princes to “consider themselves as kin to the voivodes”; also established that the governor of the Big Regiment should be the most noble of all, that the chiefs of the Advanced and Sentinel Regiments are inferior to him alone in seniority and do not take into account the governors of the right and left hands, that only “the sovereign belongs to judge the birth and merits; that whoever is sent with whom obeys him.” These measures made it possible to restore basic order in the troops.
The “chosen thousand” were “placed” in the Moscow district - more than 1000 provincial nobles, who were supposed to form the core of the noble militia - the support of the tsar. We must remember that the nobles (landowners), unlike the princes and boyars, could not fully dispose of their land - the estate. They used it as long as they served.
A unified procedure for military service was determined, which undoubtedly played a role important role in military construction. We developed and established clear regulations: service “by homeland” (by origin) and service “by device” (by recruitment). Nobles and boyars’ children served “for the fatherland.” The procedure was determined by the “Code of Service”, adopted in 1556, simultaneously with the abolition of feedings. Clear articles of the “Code” created interest among landowners in military affairs: the service that took place “in the fatherland” was inherited and began at the age of fifteen. Before this, the nobleman was considered an undergrowth. They paid for the service - in lands and money - from four to seven rubles a year. For every 150 acres of land, the boyars and nobles had to field one warrior “on horseback and in arms.” When the required number of soldiers decreased, that is, for a “short supply,” the nobles paid a fine; for an increase in the number of soldiers above the norm, they were encouraged with monetary “help” and “land additions.”
Russian warriors
Weapons of the late 16th century.
It was under Ivan IV, from 1550, that a regular army was formed from among those who served “by appointment” Streltsy army. Initially, it was recruited from the free and urban population; later their service became lifelong and hereditary. The archers were armed with firearms (arquebuses) and bladed weapons (berdysh and sabers).
At first, three thousand people were recruited into the Streltsy army. They were united into 6 orders (regiments). They formed the king's guard. Then the number of archers grew to 12 thousand warriors, and by the end of the 16th century - to 25 thousand. They represented the most powerful fighting strength Russian army.
The “instrumental” service people included Cossacks, gunners, and state blacksmiths. They served in different cities, on the border. “Instrument” people settled in separate settlements. For service they received collective lands, and sometimes grain and monetary allowances. Foreigners (mainly Poles and Germans) were also hired for military service. Their number at that time was small - about two and a half thousand.
Voivode
Russian guns
The wars that Russia waged at that time - the eight-year epic associated with the conquest of the Volga region, the 25-year Livonian War and others - required the active rearmament of the army and the creation of new enterprises involved in military orders.
By order of Ivan IV, the Cannon Yard was founded to replace the burnt Cannon Hut, built by his grandfather Ivan III. Previously, guns were intended only for the defense of fortresses. They were installed on the walls and hit the enemy from there. Now they needed guns not only from the “serf outfit,” but also guns from the “field outfit,” which they took on campaigns. These guns were cast at the Cannon Yard. The Cannon Yard was for a long time the first and only artillery factory in Russia. Its buildings were dismantled only in early XIX century.
In addition to the Cannon Yard under Ivan the Terrible, the Grenade Yard was also installed in Moscow. Shells were made here. There was also a Zeleyny yard, which produced a “potion” - gunpowder. Gunpowder was made different types: ordinary, still the kind “so that it bursts out quickly” and, finally, the one that does not burn in water - “unquenchable fiery tricks.”
Thanks to the efforts of Russian craftsmen, Russia under Ivan the Terrible became one of the first places in Europe in the production of firearms. The ambassador of the German Emperor Maximilian II wrote to his patron in 1576: “The Tsar of Moscow has so many guns, such a firearm that anyone who has not seen it will not believe the description.”
Sagittarius
Cannon yard. Hood. A. Vasnetsov
City defense. Hood. A. Vasnetsov
And here is evidence from 1588: “It is believed that none of the Christian sovereigns has such good artillery and such a supply of shells as the Russian Tsar, which can partly be confirmed by the Armory Chamber in Moscow, where they stand in a huge number all kinds of cannons, all cast from copper and very beautiful.” The Moscow Chronicle writes: “... large cannons have twenty pounds of cannonballs, while other cannons have a little lighter.” The largest howitzer in Europe, the Kashpirova Cannon, weighing 1,200 pounds and caliber 20 pounds, took part in the siege of Polotsk in 1563. The guns, cast by order of Ivan the Terrible, were in service for several decades and took part in almost all the battles of the 17th century.
