The key concept of functional phonetics, or phonology, is the concept of phoneme. The term phoneme in linguistics refers to the shortest linear unit of the sound structure of a language.
Of these shortest sound units units of language endowed with meaning are constructed. Consequently, although phonemes as such are not units of language, since in themselves they are devoid of meaning, the existence of language units - morphemes, words and their forms - is fundamentally impossible without the phonemes from which their signifiers are built.
2. On the relationship between phoneme and sound
Phonemes cannot be directly identified with sounds heard and pronounced by people in the process of speech communication. Phonemes are units of the sound structure of a language, while specific sounds heard and pronounced by people are phenomena individual speech. At the same time time is reality, directly given to a person in perception, it turns out to be sounds. And these sounds heard and pronounced by people in the process of speech communication represent a way of detecting and existing phonemes. Phonemes, as abstract units of the sound structure of language, do not have independent existence, but exist only in the sounds of speech.
3. Functions performed by phonemes
1) Constitutive, or tectonic. In this function, phonemes act as building material from which the sound shell of linguistic units endowed with meaning (morphemes, words and their forms) is created.
2) Distinctive, or distinctive. Phonemes can act as a word-discriminatory function, for example. bark - hole, or in a form-distinguishing manner, for example. hand - hand.
4. Signs of phonemes, differential and non-differential
The phoneme is the minimum unit of language, which means that it cannot be further divided. But nevertheless, a phoneme is a complex phenomenon, since it consists of a number of features that cannot exist outside the phoneme. So, for example in the phoneme d in Russian. language we can identify signs of sonority (in contrast to the deafness t - house - tom), hardness (in contrast to the softness d: at home - Dema), explosiveness (in contrast to the fricativeness z:dal -zal; lack of nasality (in contrast to n: dam-us), the presence of front-lingualism (in contrast to back-lingualism g: dam-gam).
Not all features within phonemes play the same role; some of them are distinctive, or differential (phonologically significant features of phonemes). Replacing even one differential feature leads to a change in phoneme. For example, by replacing the sign of voicedness with deafness in the phoneme d, we obtain, while maintaining all other features characteristic of the phoneme d, the phoneme m. By replacing the sign of plosiveness with fricativeness, we will obtain, while maintaining all other features. Characteristic of the phoneme d, phoneme z. All the other features of the phoneme d listed above also turn out to be distinctive (differential). Other features turn out to be indistinguishable if there is no other phoneme that is directly and unambiguously opposed based on this feature.
5. Phoneme options, basic, combinatorial, positional
There are differences in the implementation of individual phonemes that are regular and therefore characteristic of the speech of all native speakers. Examples of such regular differences in the implementation of the same phoneme can be the different pronunciation of the root vowel in the Russian words water - water - water. From the point of view of the MFS, the vowels o, significantly different from each other, in the above words are representatives of the same phoneme o, since these vowels occupy the same position in the sound structure of the root morpheme waters and alternate with each other due to the effects of modern Russian language phonetic patterns. Such varying in within known limits We will call regular realizations of the same phoneme variants of a given phoneme or its allophones. Among the variants of a phoneme, the so-called main variant stands out, in which the qualities of a given phoneme are manifested to the greatest extent.
In addition to the main options, combinatorial and positional options are also distinguished. Combinatorial variants arise under the influence of the immediate phonetic environment. Eg. dream. At the beginning of this word there is a soft dental consonant s, which is a combinatorial variant of the Russian phoneme s in combination with any soft dental, in in this case soft dental n.
Positional variations occur for phonemes at specific positions in a word. So the vowel is a positional variant of the Russian phoneme o in the second pre-stressed syllable (water). In contrast to the main option, the positional option has lost the qualities of roundness and belonging to the back row.
6. Strong and weak positions of phonemes
There are strong and weak phoneme positions. Those positions in which a phoneme can most clearly manifest its characteristics are called a strong position. The strong position for vowel phonemes is the position under stress. A weak position is the position of the phoneme of a word in which the characteristics of a given phoneme are neutralized (for example, the position of the end of a word for voiced and voiceless consonants in Russian and German languages- in English and French this position for the same opposition is strong.).
7. Phoneme system
System - a set of phonemes of this language connected by permanent relationships. The phoneme system reveals a certain internal division. It breaks down into two subsystems: the subsystem of vowel phonemes - vocalism, and the subsystem of consonant phonemes - consonantism.
8. Differences between phoneme systems of different languages
1. Total number phonemes, the ratio of vowels and consonants. So in the Russian language there are 43 phonemes (37 consonants and 6 vowels), in French there are 35 (20 consonants and 15 vowels), in German there are 33 (18 consonants and 15 vowels).
2. The quality of phonemes, their acoustic-articulatory properties.
3. Differences may appear in the positions of phonemes. If the position of the end of a word in Russian and German for voiced and voiceless consonants is weak, then in French it is strong.
4. They differ in the organization of phonemic groups (oppositions), for example, hardness - softness, deafness - voicedness, closure - gapiness. Opposition - opposition of phonemes based on their differential features, can be of two types: correlative (phonemes differ in only one differential feature, for example b-p on the basis of voicedness - deafness) and non-correlative (phonemes differ in two or more differential features a-at.)
9. Interaction of sounds in the speech stream.
1. Basic phonetic processes:
-accommodation;
-assimilation and its types;
-desimilation and its types;
2. Other phonetic processes:
-epenthesis;
-prostheses;
-diereses.
3. Phonetic and traditional (historical) alternations.
The most typical cases of interaction of sounds in the speech stream are accommodation, assimilation and dissimilation. These are basic phonetic processes.
Accommodations(adaptations) occur between consonants and vowels, usually standing nearby. In this case, so-called glides may occur, for example, if you listen carefully to the pronunciation of the word will, you can hear a very short y between v and o.
