The main stages in the development of Russian statehood in the 9th – first half of the 19th centuries.
The formation and development of Russian statehood goes back many centuries. This process began in the Old Russian state and continues to this day.
Russia has gone through five main periods throughout its history state development˸ Old Russian state, Moscow state, Russian Empire, Soviet state and Russian Federation. 1. The Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv arose in the middle of the 9th century and existed until the middle of the 15th century. This period was marked by the establishment of the basic principles of statehood in Rus', the merging of its northern and southern centers, the increase in the military-political and international influence of the state, and the onset of the stage of fragmentation and loss of centralized control that was natural for early feudal monarchies. Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, named the Red Sun, was destined to become the spiritual father and founder of the Old Russian state. Under him in 988, Rus' adopted Orthodoxy as state religion. After this, literacy began to spread in the country, painting and literature began to develop. However, by the end of the 12th century, a number of independent states were being formed in Rus'. Due to their fragmentation in the first third of the 13th century, enemies constantly began to attack Russian lands. As a result, in the 14th century, Ancient Rus' as a state community ceased to exist. Since the 14th century, the importance of the Moscow Principality has been increasing in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, acting as the center of the “gathering of Russian lands”. A special role in this process played by the reign of the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow Ivan Danilovich Kalita. His political successes in gradually gaining independence from the Golden Horde were consolidated by the victory of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy on the Kulikovo Field. However, it took almost another hundred years for Moscow to finally consolidate its role as an organizer and spiritual center the emerging Russian state. 2. The Moscow state existed from the middle of the 15th century to the end of the 17th century. During this era, the final liberation of Russian lands from vassalage The Golden Horde, the process of “gathering lands” around Moscow was completed, the basic state-political, socio-economic and cultural principles of the Russian autocracy were formalized. A striking manifestation of the increase in the authority of the Moscow sovereign was the solemn crowning of Ivan IV to the throne in 1547. This event was followed by the most important reforms of government bodies, judicial system, armies, churches. The formation of the Russian autocracy in the 16th century was accompanied by successes in the field of centralization of the state and the activation foreign policy. Ensuring the growth of the international authority of the Moscow state was also facilitated by a significant expansion of its territory due to successful campaigns of conquest and the colonization of new lands in the east. All this led to the formation of the Great Russian nation. IN late XVI - early XVII century, Russia entered a period of deep state-political and socio-economic structural crisis, called the ʼʼ Time of Troublesʼʼ. Our Fatherland found itself on the verge of collapse and loss of its statehood. However, thanks to the nationwide patriotic upsurge, the crisis was overcome. The beginning of the reign of the newly elected Romanov dynasty on the Russian throne was marked by the restoration of the country's territorial integrity and the strengthening of its international prestige. During the 17th century, the main institutions of Russian absolutism were formed in the country, which created the preconditions for the transformation of the Muscovite kingdom into the Russian Empire. 3. The state of the Russian Empire covers the era from the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 20th century. During this time, the formation, flourishing and collapse of the Russian autocratic monarchy took place. The era of Peter I was a turning point in the history of Russia. His reforms covered all spheres of state and public life, determining the development of our country for a long historical perspective. They were aimed at maximum centralization in government with a decisive influence on the life of all layers of society and strict regulation of all its aspects. After the death of Peter I, the Russian Empire entered an era of palace coups. During the period from 1725 to 1762, six autocrats replaced the Russian throne, including the infant Tsar Ivan Antonovich. Great value All-powerful temporary workers then gained control of the empire. The reign of Catherine II (1762 -1796) was marked by the declared policy of “enlightened absolutism”, an unprecedented growth in the privileges of the nobility as a noble class Russian Empire and at the same time the unprecedented scale of feudal tyranny. Attempts of Paul I (1796 - 1801) to limit Catherine’s liberties noble class led to another palace coup and the murder of the emperor, who irritated the highest officials and officers with his unpredictable actions. Russia entered the 19th century with a shiny façade of imperial power and a huge burden of ever-increasing internal political and social problems. Alexander I (1801 - 1825) began his reign with an intense search for ways to reform what he inherited huge empire. However, this process was interrupted by the Patriotic War of 1812, which divided the reign of Alexander I into two different stages: the first was characterized by “constitutional quests”, and the second by the strengthening of the police state - Arakcheevism. The Decembrist movement, which resulted in an armed uprising in 1825 Senate Square in St. Petersburg, clearly demonstrated the growing opposition to the central government on the part of the Russian noble intelligentsia. The policy of Nicholas I (1825 -1855), contrary to the demands of the era, which prevented the reform of the state and social system of autocratic Russia, led the country to a deep socio-economic, political and military crisis mid-19th century. Alexander II (1855 - 1881), who replaced Nicholas I, finally carried out the “great reform”, declaring the abolition of serfdom among the peasantry (1861). This was followed by radical changes in central and local government, urban and judicial reforms, reorganization of the army and navy, and democratization of the education system. However, these reforms did not bridge the gap between central government and society as a whole, but only radicalized the public consciousness of the revolutionary-minded intelligentsia. Attempts Alexandra III(1881 -1894) to stabilize the state-political system of autocratic Russia through a series of counter-reforms only widened the gap between the monarch and his subjects.
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….3
1. Characteristics of the Old Russian state………………………....7
2. Moscow state…………………………………………….13
3. Russian Empire…………………………………………………….17
4. Soviet state………………………………….……………….20
5. Russian Federation…………………………………………………………….22
Conclusion……………………………………………………………...28
List of references………………………………………………………..33
Introduction
The entry of humanity into the third millennium and the radical changes taking place in the world and Russian society demonstrate the increasing dynamics of life. In order to correctly navigate this complex, sometimes contradictory environment, it is necessary, first of all, to comprehend the entire difficult path historical development traversed by humanity and our multinational state.
The disclosure of the topic “Stages of formation of the Russian state” in the literature depends on the methodology. To date, two methodological approaches to analysis have been identified historical process. One is formational, the other is civilizational. Within the first, two concepts are distinguished - Marxist and the theory of post-industrial society. The Marxist concept is based on the recognition that the mode of production is the decisive determinant of development. On this basis, certain stages in the development of society - formations - are identified. The concept of post-industrial society as the main determinant of the socio-historical process proclaims three types of societies: traditional, industrial and post-industrial.
The fundamental idea of the approach is to recognize the unity of human history and its progress in the form of staged development. The root idea of the second is the denial of the unity of human history and its progressive development.
The results of the works of K. Marx and F. Engels on the study and critical analysis of world historical experience made it possible to highlight the concept of “formation”. A socio-economic formation is a society at a certain stage of historical development, characterized by a specific economic basis and the corresponding political and spiritual superstructure, historical forms community of people, type and form of family. The doctrine of socio-economic formation provided the key to understanding the unity of the historical process, which is expressed in the sequential replacement of socio-economic formations with each other, when each subsequent formation originates in the depths of the previous one. Unity is also manifested in the fact that all social organisms, having as their basis this method production, reproduce all other typical features of the corresponding socio-economic formation. But the specific historical conditions for the existence of social organisms are very different, and this leads to inevitable differences in the development of individual countries and peoples, significant diversity of the historical process and its unevenness. The main disadvantage of the formational approach to history is the loss from historical knowledge in general of many elements and connections of society as a system, which do not find their adequate explanation in the monistic view of history.