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The "Code of Service" of 1556 completes not only the development legal framework local land ownership, but at the same time it is the completion of the process of restructuring the army of the Russian state - a process whose beginning dates back to the second half of the 15th century and which consisted in the creation of a new type of army in place of the old military squads from the times of feudal fragmentation. The Code of 1556 established the procedure for passing military
service, according to which each feudal lord (patrimonial landowner and landowner) was obliged to
set a certain amount of land (150 acres)
the number of warriors on horseback and in full armor. Those feudal lords who
fielded warriors more than normal, received a monetary reward, and the one
whoever fielded soldiers less than the norm paid a fine. This procedure contributed
increase the number of troops and prevented boyars from evading service. This
Periodic military reviews served the same purpose. Those who did not show up for duty or
estates and estates were selected during the inspections. Adoption of the Service Code
contributed to increasing the combat effectiveness of Russian troops, which was important
for Ivan IV to pursue an active foreign policy.
In 1550, the “chosen thousand” of Moscow nobles received estates within 60-70 km from Moscow. In the same year, a permanent foot rifle army was established, armed with arquebuses, reeds and sabers. The Streltsy units were semi-regular, since the Streltsy ran their own households, although they received a salary. Streltsy were divided into Moscow and policemen; stirrup archers stood out. “Children of the boyars” were appointed commanders of the Streltsy units. Estimates of the total number of archers range from 10 to 25 thousand people. The “verdict on localism” contributed to a significant strengthening of discipline in the army, increasing the authority of governors, especially those of non-noble origin, and improving the combat effectiveness of the Russian army, although it met with great resistance from the clan nobility. Russian artillery of the era of Ivan the Terrible was varied and numerous. J. Fletcher wrote in 1588:
It is believed that none of the Christian sovereigns has such good artillery and such a supply of shells as the Russian Tsar, which can partly be confirmed by the Armory Chamber in Moscow, where there are a huge number of all kinds of cannons, all cast from copper and very beautiful
“Russian artillerymen are always ready for battle with at least two thousand guns...” - his ambassador John Kobenzl reported to Emperor Maximilian II. The Moscow Chronicle writes: “... large cannons have twenty pounds of cannonballs, and some cannons have a little lighter.” The largest howitzer in Europe, the Kashpirova Cannon, weighing 1,200 pounds and caliber 20 pounds, took part in the siege of Polotsk in 1563. Also, “one more feature of Russian artillery of the 16th century should be noted, namely its durability,” writes modern explorer Alexey Lobin. “The guns, cast by order of Ivan the Terrible, were in service for several decades and took part in almost all the battles of the 17th century.”
The 25-year Livonian War (1558-1583) covered the entire mature period of the reign of Ivan the Terrible. All the advantages and disadvantages of the tsar’s policies, contradictions within the state and external factors were reflected in the Russian army.
Opportune moment
By the 16th century, Livonia entered a period of turmoil: social and political disunity in the order lands increased to a critical limit. Naturally, the Order’s neighbors – Sweden, Denmark and Russia, who were not known for their peacefulness – reacted to this. The division of fading Livonia seemed just around the corner.
One of the predecessors of Ivan the Terrible, Grand Duke Ivan III, in early XVI century, concluded an agreement with the Livonian Order, according to which the Livonians, in exchange for peace, annually paid tribute to Pskov. Ivan the Terrible tightened the terms of the treaty, prohibiting Livonia from entering into military-political alliances with third countries. However, in 1558, the Order signed a vassal agreement with the Kingdom of Poland, which was one of the reasons for the Russian Tsar to declare war.
Ivan IV chose a good moment for the invasion. Shattered and weakened Livonian Order could not provide serious resistance to Moscow, and neighboring powers have not yet shown activity. The main hope of the Livonians is a network of fortified castles that made up a powerful defensive line, capable of binding enemy forces for a long time. How did the Russian army approach the Livonian War?
Structure
Having received the royal crown, Ivan IV began to solve the problems of the state's defense capability. The main external threats to Moscow continued to be Kazan and Crimean Khanate, which repeatedly subjected Russian lands to ruin. One of the innovations in the Russian army was infantry units armed with firearms and transferred to a permanent basis.