Assimilation is the articulatory and acoustic convergence (similarity) of sounds(consonants with consonants, vowels with vowels). When we write give, but pronounce addat, the subsequent sound d, likening the previous t, creates assimilation. Assimilation may be complete when one of the sounds completely resembles another (addat), or partial when one of the sounds only partially brings the other closer to itself, but does not completely merge with it. In Russian, the word lozhka is pronounced like loshka, since the voiceless consonant k, acting on the preceding voiced z, turns this latter into a voiceless sh. Here, not complete, but only partial assimilation of sounds is formed, that is, not their complete assimilation to each other, but only partial rapprochement (the sounds k and w are different, but at the same time connected with each other by the common sign of deafness). Consequently, according to the degree of similarity, assimilation can be complete or partial.
Assimilation can be progressive or regressive. Progressive assimilation occurs when a preceding sound influences a subsequent one. Regressive assimilation occurs when a subsequent sound affects the preceding sound. In the given examples of “addat” and “loshka” we are dealing with regressive assimilation. Progressive assimilation is much less common than regressive assimilation. Thus, the German noun Zimmer was formed from the old word Zimber: the preceding m resembled the subsequent b, forming two identical sounds.
Peculiar look progressive assimilation presented in Turkic languages. This is the so-called vowel harmony (synharmonism). Synharmonism leads to the assimilation of vowels throughout the word. Here are some examples from the Oirot language: karagai (pine), where the first vowel a determines the presence of all other vowels a, egemen (woman) - the first vowel e determines the appearance of subsequent e. As we see, not only neighboring sounds are assimilated, but also those which are separated from each other in a word by other sounds. That is, we are dealing with non-contiguous assimilation.
When the modern form was now formed from the ancient Russian form, the regressive assimilation no longer captured adjacent, not nearby sounds (e likened o to itself). Assimilation with vowel harmony in Turkic languages has a non-contiguous character.
Thus, assimilation can be complete and partial, progressive and regressive, contiguous and non-contiguous. So in the word “addat” we are dealing with complete, contiguous, regressive assimilation.
The reasons for the occurrence of assimilation are explained by the interaction of sounds in the speech stream.
Dissimilation is cases of dissimilarity of sounds. Again, as in the case of assimilation we're talking about about the interaction of consonant sounds with consonants, and vowels with vowels. When in some Russian dialects they say lessora instead of springor, then two identical non-adjacent sounds r are dissimilar here, forming l and r. The subsequent p, as it were, pushes away the previous one, the result is non-adjacent regressive dissimilation. When in colloquial speech you can sometimes hear tranvai instead of tramvai, then dissimilation occurs here, but adjacent: two labiolabial sounds (m v) are dissimilar, forming the anterior lingual n and the labiolabial v. Consequently, both completely identical sounds (for example, р and р in the example spring) and sounds that are close in articulation, but still unequal (for example, m in the word tram) can be dissimilated.
Like assimilation, dissimilation is distinguished between progressive and regressive, contiguous and non-contiguous. Dissimilation is sometimes reflected in literary language, in written speech. The modern camel was formed from the old form of the camel as a result of the regressive dissimilation of two liters. Modern February arose as a result of progressive dissimilation from the old February (Latin februarius). On the basis of assimilation/dissimilation, various phonetic phenomena occur.
Other phonetic processes.
Diaeresis(or discards) have an assimilative basis, for example, the elimination of iota between vowels, which tend to become similar to each other and merge into one sound: for example, in the word happens - the basis is byvay, with the transition in some Russian dialects to byvaat; or dropping instant consonants t and d, for example, in words such as honest, happy; or the elimination of the same t and d in the groups stk, zdk, for example, in the words trip, agenda, what in school grammars are called unpronounceable consonants.
But there are also diaeresis on a dissimilatory basis, which manifests itself especially clearly in haplology when one of two identical or similar syllables is discarded, for example tragi/ko/comedy - tragicomedy, minera/lo/logy - mineralogy.
Epentheses(or insertions) most often have a dissimilatory basis, most often we are talking about the insertion of sounds in or й between vowels, for example, in common parlance they say Larivon instead of Larion or Rodivon instead of Rodion, as well as radivo, kakavo. Iota epenthesis is also typical of common speech. So they say: scorpion, spion, violet, baboon, and so on. In the consonant area, a common occurrence is the insertion of a momentary sound between two consonants. For example, ndrav, stram instead of moral and shame.
Prosthetics(or adjuncts) are actually a type of epenthesis, only the prostheses are not found in the middle of the word, but are placed in front, at the beginning of the word. Again, the prosthetic consonants appear in th, which cover the initial vowels, for example, acute, eto instead of this. They can also act as prosthetic vowels in the Russian language, for example, in southern Russian dialects they say “ishla” instead of “shla”. Here the purpose of and is to relieve the group of initial consonants.
Closely related to dissimilation are cases of the so-called metathesis(permutations) of adjacent and non-adjacent sounds within a word. The modern Russian plate was formed from the old form talerka through the metathesis of l and r: r took the place of l, and l accordingly moved to the place of r. So in the Belarusian language the old sequence of sounds l and r in the word talerka is preserved. The same should be said about the Polish talerz and the German Teller (plate).
In language, there are also alternations of sounds, that is, their mutual replacement in the same places, in the same morphemes. It is important to distinguish between the types of alternations, since some of them belong to the field of phonetics, and others to the field of morphonology, and should therefore be studied by the corresponding sections of linguistics.
Phonetic (live) alternations are changes in sounds in stream of speech, which are caused by modern phonetic processes. These alternations are determined by position. With phonetic (live) alternations, variants or variations of the same phoneme alternate, without changing the composition of phonemes in morphemes. These are the alternations of stressed and unstressed vowels in the Russian language, for example, water - water - water carrier, where are the variants of the phoneme o. Or the alternation of voiced and voiceless consonant sounds: each other, where k is a variant of the phoneme g.