The question of the “geographical” boundaries of the application of formation theory acquires independent significance. This theory, developed on the basis of history Western Europe, correctly covers some features of the development of Western civilization. When applied to Eastern societies, this approach looks less convincing. Real trends and forms of development in the East and many other regions of the world do not fit into the scheme of five formations. This was felt by Marx himself, who put forward the problem asian way production, but never solved it.
If the formational (monistic) approach to history is revealed quite easily, then with the civilizational approach the situation is more complicated, since a single civilization theory does not exist, just as there is no single concept of “civilization”. This term is very ambiguous. Currently, civilization is viewed in three aspects. In the first aspect, the concepts of “culture” and “civilization” are treated as synonyms. In the second, civilization is defined as the reification of material-technical and social-organizational instruments that provide people with a worthy socio-economic organization of social life, relatively high level comfort consumption. In the third aspect, civilization is considered as a historical stage in the development of mankind, following barbarism.
Based civilizational approach there are many concepts built on on different grounds, which is why it is called pluralistic. According to the logic of this approach, there are many historical formations (civilizations) that are poorly or completely unstudied.
In the history of mankind, many different ethnic groups, civilizations and states are known. Sometimes in the literature three types of civilizations are distinguished - non-progressive, cyclical (Eastern) and progressive (Western).
From the perspective of the civilizational approach, Russia does not belong to any of the three types of civilizations in its pure form. The superethnos Russia, located between East and West, includes peoples developing according to both the Eastern and Western variants. This place of Russia in the system of world civilizations determined the originality of its history, which manifested itself in such factors as: geographical, colonization, exaggerated role of the state, features Russian reforms, the significance of the class system, etc. at various stages national history the manifestation of these basic factors had different meanings. However, these features did not exclude Russia from the family of European nations and the world civilization process. As for modern times, in the current interconnected and interdependent world, integration processes are becoming dominant.
Among the domestic luminaries who studied and interpreted the paths of development of Russian statehood, it is customary to single out a number of famous names, whose works of a fundamental nature influenced the concepts of the Russian historical school - Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765), Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766-1826), Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov ( 1820-1879), Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich (1841-1911).
Our work attempts to reflect major milestones evolution of the Russian state from Ancient Rus' to the present day. We identify five tasks that require separate consideration in our topic.
The formation and development of Russian statehood goes back many centuries. This process began in the Old Russian state and continues to this day. Throughout its history, Russia has gone through five main periods of state development: the Old Russian State, the Moscow State, the Russian Empire, the Soviet State and the Russian Federation. The objectives of the course work characterize five periods of Russian statehood in turn.
1. Characteristics of the Old Russian state
The prehistory of ancient Russian statehood goes back to the era of settlement of Slavic tribes and their neighbors in Eastern Europe. The Eastern Slavs of the 6th-9th centuries occupied the territory from the Carpathian Mountains in the west to the Middle Oka and the upper reaches of the Don in the east, from the Neva and Lake Ladoga in the north to the Middle Dnieper region in the south. The Slavs, who developed the East European Plain, came into contact with Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. There was a process of assimilation (mixing) of peoples. In the 6th-9th centuries. The Slavs united into communities that no longer had only a tribal, but also a territorial and political character. Tribal unions - a stage on the path to statehood Eastern Slavs.
IN chronicle story about the settlement of Slavic tribes, one and a half dozen associations of Eastern Slavs are named. These unions included 120-150 separate tribes, whose names have already been lost. Each individual tribe, in turn, consisted of large quantity births and occupied a significant territory.
The Polyans lived in the forest-steppe along the middle reaches of the Dnieper (Kyiv). To the north of them, between the mouths of the Desna and Rosi rivers, lived the northerners (Chernigov). To the west of the glades, on the right bank of the Dnieper, the Drevlyans “sedesh in the forests.” To the north of the Drevlyans, between the Pripyat and Western Dvina rivers, the Dregovichi settled, who along the Western Dvina were adjacent to the Polotsk people (from the Polota River, a tributary of the Western Dvina). To the south of the Bug River were the Buzhans and Volynians; the Prut and Dnieper interfluves were inhabited by the Ulichi. Northern part The western slopes of the Carpathians were occupied by white Croats. The Ilmen Slovenes (Novgorod) lived around Lake Ilmen.
Chroniclers noted the uneven development of individual tribal associations of the Eastern Slavs. At the center of their narrative is the land of the glades. The land of glades, as the chroniclers pointed out, also bore the name “Rus”.
The neighbors of the Eastern Slavs in the north-west were the Baltic Letto-Lithuanian (Zhmud, Lithuania, Prussians, Latgalians, Eemgalians, Curonians) and Finno-Ugric (Chud-Ests, Livs) tribes. The Finno-Ugrians neighbored the Eastern Slavs both in the north and in the northeast (Vod, Izhora, Karelians, Sami, Ves, Perm). In the upper reaches of the Vychegda, Pechora and Kama lived the Yugras, Meryas, Cheremis-Marys, Muroms, Meshcheras, Mordovians, and Burtases.
In the east, from the confluence of the Belaya River with the Kama to the Middle Volga, was the Volga-Kama Bulgaria, its population was Turkic. Their neighbors were the Bashkirs. South Russian steppes in the 8th-9th centuries. occupied by the Magyars (Hungarians) - Finno-Ugric cattle breeders, who, after their resettlement to the area of Lake Balaton, were replaced in the 9th century. Pechenegs. On the Lower Volga and the steppe expanses between the Caspian and Seas of Azov The Khazar Khaganate dominated. The Black Sea region was dominated by Danube Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire.
The Slavs developed the East European Plain, interacting with the local Baltic and Finno-Ugric populations. The military campaigns of the Antes, Sklavens, and Rus against more developed countries, primarily against Byzantium, brought significant military booty to the warriors and princes. All this contributed to the stratification of East Slavic society. As a result of economic and socio-political development, statehood began to emerge among the East Slavic tribes
At the head of the East Slavic tribal unions were princes from the tribal nobility and the former clan elite. The most important issues of life were decided at public meetings - veche gatherings. There was a militia, a special military organization was the squad. The warriors, on behalf of the prince, collected tribute (polyudye) from the conquered tribes. The unit of taxation was a house or land area cultivated by a peasant household.
The tribal reigns of the Slavs had signs of emerging statehood. Tribal principalities often united into large super-unions, which revealed the features of early statehood. One of these associations was the union of tribes led by Ki at the end of the 5th century. Eastern sources suggest the existence on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state of three large associations of Slavic tribes: Cuiaba, Slavia and Artania. The wide spread of agriculture using iron tools, the collapse of the clan community and its transformation into a neighboring one, the growth in the number of cities, the emergence of squads are evidence of the emerging statehood.
There are many theories of the emergence of the Russian state and one of them Norman theory or the legend about the calling of three Varangians - the brothers Rurik, Sineus, Truvor. Many historians believe that the Normans were Scandinavian warriors.
Kievan Rus arose in the last quarter of the 9th century. as a result of the unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Novgorod and Kyiv, as well as lands located along the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”. In 882, Prince Oleg captured Kyiv and made it the capital.
The Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv arose in the mid-9th century and existed until the mid-15th century. This period was marked by the establishment of the basic principles of statehood in Rus', the merging of its northern and southern centers, the increase in the military-political and international influence of the state, and the onset of the stage of its fragmentation and loss of centralized control, which was natural for early feudal monarchies.
Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, named the Red Sun, was destined to become the spiritual father and founder of the Old Russian state. In 988, under Vladimir, Christianity was adopted as the state religion. Christianity has been widespread in Rus' since ancient times. The baptism of Vladimir and his entourage took place in the city of Korsun (Chersonese) - the center of the Byzantine possessions in Crimea. He was preceded by the participation of the Kyiv squad in the struggle Byzantine emperor Vasily II with the rebellion of the commander Vardas Phokas. The emperor won, but did not fulfill his obligation to give his sister Anna for Vladimir. Then Vladimir besieged Korsun and forced Byzantine princess marry in exchange for the baptism of a “barbarian” who had long been attracted to the Greek faith. Vladimir, having been baptized himself, baptized his boyars, and then the whole people. The spread of Christianity often met resistance from the population. Christianity was established much later than in Kyiv and Novgorod. Christianity, with its idea of the eternity of human life, affirmed the idea of equality of people before God. The adoption of Christianity strengthened state power and territorial unity of Kievan Rus. It had a big international significance, which consisted in the fact that Rus', having rejected “primitive paganism,” was now becoming equal to other Christian countries, ties with which had expanded significantly. Finally, the adoption of Christianity played a big role in the development of Russian culture, which was influenced by the Byzantine culture, through it ancient culture. At the head of the Russian Orthodox Church a metropolitan was installed, appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople; Some regions of Rus' were headed by bishops. The entire population had to pay a tax to the church - “tithe”. In the hands of the church there was a court in charge of cases of anti-religious crimes, violations of moral and family norms. The adoption of Christianity in the Orthodox tradition has become one of the determining factors in our further historical development. Simultaneously with baptism, writing appeared - the Cyrillic alphabet. In the 9th century. two brothers Cyril and Methodius created writing specifically for the Slavs.
The spread of writing contributed to the development of reading and writing skills, the highest sciences of that time.
By the end of the 12th century, a number of independent states were formed in Rus'. Due to their fragmentation in the first third of the 13th century, enemies constantly began to attack Russian lands. The invasion of the Mongol-Tatars slowed down, for a huge period of time, the development and prosperity of the Old Russian state. In the 14th century, Ancient Rus' as a state community ceased to exist.
The conquest of the Mongols began in Central Asia (Buryats, Yakuts, Kyrgyz, China, Korea). The second campaign was carried out against the countries of Transcaucasia, after which the conquerors had to return to Mongolia. In Rus' they heard about them later. The Battle of Kalka in 1223 ended with the defeat of the Russian and Polovtsian troops by the Tatar-Mongols. Due to princely feuds, most of the troops of the Russian principalities were killed.
This was followed by the capture of Kyiv. In 1236, the conquerors captured Volga Bulgaria and took Ryazan. This was followed by the conquest of northeastern Rus' in 1238. The Vladimir-Suzdal lands, the lands of Moscow, Vladimir, that is, in general, North-Eastern Rus', were destroyed. Having reached the Valdai watershed, the Mongols retreated to the south. In the spring of 1239, Batu defeated Southern Rus'. Batu's campaign against Europe did not fully materialize.
Created in the 13th century Golden Horde(from Danube to Irtysh, Crimea, North Caucasus, part of the lands of Rus', former Volga Bulgaria, Western Siberia, Central Asia), which also entered a period of fragmentation (Astrakhan, Siberian, Kazan, Crimean khanates).
Rus' retained its statehood, since the Russians constantly fought against the Tatars. Rus' recognized vassal dependence on the Horde and paid tribute. Alexander Nevsky set a course for economic recovery.
In 1257, the Tatars conducted a census of the population - “recording the number”, which was accompanied by numerous uprisings against the census, and then the collection of tribute was transferred to the hands of the Russians.
In the 13th-15th centuries, the overthrow of Gold Horde yoke has become a national task.
Since the 14th century, the importance of the Moscow Principality has been increasing in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, acting as the center of the “gathering of Russian lands.” The reign of the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow Ivan Danilovich Kalita played a special role in this process. There was an increase in the territory of the Moscow Principality at the expense of Kolomna, Mozhaisk, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. The struggle for the grand-ducal throne between Tver and Moscow ended in Moscow's victory. The victory over the Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 made the Russians believe in their imminent liberation from the yoke. Feudal War The years 1431-1453 ended with the victory of the forces of centralization. The Moscow Principality included Murom, Nizhny Novgorod, a number of lands on the outskirts of Rus'. The completion of the unification of Russian lands occurs in the year of the reign of Ivan III and Vasily III - the Yaroslavl principality was annexed, in 1472 the annexation of Perm began, the purchase of the Rostov principality, Tver passed to Moscow, the Vyatka land, the western Russian regions. Novgorod was annexed, although after the battle in 1438, and then only 7 years after it. Thus, after the unification of the Russian lands, it became possible to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke. In 1480, this was done after the battle on the Ugra River.
After the formal lifting of the yoke, the unification of the lands continued under the leadership of Vasily III. Fragmentation gave way to centralization. The administrative apparatus of the new center, Moscow, was taking shape.
2. Moscow State
In the 14th century tendencies began to emerge for the political unification of Russian lands. This was facilitated by the socio-economic development of the country.
Rus' began to recover from Batu's pogrom. In agriculture, there was a transition to a two- and three-field crop rotation system; the plow with an iron coulter became the main arable implement; the land began to be fertilized with manure. Peasants protested against increased exploitation. Various shapes The protests of the peasants demanded strengthening of power.
From the middle of the 14th century. The restoration of cities began, and Moscow, Tver, and Nizhny Novgorod became new centers of trade and craft. Still, the cities did not become economic centers of the unification of Rus' - they were too poorly developed commodity-money relations. More important was the role of cities as strategic centers: points of defense and deployment of forces for combat operations. This is one of the features of Russian centralization.
The unification took place around Moscow. The rise of Moscow began in 1301, when Daniil recaptured Kolomna from Ryazan. His son Ivan Kalita enlisted the support of the Horde, under his grandson Dmitry Ivanovich the unity of the principalities around Moscow took place to fight the Golden Horde (Battle of Kulikovo), under Vasily III the largest and most powerful Muscovy achieved the final overthrow of the Horde yoke: refusal to pay tribute. During the reign of Ivan III, the Moscow lands were annexed by force Novgorod land and the Tver Principality and from 1485 Ivan III declared himself “sovereign of all Rus'”. Vasily III liquidated the independence of Pskov and Ryazan. Legally, centralization was expressed in the appearance of the first all-Russian Code of Law in 1497.
The main feature of the formation of the Russian centralized state is the predominance political reasons over economic ones. In Russia, the process of centralization was significantly accelerated by the need to combat external threats: the Golden Horde first of all, but also threats from Lithuania and the Livonian Order. Important prerequisites for this process were the synchronicity in the development of the principalities, the existence of similar legal norms going back to the “Russian Truth”, the preservation of the all-Russian national identity.
The Moscow uprising of 1547 showed that the country needed reform to strengthen statehood and centralize power. Ivan IV embarked on the path of structural reforms in order to suppress boyar rule. Around 1549, a council of people close to him formed around Ivan IV, called “ Elected Rada" The composition of the rads seemed to reflect a compromise between the different layers ruling class. She carried out transformations called the reforms of the mid-16th century.
In 1547, Ivan IV was crowned king. During the reign of Ivan IV, the composition of the Boyar Duma was almost tripled in order to weaken the role of the old boyar aristocracy. Arose new organ- Zemsky Sobor. He decided the most important state affairs. The Zemsky Sobors included the Boyar Duma, the Consecrated Cathedral, the nobility, and the top of the settlement.
The first Zemsky Sobor met in 1549: it drew up a new Code of Law, a program of reforms.