For the most part, the Russian army was quite motley. It included archers, city Cossacks, gunners, boyar children, stolniki, guardsmen and provincial nobility, who were periodically invited to live in Moscow as the tsar's praetorian guard.
The army was divided into tens (not to be confused with tens), which were combined into regiments, which, in turn, were united into armies of 7 regiments each. The tithe itself was divided into smaller units - hundreds and tens.
The battle formations in the Russian army were as follows. The system-forming link was the Big Regiment - the main impact force army, which outnumbered the other regiments, ertaul - a cavalry advanced regiment used in reconnaissance, a guard regiment, as well as regiments of the Right and Left Hands.
Having gathered a 40,000-strong army shortly before the upcoming campaign in Novgorod, the tsar was confident of impending success. Moreover, the seemingly impregnable medieval castles could hardly protect their owners from the artillery that was rapidly developing and improving in the Russian army.
Sagittarius
After the successful experience of using archers against the Kazan Khanate, which fell in 1552, Ivan IV assigned a special place in the Livonian War to this formidable force. British medievalist David Nicol argued that the Streltsy troops of Ivan IV, armed with rifles and cannons, were the first army in Russian history.
The Streltsy army, created, according to the chronicler, “in 1550 from elected archers in the number of three thousand,” received uniforms and weapons: matchlock muskets (squeaks), sabers and reeds - a long stalked ax with a sickle-shaped blade, which could be used to chop and stab or use as a musket stand. Gunpowder and lead were given to the archers from the treasury, and they cast the bullets themselves.
English Ambassador Giles Fletcher in 1558 noted other types of archer weapons - pistols and swords (apparently broadswords). Regarding the guns, Fletcher noted that "the finish on the barrel was very rough work; despite the heavy weight of the gun, the bullet itself was small.”
The archers lived in own homes with garden and vegetable garden, in free time they could engage in crafts and even trade, which, according to some historians, brings them closer to the Ottoman Janissaries.
Home life did not at all contribute to the transformation of the archers into effective infantry, although during the capture of Kazan and at the beginning of the Livonian War they were in the vanguard of the attackers and demonstrated good combat training. Chronicles claim that the archers were so skillful with their arquebuses that they could kill birds in flight.
Oprichniki
The guardsmen turned out to be reliable bodyguards of the tsar, but weak link Russian army. Trained to take repressive measures against their own population, mired in violence and depravity, they turned out to be unable to fight effectively.
Intoxicated by the initial success in the Livonian War, the oprichniki subsequently lowered their demands on themselves; moreover, a high percentage of desertion was noted in the ranks of the oprichnina army. However, in the forefront of the warring “ sovereign's people"It never happened. In case of special need, they acted as trusted royal agents and carried out security, investigative, intelligence and punitive functions.
After in 1571 Crimean Khan Devlet Geray burned Moscow, Ivan the Terrible turned his anger on the guardsmen. Having forgotten how to fight and having acquired only the habit of plunder, for the most part they simply did not show up at the assembly points. As a result, the main leaders of the guardsmen were executed, the rest were exiled to remote settlements.
Cavalry
The main force of the Russian army of the Livonian War should be considered the local cavalry, which came from the noble landowner class. Although the government demanded uniformity of uniforms and weapons for the nobility, each rider relied on his own financial capabilities. At least almost everyone could afford a saber, helmet and chain mail.
The wealthier armed themselves with arquebuses with a smooth or even rifled barrel, those who were poorer stocked up on pistols. Because firearms often misfired, the local cavalry was also armed with bows. In close combat, a sovnya was usually used - a pole weapon with a straight or curved blade as a tip.
The wealthiest nobles did not fail to reflect their wealth on the decoration of their weapons: the scabbards of sabers were covered with Moroccan leather and decorated with overlays with precious stones, the handle of sabers and the butts of arquebuses and pistols were inlaid with mother-of-pearl and ivory, and armor, helmets and bracers were covered with elegant notches.
Such equipment often cost a fortune. So, the full armament of the second cavalryman half XVI century, according to contemporaries, cost him 7-8 rubles. For comparison, in 1557-1558 a small village cost only 12 rubles.
Despite all this glamor, the cavalry was an effective force in the army of Ivan the Terrible. It is this time that is commonly called the golden age of the Russian noble cavalry. The successes of horse breeding also played a significant role here. Local nobles often rode the Nogai breed of horses - short at the withers, but very hardy and unpretentious animals.