Phonetic alternations are mandatory in a given language. Thus, in the Russian language, all vowels in unstressed syllables are reduced, and all voiced consonants at the end of the word are deafened. These alternations have nothing to do with the expression of meaning. They are determined by position in a word and are studied in phonetics.
Phonetic (living) alternations usually remain unexpressed in written speech.
Non-phonetic alternations, which are not the subject of the study of phonetics, should be distinguished from living (phonetic) alternations. With non-phonetic alternations, the change in sound does not depend on the position of the sound in the word. At the same time, different phonemes alternate, due to which the same morpheme receives a different phonemic composition, for example, friend - friends - friendly.
Among non-phonetic alternations, a distinction is made between morphological and grammatical alternations.
1) Morphological (or historical, traditional). Such alternation is not determined by phonetic position, and is not in itself an expression of grammatical meaning. Such alternations are called historical because they can only be explained historically, and not from modern language. They are called traditional because these alternations are not subject to both semantic necessity and phonetic compulsion, but are preserved by virtue of tradition.
With morphological alternations, the following alternate:
a) vowel phoneme with a zero, for example, sleep-sna, stump-stump. (so-called fluent vowel)
b) one consonant phoneme with another consonant phoneme: k-ch m-zh-sh, for example, hand - pen, leg - leg, fly - fly;
c) two consonant phonemes with one consonant phoneme: sk-sch st-sch zg-zh z-zh, for example, plane - area, simple - simplification, grumpy - grumble, be late - later.
2) Grammatical alternations are very similar to morphological ones. Often they are combined together. However, a significant difference between grammatical alternations and morphological (traditional, historical) alternations is that grammatical alternations do not simply accompany various word forms, but independently express grammatical meanings. So, for example, the alternation of paired l and l soft, n and n soft, as well as the alternation k-ch x-sh can distinguish short adjective masculine and a noun of the collective category, for example, gol - gol, torn - torn, dik - game, dry - sushi. Alternating Ms. can differentiate between imperfect and perfect look verbs, eg. avoid, resort, run away and avoid, resort, run away.
To summarize what has been said regarding alternations, we emphasize once again that of all types of alternations, only phonetic (living) alternations are considered in phonetics. All phenomena of non-phonetic alternations are studied by morphonology, although the study of their functions and the expression of certain grammatical meanings already belongs to grammar.
10. Syllable and syllable division.
1) The concept of a syllable.
2) Types of syllables.
3) Various syllable theories.
4) On the relationship between syllable and morpheme in different languages.
Syllable concept
Syllable is minimal phonetic unit division of the speech stream, which usually includes one vowel with adjacent consonants. There are languages in which a type of syllable consisting only of consonants can be represented. This is, for example, Czech, which has quite a lot monosyllabic words, which do not contain vowel sounds in their sound, for example: vlk - wolf, krk - neck. The core or apex of the syllable in these words is formed by the sonorant consonants l r. Depending on the number of syllables in a word, words are distinguished as one-syllable, two-syllable, three-syllable, and so on.
Types of syllables
Depending on what sound, vowel or consonant the syllable ends with, open, closed and conditionally closed syllables are distinguished.
Open syllables end with a vowel sound, for example, in Russian. in-ro-ta, re-ka, in it. Du, Ra-be, Leh-re. A peculiarity of German open syllables is the presence of only long vowels in them.
Closed syllables end with a consonant and cannot be opened, for example: ruble, fruit drink, Nacht, Berg. German closed syllables overwhelmingly contain short vowel sounds, see examples above. However, in some closed syllables can be presented and long vowels, for example Arzt, nun, Mond, wust.
Conventionally closed syllable can be opened by inflection, for example: pond - ponds, cat - cats, Tag - Ta-ge, schwul - schwu-le. The last type of syllables is interesting as evidence that the sound structure of the syllables included in the structure of modified words is not a constant value.
Depending on what sound, vowel or consonant the syllable begins with, a distinction is made between closed and uncovered syllables.
Covered syllables- these are syllables that begin with a consonant sound, for example: re-ka, mo-lo-ko, Tal, Raum.
Unclosed syllables are syllables that begin with a vowel sound, for example: tin, arena, Ei, aus, Uhr.
Various syllable theories.
There are several theories that seek to explain the nature of the syllable.
1. Sonorous theory. According to this theory, a syllable is a combination of a more sonorous (or more sonorous) element with a less sonorous (less sonorant) element. (Otto Jespersen).
2. Expiratory theory, according to which a syllable is a sound combination that corresponds to one expiratory impulse. (Stetson).
3. The theory of muscular tension considers a syllable as a minimum segment of speech flow, pronounced by one impulse of muscular tension. (Shcherba)
11. On the relationship between syllable and morpheme.
There are no correspondences between a syllable and a morpheme, as the shortest meaningful unit of language, in languages such as Russian, German, French, and English. For example, in the Russian word form dom, the root morpheme coincides with the syllable, but in the word form doma (rod.), the first syllable includes only part of the root morpheme.
However, there are languages in which a syllable is a stable sound formation. It does not change either its composition or boundaries in the flow of speech. Such languages are called syllabic, or syllabic languages, where a syllable is equal to a separate morpheme and is never broken. Syllabic languages include Chinese, Vietnamese, Burmese and some other languages.
12. Word stress.
1. Definition of word stress
2. Types of stress.
- Reduction as a consequence of dynamic stress.
- Qualitative and quantitative reduction.
- Functions of word stress.
- Emphasis in phonetic word.