Even before the reforms, orders appeared - institutions that were in charge of branches of government or individual regions of the country. There were about 50 orders.
The design of the order system made it possible to centralize the management of the country. At the localities, management was transferred to the hands of provincial elders, elected from local nobles, zemstvo elders - from among the wealthy strata of the black-sown population, as well as city clerks and favorite heads.
Thus, in the middle of the 16th century, an apparatus of state power emerged in the form of an estate-representative monarchy.
The code of law of 1550 secured the strengthening royal power, St. George's Day, increased the fee for the “elderly”.
Currency reform turned the ruble into monetary unit countries; a large plow became a unit for collecting taxes.
Military reform strengthened the army: the core of the army was noble militia, the Service Code was drawn up, and a permanent Streltsy army was created.
The Council of the Hundred Heads streamlined and unified rituals throughout the country. The tsar established control over the church.
The reforms strengthened the power of the tsar and led to the reorganization of the local central control, strengthened military power countries.
The emergence of the Russian autocracy in the 16th century was accompanied by its successes in the field of centralization of the state and the intensification of foreign policy. The growth of the international authority of the Moscow state was also facilitated by a significant expansion of its territory due to successful campaigns of conquest and the colonization of new lands in the east.
All this led to the formation of the Great Russian nation.
3. Russian Empire
The state of the Russian Empire covers the era from the late 17th to the early 20th century. During this time, the formation, flourishing and collapse of the Russian autocratic monarchy took place.
In the second half of the 17th century. The general trend development political system Russia consisted of a transition from autocracy with the Boyar Duma, from an estate-representative monarchy to an bureaucratic-noble monarchy, to absolutism. Absolutism is a form of government in which the supreme power in the state fully and undividedly belongs to the monarch. Power reaches the highest degree of centralization. The absolute monarch rules, relying on the bureaucratic apparatus, the standing army and the police, and the church as an ideological force is subordinate to him.
In Russia, an absolute monarchy emerged after Peter's reforms. However, already from the Council Code of 1649. events are clearly visible that reflected timid attempts to transition to new forms of organization of power.
Since the 80s 17th century The convening of Zemsky Sobors ceased. The processes that took place in the socio-political development of Russia in the second half of the 17th century indicate that attempts at transformation took place before Peter’s reforms. Russia's task at that time was to restore the economy, internal order and stability, and in foreign policy - to return lost lands and further expand the country's territory.
The era of Peter I was a turning point in the history of Russia. His reforms covered all spheres of state and public life, determining the development of our country for a long historical perspective. They were aimed at maximum centralization in government with its decisive influence on the life of all layers of society and strict regulation of all its aspects.
After the death of Peter I, the Russian Empire entered an era of palace coups. During the period from 1725 to 1762, six autocrats replaced the Russian throne, including the infant Tsar Ivan Antonovich. All-powerful temporary workers then acquired enormous importance in managing the empire.
The reign of Catherine II (1762 -1796) was marked by the declared policy of “enlightened absolutism”, an unprecedented growth in the privileges of the nobility as the noble class of the Russian Empire and at the same time the unprecedented scope of serfdom.
Attempts by Paul I (1796 - 1801) to limit Catherine's liberties of the noble class led to another palace coup and the murder of the emperor, who irritated the highest officials and officers with his unpredictable actions.
Russia entered the 19th century with a shiny façade of imperial power and a huge burden of ever-increasing internal political and social problems. Alexander I (1801 - 1825) began his reign with an intense search for ways to reform the huge empire he inherited. However, this process was interrupted by the Patriotic War of 1812, which divided the reign of Alexander I into two different stages: the first was characterized by “constitutional quests”, and the second by the strengthening of the police state - Arakcheevism. The Decembrist movement, which resulted in an armed uprising in 1825 on Senate Square in St. Petersburg, clearly demonstrated the growing opposition to the central government on the part of the Russian noble intelligentsia.
The policies of Nicholas I (1825 -1855), contrary to the requirements of the era, which prevented the reform of the state and social system of autocratic Russia, led the country to a deep socio-economic, political and military crisis in the mid-19th century. Alexander II (1855 - 1881), who replaced Nicholas I, finally carried out the “great reform”, declaring the abolition of serfdom among the peasantry (1861). This was followed by radical changes in central and local government, urban and judicial reforms, reorganization of the army and navy, and democratization of the education system.
However, these reforms did not bridge the gap between the central government and society as a whole, but only radicalized the public consciousness of the revolutionary-minded intelligentsia.
Attempts by Alexander III (1881 -1894) to stabilize the state-political system of autocratic Russia through a series of counter-reforms only widened the gap between the monarch and his subjects.
The accession to the throne of the last Russian autocrat, Nicholas II (1895 -1917), was marked by an unprecedented scale revolutionary movement in Russia and the inevitable collapse of the monarchical system.
4. Soviet state
The Soviet state existed from February 1917 until the end of 1991 and is associated with the formation of the foundations of Soviet statehood in the era of the revolutionary transformation of Imperial Russia into Russian Republic. This stage of development of our state absorbed the crisis of central state power and the decomposition of the ethnopolitical unity of the country, the loss by the Provisional Government of the democratic perspective of state development and the further radicalization of the revolutionary movement in the country, in the wake of which the Bolsheviks led by V.I. came to power as a result of the revolution. Ulyanov (Lenin). During the Civil War, Bolshevism, which became the ideological core of the new system, formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR), which restored the political and territorial unity of most of the former Russian Empire.
At the head of the party-nomenklatura elite, the authoritarian- totalitarian state for 30 years (from the beginning of the 1920s to 1953), the “great leader and father of nations” I.V. Stalin.
Thanks to the countless sacrifices and unparalleled heroism of several generations of Soviet people, the Soviet state in as soon as possible acquired powerful economic potential and became a powerful industrial power, which allowed the USSR not only to survive, but also to defeat fascism during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945).
At the same time, victory in the war became the beginning of large-scale rivalry between two state-political and economic systems on international arena- USSR and the United States of America (USA). IN post-war period in conditions " cold war“An unprecedented arms race developed, based on Soviet-American rivalry.
5. Russian Federation
The new - 21st century in the formation and development of Russian statehood began with the fact that on March 26, 2000, in the first round of the presidential elections, the acting President of the Government of the Russian Federation Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin, having received almost 53% of the votes, won a landslide victory.
The most important direction in the activities of the new President Russian Federation was the implementation of a large-scale administrative reform, since the existing power structure required its improvement.
In this regard, on May 13, 2000, in order to ensure the implementation by the head of state of his constitutional powers, increase the efficiency of the activities of federal government bodies and improve the system of control over the implementation of their decisions, the President of the Russian Federation signed a Decree on the formation of seven federal districts- structural units of the new political division Russia.
Also, the President of the Russian Federation signed the Law “On the procedure for forming the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation.” The change in the principle of forming the Federation Council raised questions about organizing a permanent dialogue between the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and the head of state on the main problems of state life, about the form of participation of regions in the preparation and adoption of the most important national decisions. This form became the State Council of the Russian Federation. The decree on the formation of the State Council of the Russian Federation was signed by the President of the Russian Federation on September 1, 2000.
All of the above measures were aimed primarily at establishing order in the authorities. But it wasn't final goal, but only the beginning of state modernization of Russia, which assumed: improvement of the political system and construction of an effective state as a guarantor of a stable social development, guarantor of individual rights; actual equalization of the capabilities of the subjects of the Federation in order to provide citizens of the country with full political and socio-economic rights; creating legal guarantees for the development of the Russian economy as an economy of free enterprise and business initiative of citizens, ensuring the accurate and effective implementation of economic strategy throughout Russia.