The Russian horseman's saddle had a front pommel tilted forward and a rear pommel tilted back, which was typical for the saddles of nomadic warriors. This allowed the rider to quickly turn around and effectively use the bow and sword, and the short stirrups facilitated striking blows with a saber. The spear was not the main weapon of the noble cavalry.
During the Livonian War, Ivan IV quite successfully used Cossack cavalry. Armed with sabers, daggers, pikes, maces, bows and crossbows, it was more mobile and maneuverable than local cavalry.
Artillery
The well-proven arquebus in the army of Ivan the Terrible was a universal weapon; it was used by infantry, cavalry, and artillery. There were large-caliber squeaks used for shooting from behind walls, as well as curtain squeaks, which had a leather sling for comfortable wearing behind the back.
During the time of Ivan IV, the role of cannons also increased. The English Ambassador Fletcher wrote: “No sovereign Christian sovereign has as many guns as he, which is confirmed by their a large number in the Palace Armory Chamber in the Kremlin. All are cast in bronze and very beautiful.”
The gunners received a considerable salary, although their profession was considered an ignoble matter. Sagittarius, like other classes, often refused to serve as gunners, and very soon this specialty turned into a hereditary one. Russian artillerymen have repeatedly demonstrated their dedication to their work. During the battles for Wenden (1578) during the Livonian War, no longer able to remove their guns from the battlefield, they fired at the enemy to the last, and then hanged themselves on ropes attached to the barrels of their guns.
Tactics
The greatest success of the Russian army in the Livonian War was in the capture of fortresses. This was made possible thanks to both military engineering and effective use artillery. Among characteristic features sieges of fortresses worth noting the attack of obstacles broad front, separate detachments, as well as shifting the center of gravity during an assault to artillery and limiting engineering training to a minimum.
During the Livonian War, she fully expressed herself new system building battle formations. The old one, based on the principle of specialized regiments, with a strictly fixed place, gave way to a linear one, which corresponded to the specifics of the use of firearms.
Artillery began to be placed at intervals: on the flanks and in front order of battle, while the forces were distributed evenly along the entire front. Interaction between individual links was achieved by coordinating actions between the wings and the center.
The basis of the battle formation was still the infantry, lined up in several ranks. Their number was determined by the rate of fire of the weapon and its ability to ensure continuity of salvo fire. However, the striking force of the Russian army was the cavalry, which often decided the outcome of battles in open areas.
Ambiguous outcome
The first years of the Livonian War passed with a noticeable advantage of the Russian army. In a matter of months, troops led by governors Daniil Adashev, Alexei Basmanov and Ivan Buturlin reached Baltic Sea. In July 1558, Peter Shuisky captured Dorpat, and by the fall, Russian troops subjugated two dozen fortresses, including those that voluntarily came under the rule of the Moscow Tsar.
The rise of Moscow was a concern European monarchs. So, Lithuanian prince Sigismund II reported with obvious anxiety Queen of England Elizabeth: “The Moscow sovereign daily increases his power by acquiring goods that are brought to Narva, because, among other things, weapons are brought here that are still unknown to him... military specialists arrive, through whom he acquires the means to defeat everything.”
However, very soon the Russian army began to lose its victorious gait: more and more often it surrendered already conquered cities and more and more thought about a truce. Not last role absence played a role in this overall strategy, as well as the contradictions that have developed within the ruling elite. Moreover, the Crimean Khan began to seriously disturb Russia from the south, and the state was forced to be torn into two fronts.
The problems don’t end there: people are against Russia former comrades Sweden and Denmark, England refuse to be an ally of Moscow, and Poland and Lithuania unite into the state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to jointly fight the Russian invaders. By the beginning of the 1570s, Russia's strength was practically exhausted, and the struggle for survival began.
As a result of the war, Ivan the Terrible not only did not annex new lands, but was also forced to give up fortresses that he had for Russia strategic importance. Our country was on the verge of ruin. Popular unrest and discontent among the boyars will very soon lead to dramatic events - the Time of Troubles.
Nevertheless, the military reforms initiated by Ivan the Terrible laid the foundations of the Russian regular army, which acquired its complete form in the era of Peter the Great, becoming one of the most powerful forces in Europe.