Word stress refers to the selection of one or two syllables in a polysyllabic word using the strength, height and duration of sounds. Accordingly, they distinguish between dynamic (force, or expiratory), musical (tone, or melodic) and quantitative (quantitative, or longitudinal) stress. Purely dynamic stress is present in the Czech language. Purely musical stress is represented in Chinese, Korean, and Japanese. Languages with purely quantitative stress are rare. An example of languages with such an accent is Modern Greek. In most languages, all these types of stress are usually used in combination with each other. Thus, in the Russian literary language, the stressed syllable is always the strongest and the longest, and, in addition, only on stressed syllables can tone movement occur. According to M.V. Raevsky, German verbal stress is dynamic. However, other linguists, for example Budagov, believe that the German language has elements of force and elements of musical stress.
Each language has its own rules governing the place of stress in a word. There are languages with free (various) and bound stress. In languages with free stress, word stress can fall on any syllable of a word, as is the case, for example, in Russian. (city, gate, hammer). In languages with associated stress, word stress emphasizes only a specific syllable of a word: in Czech it is the first syllable from the beginning, for example, jazyk, strana, in Polish it is the second from the end: рolak, smaragdowy, in French the stress in a word always falls on last syllable in a word.
German word stress should be considered free, since it can fall on different syllables words, for example Laufen, verlaufen, Lauferei.
A distinction is made between movable and fixed stress. A fixed stress should be considered to be one that always falls on the same syllable, regardless of the word form in which it appears. So Czech is a fixed-stress language. If we change the word jeden (noun singular), then in any of the resulting forms the stress will fall on the first syllable jedneho (gen., singular). In Russian the stress is movable. There are pairs of words that differ only in stress: castle - castle. Sometimes the meaning of the word does not change, for example: cottage cheese - cottage cheese, butt - butt, poured - poured, otherwise - otherwise. That is, in this case we are talking about coexisting normative variants of pronunciation of the same word in the absence of semantic or stylistic differences.
Reduction.
Dynamic or dynamic-complex stress can be the cause of reduction. Reduction is a weakening and change in the sound of unstressed syllables.
A distinction is made between quantitative and qualitative reduction. With quantitative reduction, the vowels of unstressed syllables lose length and strength, but the characteristic timbre is preserved in any syllable.
With high-quality reduction, the syllabic vowels of unstressed syllables become not only weaker and shorter, as with quantitative reduction, but also lose certain signs of their timbre and quality. For example, in the word water - o is under stress and represents a vowel of full formation, which can be characterized as a vowel back row, medium rise, labialized.
Functions of word stress.
Word stress three functions are usually attributed: culminating (unifying), delimiting (discriminating), and differentiating (word-distinguishing).
The essence of the culminating function is that what stressed syllable, subordinating neighboring unstressed syllables, connects the sound of the word into one whole.
By linking the sound of a word into a separate whole, stress helps the listener simultaneously differentiate one significant word from another. This demonstrates the delimitive function of verbal stress.
The differentiating function can be illustrated with the following examples: arms - arms, legs - legs, ubersetzen - ubersetzen, August-August, alle - Allee.
Word stress was discussed above.
Let us now consider the stress in the phonetic word. A phonetic word is understood as a combination of an independent significant word with a service word, having one common stress. In a phonetic word, the function word is usually unstressed; it is adjacent to an independent word, which is usually stressed. Depending on where the unstressed word is located within the phonetic word, they speak of proclitic and enclitic. If an unstressed function word comes before a stressed independent word, then it is a proclitic, for example, in a sister. If an unstressed function word comes after a stressed independent word, then it is an enclitic. For example, I would look. But the emphasis in a phonetic word is not always significant words, sometimes monosyllabic prepositions in Russian take on stress and then the next word form turns out to be unstressed, for example, on the house, on the shore, on the water, in two. With one word form there can be both enclitics and proclitics, for example, for a day, in the woods.
13. Intonation.
1. Definition.
2. Two main types of stress.
3. On the interaction of intonation with lexical and grammatical factors of the language.
Intonation is the rhythmic and melodic pattern of speech. Intonation is a complex phenomenon, which includes the following components: 1) frequency of the fundamental tone of the voice (melodic component); 2) intensity (dynamic component)
3) duration, or tempo (temporal component) 4) timbre.
With pure linguistic point In terms of language, two main types of intonation should be distinguished.
1. With intonation of the first type, the very meaning of the word, its original and basic meaning, changes. Intonation of this kind is characteristic of languages such as Chinese, Japanese and others. So in Japanese the word "su" can mean nest or vinegar, depending on character of intonation, the word hi is “day” or “fire”. In these cases, intonation more or less dramatically changes the meaning of the word and acts as the most important factor in the language system.
2. Intonation of the second type has less independent meaning than intonation of the first type. Intonation of the second type only gives the word additional meaning, which usually does not dramatically change its meaning, as well as the meaning of the entire sentence. This intonation is characteristic of Indo-European languages.
Intonation interacts with other language factors - lexical and grammatical. As A. M. Peshkovsky noted in his book “Russian Syntax in Scientific Coverage,” interrogative intonation increases more and more, becomes stronger and more intense, according to to the extent that, how we will compare the following three sentences with each other:
Have you read the book?
Have you read the book?
Have you read the book?
In the first case, the question is conveyed not only intonation, but also with the help of the particle whether, as well as word order (the verb comes first). In the second sentence, the interrogative intonation should be somewhat strengthened, since there is no longer the interrogative particle whether, which helps convey the question in the first sentence, although the second intonation assistant is preserved - word order, when the verb continues to remain in first place. Finally, in the third sentence, the intonation of the question increases even more, since in this sentence she no longer has a second assistant - word order. And the question is conveyed only by intonation. Thus, the more assistants - lexical (particle) and grammatical - word order - intonation has, the weaker the intonation itself: shades of meaning are conveyed by several means at once.
The phoneme is indivisible in a linear relationship. This is the minimum segmental sound unit of the language. But a phoneme can be decomposed into its constituent features, i.e. she is articulated in structurally. A phoneme, like any other unit of language, has its own characteristics. The signs of phonemes are articulatory and acoustic signs, such as “deafness”, “softness”, “forelingualism”, etc.