The reform of the Government of the Russian Federation that took place in the spring of 2004 and changes in its structure, which continued until the end of 2007, led to a reduction in the number of ministries and the creation of the so-called three-level system of executive power (ministry, service, agency). Now the Government of the Russian Federation consists of the Prime Minister, two First Deputies, three Deputy Prime Ministers, federal ministries, federal services And federal agencies. Moreover, in the structure of federal executive bodies there are federal ministries, services and agencies, the activities of which are personally managed by the President of the Russian Federation.
The federal executive authorities, whose activities are managed by the President of the Russian Federation, include federal services and federal agencies subordinate to these federal executive authorities: the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation (with the Federal Migration Service); Ministry of the Russian Federation for Affairs civil defense, emergency situations and liquidation of consequences natural Disasters; Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation; Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation (this includes the Federal Service for Military-Technical Cooperation, the Federal Service for Defense Procurement, the Federal Service for Technical and Export Control, the Federal Agency special construction; Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation (this includes the Federal Penitentiary Service, the Federal Registration Service, the Federal Bailiff Service, the Federal Real Estate Cadastre Agency); State Courier Service of the Russian Federation (federal service); Foreign Intelligence Service of the Russian Federation (federal service); Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation (federal service); Federal Service of the Russian Federation for Drug Control (federal service); Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation (federal service); Headquarters special programs President of the Russian Federation (federal agency); Administration of the President of the Russian Federation (federal agency).
The federal executive authorities, whose activities are managed by the Government of the Russian Federation, include federal services and federal agencies subordinate to these federal executive authorities: Ministry of Health and Social Development of the Russian Federation (this includes the Federal Service for Supervision of Consumer Rights Protection and Human Welfare , Federal Service for Supervision of Health and Social Development, Federal Service for Labor and Employment, Federal Agency for Health and Social Development social development, Federal Medical and Biological Agency, Federal Agency for High-Tech Medical Care); Ministry of Information Technologies and Communications of the Russian Federation (this includes the Federal Agency for information technology, Federal Communications Agency); Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications of the Russian Federation (this includes the Federal Archival Agency, the Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography, the Federal Agency for Press and Mass Communications); Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation (this includes the Federal Service for Intellectual Property, Patents and Trademarks, the Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science, the Federal Agency for Science and Innovation, the Federal Agency for Education); Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation (this includes the Federal Service for Supervision of Natural Resources, the Federal Agency water resources, Federal Agency forestry, Federal Agency for Subsoil Use); Ministry of Industry and Energy of the Russian Federation (this includes the Federal Agency for Industry, the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology, the Federal Agency for Energy); Ministry regional development Russian Federation (this includes the Federal Agency for Construction and Housing public utilities); Ministry Agriculture Russian Federation (this includes the Federal Service for Veterinary and Phytosanitary Surveillance); Ministry of Transport of the Russian Federation (this includes the Federal Service for Supervision of Transport, the Federal Air Transport Agency, the Federal Agency of Geodesy and Cartography, the Federal Road Agency, the Federal Agency railway transport, Federal Agency for Maritime and River Transport); Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation (this includes the Federal Tax Service, the Federal Insurance Supervision Service, the Federal Service for Financial and Budgetary Supervision, the Federal Treasury (federal service); the Ministry economic development and trade of the Russian Federation (this includes the Federal Agency for state reserves, Federal Agency for Management of Federal Property, Federal Agency for Management of Special Economic Zones).
Federal executive authorities whose activities are managed by the Government of the Russian Federation: State Committee Russian Federation for Youth Affairs, State Committee of the Russian Federation on Fisheries, Federal antimonopoly service, Federal Air Navigation Service, Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring, Federal Service state statistics, Federal Service for Supervision of Mass Communications, Communications and Security cultural heritage, Federal Customs Service, Federal Tariff Service, Federal Tariff Service financial monitoring, Federal Service for Financial Markets, Federal Service for Environmental, Technological and Nuclear Supervision, Federal Agency for atomic energy, Federal Space Agency, Federal Agency for the Supply of Weapons, Military, Special Equipment and Materials, Federal Agency for the Development of the State Border of the Russian Federation, Federal Agency for Tourism, Federal Agency for physical culture and sports.
Changes in the structure of executive authorities of the Russian Federation were made in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the Federal Constitutional Law “On the Government of the Russian Federation” in order to improve the structure of federal executive authorities.
An important role in the development of Russian statehood is played by the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation, consisting of the Federation Council and the State Duma, which work on permanent basis. According to established tradition, the Federation Council is called the upper house of parliament, and the State Duma is called the lower, although in terms of their position they are equal, and each performs its own functions defined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation. Both chambers make laws for the whole society, National economy Russia, for all economic structures, main spheres and industries, without exception, for all social groups and every citizen. The main goal of both chambers and parliament as a whole is to ensure the well-being and prosperity of the peoples of Russia, the integrity and independence of the state, and the protection of human rights and freedoms.
Conclusion
The formation and development of Russian statehood goes back many centuries. This process began in the Old Russian state and continues to this day. Throughout its history, Russia has gone through five main periods of state development: the Old Russian State, the Moscow State, the Russian Empire, the Soviet State and the Russian Federation.
From the many tribal associations of the Eastern Slavs, as well as the Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes, the foundations of the Old Russian territorial statehood were gradually formed. One of these associations was the union led by Kiev (known since the end of the 5th century). The Norman theory or legend about the calling of the three Varangians (Scandinavians) - the brothers Rurik, Sineus, Truvor - reflected the fact of the seizure of power by foreigners in the nascent state. The Scandinavians mixed with the local population, but managed to strengthen the foundations of statehood and found the ruling Rurik dynasty.
The Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv - Kievan Rus - arose in the mid-9th century and existed until the mid-15th century. This period was marked by the establishment of the basic principles of statehood in Rus', the merging of its northern and southern centers, the increase in the military-political and international influence of the state, and the onset of the stage of its fragmentation and loss of centralized control, which was natural for early feudal monarchies.
Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich was destined to become the spiritual father and founder of the Old Russian state. Under him, in 988, Rus' adopted Orthodoxy as the state religion. After this, literacy began to spread in the country, painting and literature began to develop.
However, by the end of the 12th century, a number of independent states were formed in Rus'. Due to their fragmentation, in the first third of the 13th century, enemies began to attack Russian lands. The invasion of the Mongol-Tatars slowed down, for a huge period of time, the development and prosperity of the Old Russian state. As a result, in the 14th century Ancient Rus' as a state community ceased to exist.
Since the 14th century, the importance of the Moscow Principality has been increasing in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, acting as the center of the “gathering of Russian lands.” The reign of the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow Ivan Danilovich Kalita played a special role in this process. His political successes in gradually gaining independence from the Golden Horde were consolidated by the victory of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy on the Kulikovo Field. However, it took almost another hundred years for Moscow to finally consolidate its role as the organizing and spiritual center of the emerging Russian state.