The characteristics of the phoneme do not completely coincide with the characteristics of the sound. The phoneme is considered from the point of view of features that serve to distinguish and recognize sound as an element of the system. In a given language, not all features of sounds become phonemic, but features selected by that language. The articulatory-acoustic similarity of certain sounds does not say anything about their phonemic status in a given language.
Some of the articulatory-acoustic features are distinctive (differential), phonologically relevant, phonological, while others are non-discriminative, constitutive, integrative, phonologically irrelevant. If phonemes are not opposed to each other based on some feature, then this feature is not differential. Thus, in the Russian language, the sign “mouthiness” is not a distinctive feature for vowel phonemes. In the Russian language, all vowels have this feature, and therefore this feature cannot serve as a distinctive feature for Russian vowels. The feature “mouthiness” in the Russian language is not phonologically relevant for the subsystem of vowel phonemes of the Russian language; it is not used to contrast vowel phonemes with each other. There are no nasal and oral vowel phonemes in the Russian language. But the feature “mouthiness” is obligatory for all Russian vowel phonemes and is therefore constitutive. The sign “mouthiness” is common to all vowel phonemes of the Russian language, therefore it acts as an integrative one.
Differential are the features by which phonemes are contrasted with each other. Differential features (hereinafter referred to as DP) are features that ensure the distinction of phonemes, functionally important features. For example, the signs “voice”/“deafness”, “hardness/softness” are differential for Russian consonant phonemes, since according to these signs consonant phonemes are opposed to each other in the Russian language: /t/ - /d/; /t/ - /t’/. Those physical features that have a meaningful function in a given language are called differential (distinctive) features. Differential features are phonologically relevant, phonological. Many works on Russian phonetics contain contradictory judgments about the consonants [g, k, x] and their pairs [g’, k’, x’]. But the presence of words like curie(cf. smoke), ditch, giaur etc. indicates the presence of soft back-lingual phonemes in the Russian language.
For all Russian stop consonants, the integral (non-distinctive) feature is unaspiration, since there are no aspirated stop consonants in the Russian language.
The composition of differential features for identical sounds in different languages can be different. Thus, in the Russian language, the phonemes /t/ and /t’/ include the DP “hardness” / “softness” in their composition, and in English and German the sign “softness / hardness” does not act as a DP for consonant phonemes. In different languages, different physical features are involved in the distinctiveness of phonemes.
In Russian, the “long/shortness” of vowels is not used to distinguish between morphemes and words, but in English and German, “long/shortness” are differential features of phonemes (cf. English. sleep-sli p; German bitten – bitten). In Russian, nasal pronunciation of vowels is not used for meaning differentiation, and in French and Polish the sign “nasality” is distinctive for vowel phonemes (cf. French. sa-sang).
Taking into account the features that characterize the phoneme of a given language, it can be represented as a bundle of differential features. To determine a phoneme, you need to know the set of its differential features by which it is contrasted with other phonemes of a given language.
Establishing DP phonemes allows us to describe the phoneme system of a language. Phonemes characterized by a partially similar set of DPs are combined into groups (subclasses). As a result, a certain organization is discovered within the class of phonemes - the structure of the phonological system.
DPs have phonetic correlates. For phonemes of different classes, the same DP can be characterized by different phonetic correlates. Thus, the feature “softness” corresponds to the following phonetic correlates: in nasal sonorants, for example, [m’] the feature “softness” corresponds to an i-shaped overtone, and in the back lingual [k’] the feature “softness” corresponds to the appearance of a specific fricative phase.
The same phoneme can change its sound, but only within those limits that do not affect its DP. If one of these features is eliminated and replaced by another DP, one phoneme turns into another.
The desire to describe the diversity of human speech sounds on a single classification basis contributed to the development of universal classifications built on a dichotomous principle. Linguists are trying to establish the “set” of DPs that all languages of the world use. American scientists R. Jacobson, G. Fant and M. Halle hypothesized that twelve pairs of differential phonemic features are used in various languages of the world. Individual languages (or groups of languages) are characterized by their own “sets” of DPs, composed of the twelve pairs described. Among the distinguishing features, scientists named the following features:
1) vowel/tacit;
2) agree/disagree;
3) compact/diffuse (the degree of concentration of pronunciation energy is taken into account);
5) interrupted/uninterrupted (the presence and nature of an obstacle during the passage of the air stream is taken into account);
6) nasal/oral;
7) voiced/voiceless, etc.
Later, this classification was simplified by N. Chomsky and M. Halle, who proposed taking into account three main features when describing speech sounds:
1) sonorant/non-sonorant;
2) vocal/non-vocal;
3) consonant/non-consonant.
If necessary, these signs are supplemented with signs based on the method of articulation, the place of sound formation, the source of voice and noise, etc.
Phonemes oppose each other with their DP in the language as a whole, and not in individual morphemes. Individual morphemes can be expressed in different cases different composition of phonemes: for example, run-y And run have the same root morpheme in two phonetic varieties (with the phonemes /g/ and /zh/). In word form Houses[domΛma] at the root represents a phoneme, which in its implementation coincides with the phoneme /a/ in the word lady[dam] . A number of alternating phonemes and their variants within one morpheme are designated by the term “morphoneme”. A morphoneme is not only one phoneme in its variants, but also a number of different phonemes and their variants, alternating in the same morpheme.
Phonological conceptN. S. Trubetskoy- one of the directions in phonology.
In Trubetskoy’s teaching, the science of sounds is divided into phonology and phonetics:
phonology- “the study of the sounds of a language, common and constant in the minds of its speakers”;
phonetics- the doctrine of the private manifestation of the sounds of language in speech that has a one-act character.
Phonology and phonetics are interrelated, since without specific speech acts there would be no language. The speech act is the establishment of a connection between the Saussurean “signified” and the “signifier”.
Phonology studies the signifier in language, which consists of a certain number of elements that differ from each other in sound manifestations and have a semantic-distinguishing function, the relationship of distinctive elements and the rules for their combination. Signs of sound that do not have a distinctive meaning are not essential for phonology. Phonology is the study of the system of language that underlies all speech acts.
Phonetics studies physical, articulatory one-act phenomena. This is the science of the material side of the sounds of human speech.
Stand out in sounds three aspects: expression, appeal, message. Only the third, representative aspect - message - belongs to the sphere of phonology. The representative aspect is divided into three parts, the subject of which is respectively:
culminating language function (indicating how many units, that is, words, phrases, are contained in a sentence);
delimitation function (indicating the boundary between two units: phrases, words, morphemes);
distinctive, or semantic-discriminatory function, most important for phonology.
The doctrine of oppositions
The main concept for meaning differentiation is opposition- opposition on a semantic basis. A phonological unit is a “member of a phonological opposition.”
Classification of oppositions
In relation to to the whole system oppositions:
one-dimensional- the set of characteristics inherent in both members of the opposition is not inherent in any other member of the system;
multidimensional- the “grounds for comparison” between two members of the opposition extends to other members of the same system.
isolated- members of the opposition are in a relationship not found in any other opposition;
proportional- the relationship between members is identical to the relationship between members of another or other oppositions.
according to “dimensionality” (qualitative criterion):
by occurrence (quantitative criterion):
In relation to between members oppositions:
private- one member differs from another by the presence or absence of a distinctive feature - a “correlative feature”. For example, sonority (the work of the vocal cords during articulation) is the presence of a sign, and deafness ( vocal cords do not work) is the absence of a sign;
gradual- members of the opposition differ in varying degrees of the same characteristic;
equivalent- members are logically equal. For example, for phonemes To And d privative is the opposition based on voicedness - deafness, and equivalent - based on the place of formation.
By volume distinctiveness:
permanent- if the effect of the distinctive feature is not limited
neutralizable- if in a certain position the feature loses its phonological significance.
Phonemes that form simultaneously proportional, one-dimensional and privative oppositions are most closely related, and such an opposition is a correlation.
The concept of phoneme
Phoneme according to Trubetskoy, the shortest phonological unit, the decomposition of which into shorter units is impossible from the point of view of a given language. The main internal function of the phoneme is semantic.
Phoneme invariant, i.e. it can be realized in a number of different sound manifestations. The pronounced sound can be considered as one of the variants of the implementation of the phoneme.
Phoneme and variant.The teaching introduces four rules of distinction phonemes:
if in a language two sounds in the same position can replace each other, and at the same time the semantic function of the word remains unchanged, then these two sounds are variants one phonemes;
if, when replacing sounds in one position, the meaning of the word changes, then they are not variants one phonemes;
if two acoustically related sounds never occur in the same position, then they are combinatorial variants one phonemes;
if two acoustically related sounds never occur in the same position, but can follow each other as members of a sound combination, and in a position where one of these sounds can occur without the other, then they are not variants one phonemes.
Phoneme and combination
In order to establish the full composition of phonemes of a given language, it is necessary to distinguish a phoneme from a combination of phonemes. Trubetskoy formulated monophonemic rules and polyphonemicity. A sound combination is monophonemic if:
its main parts are not distributed over two syllables;
it is formed through one articulatory movement;
its duration does not exceed the duration of other phonemes of a given language;
potentially single-phoneme sound complexes are considered to be actually single-phonemic if they behave like simple phonemes, that is, they occur in positions that otherwise allow only single phonemes).
Distinctive features) in linguistics, properties, characteristics of a linguistic unit (for example, a phoneme), on which its opposition to another unit of the same level of language (for example, phonological) is based. The concept of differential features is used in phonology [where it originated (L. Bloomfield, R. O. Yakobson, N. S. Trubetskoy)] and other linguistic disciplines. In phonology, a differential feature is a feature that, in the system of a given language, distinguishes two or more phonemes. More often, differential features characterize not pairs, but rows (series) of phonemes; for example, according to the differential characteristics of “voice-voicelessness” in the Russian language, the phonemes /b/, /d/, /g/, /z/, /v/, etc. and, accordingly, /p/, /t/ are distinguished , /k/, /s/, /f/, etc. In the so-called dichotomous phonology (see Language oppositions) and directions close to it, it is believed that all differential features are binary, or binary, i.e., they have the form “ A/not-A”, for example, differential signs of “tension/laxness”. Each phoneme is determined by its unique set of differential features. For example, in Russian only the consonant phoneme /b/ is characterized as labial, voiced, hard, stop, non-nasal (non-sonorant). In many areas of phonology, a phoneme is defined as a bundle (set) of differential features. Most phonological processes (alternation, etc.) are more naturally described in terms of differential features rather than phonemes. Differential features have an abstract nature, determining the relationship of phonemes within the phonological system. In speech they correspond to acoustic-articulatory correlates; for example, the differential features “softness” for Russian labial consonants manifests itself in speech as the presence of an i-shaped section between the consonant and the vowel.
In morphology, the theory of R. O. Yakobson is known, according to which Russian cases are described through sets of differential features; for example, the dative case is characterized as directed, peripheral, non-volume. Morphological differential features are the traditional opposition of affixes as agglutinative-nonagglutinative and inflectional-noninflectional (see Agglutination in linguistics, Inflectivity).
In semantics, semantic analogues of differential features are used to decompose the meaning of words and grammatical categories into components. For example, the meaning of the word “bachelor” is described through a set of semantic differential features “man; has reached a certain age; unmarried and unmarried.”
The concept of differential features is related to the concept essential features in logic and philosophy.