The Moscow state existed from the mid-15th to the end of the 17th century. During this era, the final liberation of Russian lands from the vassal dependence of the Golden Horde took place, the process of “gathering lands” around Moscow was completed, and the basic state-political, socio-economic and cultural principles of the Russian autocracy were formalized. A striking manifestation of the increase in the authority of the Moscow sovereign was the solemn crowning of Ivan IV to the throne in 1547. This event was followed by the most important reforms of government bodies, the judicial system, the army, and the church. The emergence of the Russian autocracy in the 16th century was accompanied by its successes in the field of centralization of the state and the intensification of foreign policy. The growth of the international authority of the Moscow state was also facilitated by a significant expansion of its territory due to successful campaigns of conquest and the colonization of new lands in the east. All this led to the formation of the Great Russian nation.
At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century, Russia entered a period of deep state-political and socio-economic structural crisis, called the “Time of Troubles”. Our Fatherland found itself on the verge of collapse and loss of its statehood. However, thanks to the nationwide patriotic upsurge, the crisis was overcome. The beginning of the reign of the newly elected Romanov dynasty on the Russian throne was marked by the restoration of the country's territorial integrity and the strengthening of its international prestige.
Throughout the 17th century, the main institutions of Russian absolutism were formed in the country, which created the preconditions for the transformation of the Muscovite kingdom into the Russian Empire.
The state of the Russian Empire covers the era from the late 17th to the early 20th century. During this time, the formation, flourishing and collapse of the Russian autocratic monarchy took place. Power reaches the highest degree of centralization. The absolute monarch rules, relying on the bureaucratic apparatus, the standing army and the police, and the church as an ideological force is subordinate to him. In Russia, an absolute monarchy emerged after Peter's reforms.
Russia entered the 19th century with a shiny façade of imperial power and a huge burden of ever-increasing internal political and social problems. The policies of Nicholas I (1825 -1855), contrary to the requirements of the era, which prevented the reform of the state and social system of autocratic Russia, led the country to a deep socio-economic, political and military crisis in the mid-19th century. Alexander II (1855 - 1881), who replaced Nicholas I, finally carried out the “great reform”, declaring the abolition of serfdom among the peasantry (1861). This was followed by radical changes in central and local government, urban and judicial reforms, reorganization of the army and navy, and democratization of the education system.
However, these reforms did not bridge the gap between the central government and society as a whole, but only radicalized the public consciousness of the revolutionary-minded intelligentsia. The accession to the throne of the last Russian autocrat, Nicholas II (1895 -1917), was marked by the unprecedented scope of the revolutionary movement in Russia and the inevitable collapse of the monarchical system.
The Soviet state existed from February 1917 until the end of 1991 and is associated with the formation of the foundations of Soviet statehood during the era of the revolutionary transformation of Imperial Russia into the Russian Republic. This stage of development of our state absorbed the crisis of central state power and the decomposition of the ethnopolitical unity of the country, the loss by the Provisional Government of the democratic perspective of state development and the further radicalization of the revolutionary movement in the country, in the wake of which the Bolsheviks led by V.I. came to power as a result of the revolution. Ulyanov (Lenin). During the Civil War, Bolshevism, which became the ideological core of the new system, formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which restored the political and territorial unity of most of the former Russian Empire. At the head of the party-nomenklatura elite of the authoritarian-totalitarian state for 30 years (from the beginning of the 1920s to 1953) was the “great leader and father of peoples” I.V. Stalin.
Soviet leaders - the heirs of Stalin, realizing the need and inevitability of reforming the outdated model of a totalitarian state, but fearing the loss of party nomenklatura power in the country, tried to carry out reforms without changing the foundations of the socialist system. Attempts at reform during the Thaw led to the resignation of the leader of the Communist Party Soviet Union(CPSU) N.S. Khrushchev (1964), and the policy of “perestroika” of the last General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee M.S. Gorbachev ended with the collapse of the USSR as a single totalitarian state and the collapse of the party-Soviet system.
The era of the Russian Federation began in December 1991 and continues to the present day. Over the past time, fundamental changes have occurred in the country. The new Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted in 1993, which made it possible to form a democratic political system. Multi-party system has become a reality. Russians elected the President of the Russian Federation, deputies of the State Duma, governors, mayors, bodies local government.
The new - 21st century in the formation and development of Russian statehood was marked by the most important direction in the activities of the new President of the Russian Federation - the implementation of large-scale administrative reform, since the existing structure of power required its improvement.
All measures were aimed primarily at establishing order in the authorities. But this was not the final goal, but only the beginning of the state modernization of Russia, which involves: improving the political system and building an effective state as a guarantor of stable social development, a guarantor of respect for individual rights; actual equalization of the capabilities of the subjects of the Federation in order to provide citizens of the country with full political and socio-economic rights; creating legal guarantees for the development of the Russian economy as an economy of free enterprise and business initiative of citizens, ensuring the accurate and effective implementation of economic strategy throughout Russia.
History will show where the current policy of the authorities will lead the country.
List of used literature
1. Dorokhov N., Shishov D., Avtsin S., Gordievsky A. Russian statehood: stages of formation and development // Landmark. - 2001. - No. 12.- P. 23-37.
2. Ancient Rus' in the light of foreign sources / Ed. E. A. Melnikova. - M.: Logos, 2000. - 608 p.
3. Statehood of Russia (late 15th century - February 1917): Dictionary-reference book / Ed. V.D. Basyukevich. - M.: Bustard, 1996. - 567 p.
4. Zuev M. On periodization and determining factors in the formation of Russian statehood // Orientir. - 2001. - No. 6.- P. 12-19.
5. Pashkov B.G. Rus', Russia, Russian Empire: Chronicle of events. 862-1917.- M.: Veche, 1994.- 890 p.
6. Stepanishchev A.T. History of Russia: 9-20 centuries: Schemes. - M.: Nauka, 2000. - 678 p.
7. Reader on the history of Russia / author.-comp. A.S. Orlov et al. - M.: TK Welby, 2004. - 592 p.
8. Chaevich A. State-political development and constitutional foundations of the Russian Federation // Orientir. - 2000. - No. 8. - P. 34-42.
9. Chaevich A. Constitutional foundations of the Russian Federation // Landmark. - 2001. - No. 11.- P.35-45.
The formation and development of Russian statehood goes back many centuries. This process began in the Old Russian state and continues to this day.
Throughout its history, Russia has gone through five main periods of state development: the Old Russian State, the Moscow State, the Russian Empire, the Soviet State and the Russian Federation.
Stage 1. The Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv arose in the middle of the 9th century and existed until the middle of the 15th century. This period was marked by the establishment of the basic principles of statehood in Rus', the merging of its northern and southern centers, the increase in the military-political and international influence of the state, and the onset of the stage of its fragmentation and loss of centralized control, which was natural for early feudal monarchies.
Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, named the Red Sun, was destined to become the spiritual father and founder of the Old Russian state. Under him, in 988, Rus' adopted Orthodoxy as the state religion. After this, literacy began to spread in the country, painting and literature began to develop.
However by the end of XII century, a number of independent states were formed in Rus'. Due to their fragmentation in the first third of the 13th century, enemies constantly began to attack Russian lands. As a result, in the 14th century, Ancient Rus' as a state community ceased to exist.
Since XIV century in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the importance of the Moscow Principality, which acted as the center of the “gathering of Russian lands,” increases. The reign of the great Prince of Vladimir and Moscow Ivan Danilovich Kalita. His political successes in gradually gaining independence from the Golden Horde were consolidated the victory of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy on the Kulikovo field. However, it took almost another hundred years for Moscow to finally consolidate its role as the organizing and spiritual center of the emerging Russian state.