Lit.: Jacobson R., Fant G.M., Halle M. Introduction to speech analysis: Distinguishing features and their correlates // New in linguistics. M., 1962. Issue. 2; Kasevich V. B. Phonological problems of general and eastern linguistics. M., 1983; Ladefoged R., Maddieson I. The sounds of the world’s languages. Oxf., 1996; Trubetskoy N. S. Fundamentals of phonology. 2nd ed. M., 2000; Bloomfield L. Language. M., 2002.
The echogenicity of the parenchyma of a healthy pancreas on ultrasound is similar to the echogenicity of the liver and spleen. In its structure, the gland has a head, body and tail of optimal size. Unfortunately, people who already have problems turn to specialists, and on the monitors of diagnostic devices they often observe signs of diffuse changes in the pancreas due to its inflammation or other pathology.
About diffusion
The term "diffusion" translated from Latin means "spreading" or "interaction". From the point of view of physics and chemistry, this is the penetration and interaction of atoms or molecules of one substance with atoms and molecules of another. By studying the phenomenon of diffusion, scientists began to better understand the essence of the processes occurring in the human body. This is most often the case with the pancreas. Diffuse changes - what is it?
This phenomenon can be easily observed. Just add a little ink to a glass of water and see how the substances mix. In anatomy, this phenomenon is associated with the interaction and replacement of some cells by others. This is exactly what is discovered during ultrasound examination: cells altered by pathology are located next to healthy ones. Signs of diffuse changes in the pancreas, as a rule, are local (focal) or mixed (diffuse) in nature.
What are the manifestations of diffuse changes in the pancreatic parenchyma?
Pathogenic changes in gland tissue are most often chronic in nature, and therefore there are no symptoms. But on ultrasound, with normal sizes, the gland has increased echogenicity. In elderly patients suffering from cardiovascular diseases and diabetes, healthy cells gradually die off and are replaced by connective or fatty tissue.
Also, similar transformations are observed when the blood supply to the enzyme-forming organ, the liver, is disrupted, when the functioning of the biliary tract is disrupted, or when endocrine and metabolic processes are disrupted. In what other cases do diffuse changes in the liver and pancreas occur?
Similar symptoms are observed with pancreatitis or dystrophic metabolic disorders. may not be confirmed, and then treatment is not prescribed, and the patient is not recognized as having DIP. As a rule, spreading changes occur in the chronic course of diseases, pathogenic changes in tissues are practically asymptomatic. These are moderate diffuse changes in the pancreas.
Provoking factors
The disease can be caused by various reasons:
1) Imbalance in nutrition. Abuse of fatty, floury, salty, sweet and spicy foods.
2) Predisposition along the genetic line.
3) Stress and nervous tension.
4) Drug and alcohol addiction.
5) Chronic diseases digestive organs.
6) Self-medication and unsystematic use of medications.
How to treat diffuse changes in the pancreas? Let's look at this below.
Insufficient insulin in the blood and detection of glucose in the urine are also caused by DIP. Typically, the cause of these changes is pancreatitis, which needs to be treated. Compliance is also necessary certain rules patient behavior, diet compliance.
The main signs of diffuse changes in the pancreas
As a rule, signs of DI are associated with the underlying disease. Most often, patients complain that they feel heaviness in the stomach, they are tormented by frequent diarrhea or, on the contrary, constipation. In acute pancreatitis, the pressure in the pancreatic duct often increases, which can cause its deformation. Due to a violation of enzymatic function, some of the digestive enzymes can pass through the cells of the pancreatic parenchyma and cause poisoning of the body. In this case, the patient experiences pain on the left under the sternum, nausea, often accompanied by vomiting. There is an increased heart rate and low blood pressure. This condition usually requires hospitalization.
The initial stage is accompanied by the appearance of edema and hemorrhages in the tissues of the gland. Then atrophy occurs, the gland decreases in size, connective tissue grows, and enzyme-forming cells stop producing digestive enzymes. Fibrosis is also accompanied by displacement of healthy pancreatic cells and their replacement with connective tissue. The production of hormones and enzymes stops. At the initial stage, the symptoms are scant and often similar to signs of inflammation of the pancreas. Moderate diffuse changes in the pancreas appear.
About lipomatosis
The replacement of normal organ cells with fatty tissue is called lipomatosis. The symptoms of DIPG in lipomatosis depend on its volume. With minor changes in DI, the pathology may not manifest itself, but in more serious cases the body begins to gradually experience a deficiency of hormones and enzymes. The proliferation of lipoid tissue leads to compression of the parenchyma and, as a consequence, disruption of the functioning of the pancreas and the appearance of pain. These are diffuse changes in the pancreas like lipomatosis.
Hollow organs include: stomach, urinary and gall bladders. Organs consisting of parenchyma (glandular tissue): pancreas, spleen, liver, etc. The main function of the pancreas parenchyma is the production of enzymes and hormones.
With diabetes mellitus, chronic pancreatitis or acute pancreatitis, changes often occur.
Ultrasound shows an increase in the echogenicity of the glandular tissue; this occurs due to the inflammatory process and when the connective tissue hardens (fibrosis), which leads to an increase in density. The cause of this anomaly is an imbalance in metabolism. Another reason for increased echogenicity is lymphomatosis (replacement of parenchyma with fat cells).
Swelling of the gland can occur as a result of pancreatitis, due to which the density of the parenchyma changes and, as a result, the echogenic reaction also changes.
How do diffuse changes in the parenchyma of the liver and pancreas affect the condition of organs?
Structure changes
The structure of the parenchyma can be homogeneous and fine-grained. A slightly increased grain size is also not a big deviation. Taken together, an increase in granularity indicates existing inflammation and dystrophic changes in the gland associated with poor nutrition.
Healthy pancreatic parenchyma resembles the echostructure of the liver, being equally homogeneous and fine-grained. Age-related changes The echogenicity of the gland structure indicates developing lipomatosis, which is often associated with the onset of diabetes. Signs of diffuse changes in the pancreas can be very informative.