Stage 2. The Moscow state existed from the mid-15th to the end of the 17th century. During this era, the final liberation of Russian lands from the vassal dependence of the Golden Horde took place, the process of “gathering lands” around Moscow was completed, and the basic state-political, socio-economic and cultural principles of the Russian autocracy were formalized. A striking manifestation of the increase in the authority of the Moscow sovereign was the solemn crowning of Ivan IV to the throne in 1547. This event was followed by the most important reforms of government bodies, the judicial system, the army, and the church. The emergence of the Russian autocracy in the 16th century was accompanied by its successes in the field of centralization of the state and the intensification of foreign policy. The growth of the international authority of the Moscow state was also facilitated by a significant expansion of its territory due to successful campaigns of conquest and the colonization of new lands in the east.
All this led to the formation of the Great Russian nation.
At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century, Russia entered a period of deep state-political and socio-economic structural crisis, called the “Time of Troubles”. Our Fatherland found itself on the verge of collapse and loss of its statehood. However, thanks to the nationwide patriotic upsurge, the crisis was overcome. The beginning of the reign of the newly elected Romanov dynasty on the Russian throne was marked by the restoration of the country's territorial integrity and the strengthening of its international prestige.
During the 17th century, the main institutions of Russian absolutism were formed in the country, which created the preconditions for the transformation of the Muscovite kingdom into the Russian Empire.
Stage 3. The state of the Russian Empire covers the era from the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 20th century. During this time, the formation, flourishing and collapse of the Russian autocratic monarchy took place.
The era of Peter I was a turning point in the history of Russia. His reforms covered all spheres of state and public life, determining the development of our country for a long historical perspective. They were aimed at maximum centralization in government with its decisive influence on the life of all layers of society and strict regulation of all its aspects.
After the death of Peter I, the Russian Empire entered an era of palace coups. During the period from 1725 to 1762, six autocrats replaced the Russian throne, including the infant Tsar Ivan Antonovich. All-powerful temporary workers then acquired enormous importance in managing the empire.
The reign of Catherine II (1762 - 1796) was marked by the declared policy of “enlightened absolutism”, an unprecedented growth in the privileges of the nobility as the noble class of the Russian Empire and at the same time the unprecedented scope of serfdom.
Attempts by Paul I (1796 - 1801) to limit Catherine's liberties of the noble class led to another palace coup and the murder of the emperor, who irritated the highest officials and officers with his unpredictable actions.
Russia entered the 19th century with a shiny façade of imperial power and a huge burden of ever-increasing domestic political and social problems. Alexander I (1801 - 1825) began his reign with an intense search for ways to reform the huge empire he inherited. However, this process was interrupted by the Patriotic War of 1812, which divided the reign of Alexander I into two different stages: the first was characterized by “constitutional quests”, and the second by the strengthening of the police state - Arakcheevism. The Decembrist movement, which resulted in an armed uprising in 1825 on Senate Square in St. Petersburg, clearly demonstrated the growing opposition to the central government on the part of the Russian noble intelligentsia.
The policies of Nicholas I (1825 -1855), contrary to the requirements of the era, which prevented the reform of the state and social system of autocratic Russia, led the country to a deep socio-economic, political and military crisis in the mid-19th century. Alexander II (1855 - 1881), who replaced Nicholas I, finally carried out the “great reform”, declaring the abolition of serfdom among the peasantry (1861). This was followed by radical changes in central and local government, urban and judicial reforms, reorganization of the army and navy, and democratization of the education system.
However, these reforms did not bridge the gap between the central government and society as a whole, but only radicalized the public consciousness of the revolutionary-minded intelligentsia.
Attempts by Alexander III (1881 -1894) to stabilize the state-political system of autocratic Russia through a series of counter-reforms only widened the gap between the monarch and his subjects.
The accession to the throne of the last Russian autocrat, Nicholas II (1895 -1917), was marked by the unprecedented scope of the revolutionary movement in Russia and the inevitable collapse of the monarchical system.
Stage 4. The Soviet state existed from February 1917 to the end of 1991 and is associated with the formation of the foundations of Soviet statehood during the era of the revolutionary transformation of Imperial Russia into the Russian Republic. This stage of development of our state absorbed the crisis of central state power and the decomposition of the ethnopolitical unity of the country, the loss by the Provisional Government of the democratic perspective of state development and the further radicalization of the revolutionary movement in the country, in the wake of which the Bolsheviks led by V.I. came to power as a result of the revolution. Ulyanov (Lenin). During the Civil War, Bolshevism, which became the ideological core of the new system, formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which restored the political and territorial unity of most of the former Russian Empire.
At the head of the party-nomenklatura elite of the authoritarian-totalitarian state for 30 years (from the beginning of the 1920s to 1953) was the “great leader and father of peoples” I.V. Stalin.
Thanks to the countless sacrifices and unparalleled heroism of several generations of Soviet people, the Soviet state quickly acquired powerful economic potential and became a powerful industrial power, which allowed the USSR not only to survive, but also to defeat fascism during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945).
At the same time, victory in the war became the beginning of large-scale rivalry between two state-political and economic systems in the international arena - the USSR and the United States of America (USA). In the post-war period, under the conditions of the Cold War, an unprecedented arms race developed, based on Soviet-American rivalry.
Soviet leaders - the heirs of Stalin, realizing the need and inevitability of reforming the outdated model of a totalitarian state, but fearing the loss of party nomenklatura power in the country, tried to carry out reforms without changing the foundations of the socialist system. Attempts at reform during the Thaw period led to the resignation of the leader of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) N.S. Khrushchev (1964), and the policy of “perestroika” of the last General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee M.S. Gorbachev ended with the collapse of the USSR as a single totalitarian state and the collapse of the party-Soviet system.
Stage 5. The era of the Russian Federation began in December 1991 and continues to the present day. Over the past time, fundamental changes have occurred in the country. The new Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted in 1993, which made it possible to form a democratic political system. Multi-party system has become a reality. Russians elected the President of the Russian Federation, deputies of the State Duma, governors, mayors, and local governments.
The new - 21st century in the formation and development of Russian statehood began with the fact that on March 26, 2000, in the first round of the presidential elections, the acting President of the Government of the Russian Federation Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin, having received almost 53% of the votes, won a landslide victory.
The most important direction in the activities of the new President of the Russian Federation was the implementation of large-scale administrative reform, since the existing structure of power required its improvement.
In this regard, on May 13, 2000, in order to ensure the implementation by the head of state of his constitutional powers, increase the efficiency of the activities of federal government bodies and improve the system of control over the implementation of their decisions, the President of the Russian Federation signed a Decree on the formation of seven federal districts - structural units of the new political division of Russia.
Also, the President of the Russian Federation signed the Law “On the procedure for forming the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation.” The change in the principle of forming the Federation Council raised questions about organizing a permanent dialogue between the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and the head of state on the main problems of state life, about the form of participation of regions in the preparation and adoption of the most important national decisions. This form became the State Council of the Russian Federation. The decree on the formation of the State Council of the Russian Federation was signed by the President of the Russian Federation on September 1, 2000.
All of the above measures were aimed at establishing order in the authorities. But this was not the final goal, but only the beginning of the state modernization of Russia, which included: improving the political system and building an effective state as a guarantor of stable social development, a guarantor of respect for individual rights; actual equalization of the capabilities of the subjects of the Federation in order to provide citizens of the country with full political and socio-economic rights; creating legal guarantees for the development of the Russian economy as an economy of free enterprise and business initiative of citizens, ensuring the accurate and effective implementation of economic strategy throughout Russia.
The reform of the Government of the Russian Federation that took place in the spring of 2004 and changes in its structure, which continued until the end of 2007, led to a reduction in the number of ministries and the creation of the so-called three-level system of executive power (ministry, service, agency). Now the Government of the Russian Federation consists of the Prime Minister, two First Deputies, three Deputy Prime Ministers, federal ministries, federal services and federal agencies. Moreover, in the structure of federal executive bodies there are federal ministries, services and agencies, the activities of which are personally managed by the President of the Russian Federation.
Changes in the structure of executive authorities of the Russian Federation were made in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the Federal Constitutional Law “On the Government of the Russian Federation” in order to improve the structure of federal executive authorities.
An important role in the development of Russian statehood is played by the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation, consisting of the Federation Council and the State Duma, which work on a permanent basis. According to established tradition, the Federation Council is called the upper house of parliament, and the State Duma is called the lower, although in terms of their position they are equal, and each performs its own functions defined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation. Both chambers develop laws for the entire society, the national economy of Russia, for all economic structures, main spheres and industries, without exception, for all social groups and every citizen. The main goal of both chambers and parliament as a whole is to ensure the well-being and prosperity of the peoples of Russia, the integrity and independence of the state, and the protection of human rights and freedoms.
Throughout its history, Russia has gone through five main periods of state development: the Old Russian State, the Moscow State, the Russian Empire, the Soviet State and the Russian Federation.
1. The Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv arose in the middle of the 9th century and existed until the middle of the 15th century. This period was marked by the establishment of the basic principles of statehood in Rus', the merging of its northern and southern centers, the increase in the military-political and international influence of the state, and the onset of the stage of its fragmentation and loss of centralized control, which was natural for early feudal monarchies.
2. The Moscow state existed from the middle of the 15th century to the end of the 17th century. During this era, the final liberation of Russian lands from the vassal dependence of the Golden Horde took place, the process of “gathering lands” around Moscow was completed, and the basic state-political, socio-economic and cultural principles of the Russian autocracy were formalized. All this led to the formation of the Great Russian nation.
At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century, Russia entered a period of deep state-political and socio-economic structural crisis, called the “Time of Troubles”. However, thanks to the nationwide patriotic upsurge, the crisis was overcome. During the 17th century, the main institutions of Russian absolutism were formed in the country, which created the preconditions for the transformation of the Muscovite kingdom into the Russian Empire.
3. The state of the Russian Empire covers the era from the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 20th century. During this time, the formation, flourishing and collapse of the Russian autocratic monarchy took place.
The accession to the throne of the last Russian autocrat, Nicholas II (1895 -1917), was marked by the unprecedented scope of the revolutionary movement in Russia and the inevitable collapse of the monarchical system.
4. The Soviet state existed from February 1917 until the end of 1991 and is associated with the formation of the foundations of Soviet statehood during the era of the revolutionary transformation of Imperial Russia into the Russian Republic.
5. The era of the Russian Federation began in December 1991 and continues to the present day. Over the past time, fundamental changes have occurred in the country. The new Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted in 1993, which made it possible to form a democratic political system. Multi-party system has become a reality. Russians elected the President of the Russian Federation, deputies of the State Duma, governors, mayors, and local governments.
Lecture No. 3 The collapse of Kievan Rus and the formation of independent feudal principalities. Mongol yoke in Rus'. Relations between Rus' and the Horde. The significance of the Battle of the Neva (1240) and the Battle of the Ice (1242).
The essence and forms of the state in Russia changed according to the same laws as in most Western European countries. Having passed the stage of the slave state. Russia immediately moved from a tribal system to a feudal one. The feudal state is based on relations of dependence of vassals on lords. In the IX-XI centuries. Kievan Rus was an “early feudal monarchy, in which the power of the prince was limited by the council of boyars, the people’s assembly (veche) and other institutions of communal self-government.
In the XII-XV centuries. A seigneurial monarchy is established in Russia. which is characterized by nominal power Prince of Kyiv and political autonomy of appanage princes (vassals).
The unification of lands around Moscow and the formation of estates lead to the establishment in the 16th-17th centuries. estate-representative monarchy, in which the head of state - the king - passed on his title by inheritance. He ruled the country, relying on an advisory body - the Boyar Duma. Along with this, zemstvo councils were convened, which included the clergy and elected representatives from the nobles and towns.
IN late XVII V. An absolute monarchy is emerging in Russia. Now the monarch did not share power with anyone, but concentrated both secular and ecclesiastical power in his hands. All class representative institutions were liquidated. In his rule, the autocrat relies on the related bureaucratic apparatus and punitive authorities. This is what the article said. I Code of Basic State Laws:
The All-Russian Emperor is an autocratic and unlimited monarch. God Himself commands to obey Her supreme power, not only out of fear, but also out of conscience.
Already with early XVIII V. The Russian state is acquiring the features of a police state, since it strictly regulates all aspects of human life, actively interferes in everything, using specially created professional police.
IN late XVIII V. Police punitive functions were carried out by the Robbery and Zemsky orders, and political affairs was handled by the Preobrazhensky Order. Investigative and investigative activities were carried out by the Office of Secret Investigative Cases, which included the notorious Third Department. It is based on the gendarmerie corps created in 1827. Initially, police authorities were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg. In St. Petersburg the position of chief of police was introduced, and in Moscow - chief of police. The police had armed formations.
She ensured law and order, fought crime, was responsible for urban improvement, fire safety, performed the functions of inquiry.
Absolutism in its rule not only relied on violence, but also sought support from the population. The monarch's support was the nobility - the ruling class. The nobles received a number of privileges from the monarch: in 1730, the period of noble service was determined at 25 years, and the manifesto Peter III“On the granting of liberty and freedom to the entire Russian nobility” (1762) nobles were exempted from compulsory military and public service. The nobles received a number of economic benefits: duties on the export of grain from their farms were canceled for six years, then allowed free trade bread, a noble monopoly on distillation was established. Finally, the status of the privileged position of the noble class is enshrined in Certificate of merit to the nobility (1785).
At the beginning of the 19th century. The system of power in Russia is characterized by its further centralization and the growth of the bureaucratic apparatus. At the top of the pyramid of power stood the emperor. He relied on an extensive bureaucracy. The highest legislative body developing bills was the State Council, headed by the emperor himself - the chairman of the Council. The State Council consisted of five departments: laws, military affairs, civil and spiritual affairs, state economy and affairs of the Kingdom of Poland. Supreme judicial authority became the Senate.
The 1905 revolution led to the transition absolute monarchy into the constitutional one. When discussing the draft Fundamental Laws of the Russian Empire in April 1906, which defined the nature of tsarist power, Emperor Nicholas II agreed to exclude the definition of “unlimited” from them. The Manifesto of October 17, 1905 introduced civil liberties and formed Legislature - The State Duma, which limited the power of the monarch.
The Basic Laws of April 23, 1906 defined a bicameral parliamentary system (State Council and State Duma), which was to be established in Russia, albeit with the broad powers of the emperor retained. Thus, not a single law acquired force without imperial approval; the emperor himself also carried out legislative functions together with the Duma and the State Council.
The gradual formation of the institutions of a constitutional monarchy was interrupted by the February Revolution of 1917. On March 2, 1917, Nicholas II abdicated the throne, after which the formation of the Provisional Government took place, to which power passed. However, it was unable to cope with the deep crisis in which society was located. The result of the crisis was October Revolution(October 25, Old Style 1917), which marked the beginning of a new type of state - the Soviet one.