Reactive DPJ
These are its secondary changes, a response to pathology in neighboring digestive organs that are closely related to it. Especially often, DI of the gland occurs due to problems with the liver and biliary tract, since it interacts most closely with these organs. During ultrasound examination, reactive echo signs of diffuse changes in the pancreas resemble acute pancreatitis, since most often they are its secondary consequence.
Fibrous DIPG
Fibrous DI is scarring in the connective tissue gland that spreads throughout the cells of the tissue. The reasons for this process are often:
1) Metabolic disorders.
2) Alcohol poisoning.
3) Viral lesions.
4) Inflammatory processes.
Moreover, lesions caused by viruses affect the entire pancreas and not just one. On ultrasound, diffuse changes in the pancreas are highly echogenic and dense. The presence of diffuse fibrous changes may indicate an existing benign tumor of the glandular tissue - fibroma, the growth of which can compress the gland and cause pain.
Depending on the location, fibroids will be present different symptoms. For example, when it is in the head of the pancreas, the ductal duct is compressed, and a symptom of jaundice occurs. If the tumor presses on duodenum, nausea, vomiting and other symptoms occur that require differentiation from intestinal obstruction. What other echo signs of diffuse changes in the pancreas are there?
Dystrophic DIPG
Healthy glandular cells are replaced by fatty tissues that are unable to perform the enzymatic function of the pancreas, which leads to hypofunction of the gland. For lipodystrophy, which occupies less than half the volume of the entire gland, mixed drug treatment is used in combination with diet. If the lesion covers more than half of the organ and its function is impaired, surgical intervention is indicated. Diffuse changes in the parenchyma of the liver and pancreas can be life-threatening in some cases.
In the structure of this secretory organ, three elements are distinguished: the body, the head and the tail, which is pear-shaped and adjacent to the spleen. Normally, its width is 2-3 cm. An excretory duct approximately 15 cm long passes through the entire gland. Blockage of the hepatic vein can lead to DI of the tail of the pancreas, the symptoms of this are that this part compacted.
About a quarter of all pancreatic diseases are associated with diffuse changes in the tail. In case of minor lesions of the tail, they are treated with conservative methods. In case of deep lesions, removal of the tail followed by closure of the blood vessels is indicated.
How are diffuse changes in the liver and pancreas detected?
Diagnostics
DIPVs are determined by ultrasound. An ultrasound reveals that the density and structure of the tissue changes, and foci of inflammation are identified.
But this is not enough to make a diagnosis. To confirm DI, a biochemical blood test and endoscopy of the gland are performed. It is very important to correctly collect anamnesis from the patient (questioning about the presence of complaints), as well as conduct additional instrumental studies and palpation.
The overall picture is completed general analysis blood, urine, endoscopy of the gastrointestinal tract, coprogram, etc. Pancreatic enzymes and glucose in the blood, as well as an inhibitor against trypsin, play an important role.
Using ultrasound, the size of the gland and its ducts is determined, neoplasms and compactions are identified. To clarify the diagnosis, computed tomography and ERCP are indicated, which make it possible to more accurately identify the causes of changes in the tissues of the enzyme-forming organ. The most obvious manifestations are diffuse changes in the pancreas like lipomatosis.
Prevention
The process of development of DI in the pancreas, liver and other organs can be slowed down. Here are some rules:
1) It is necessary to completely give up alcohol.
2) Follow a diet, take food in small portions, but often.
3) Minimize the consumption of fatty foods.
4) Avoid canned foods.
5) Consume freshly squeezed juices and drink herbal teas.
You should not give up if you have been diagnosed with DIP. You just need to undergo the necessary research and then carefully listen to your body, monitor the health of such important organs as the liver and pancreas. We discussed diffuse changes, what they are and what treatment methods are in the article.
Diffuse changes in the pancreas are a concept not related to diagnosis. This term is a conclusion from an ultrasound diagnostic specialist indicating that the patient has pancreatitis various forms or its consequences. The degree of diffuse degeneration varies depending on the stage of the pathological process.
What are diffuse changes
Diffusion in the context of anatomy is the process of replacing some components of cellular tissue with others. A similar phenomenon is diagnosed in the pancreas, where affected areas coexist next to normal cells. Therefore, such manifestations are detected using ultrasound.
Under the influence of factors such as old age, diabetes, circulatory disorders, diseases cardiovascular system, loss of pancreatic cells occurs with the formation of adipose or connective tissue in their place. Experts do not recognize this condition as a disease. Persistent modifications are observed in cases of impaired blood circulation and functioning of endocrine organs, and failures of metabolic processes.
Changes in the structure of the pancreas are characteristic of pancreatitis and dystrophic disorders occurring in the metabolic system. Such processes can occur over a long period of time without being accompanied by any painful symptoms.
Moderate diffuse changes
In most cases of painful symptoms encountered this state does not require therapeutic intervention. Moderate diffuse changes are transformations evenly distributed on the parenchyma. Medical experts call parenchyma the union of the main functioning cells of a glandular organ, transformations in which affect the level of density.
If the patient has complaints, then there is a need for additional examination of the pancreas, gallbladder, digestive organs, and liver. These organs are interconnected, and a failure that occurs in one of them may be similar in its symptomatic picture to the pathology of the other.
Unexpressed changes
Minor diffuse distortion is not a cause for concern. Identification of such a symptom may indicate recent inflammation, poor diet, frequent stressful situations. One of the causes of pancreatic dysfunction is a malfunction in the nervous system. Regular experience of stress leads to an increase in the level of secretion, and depression depresses this function glands.
Eliminating the cause similar violations, which consists in following the rules of nutrition and maintaining a positive emotional mood, allows you to adjust the changes. If initial stage If an unexpressed pathological process is left without due attention, then there is a high probability of the formation of lesions of a reactive nature, which can lead to dangerous diseases.
Pronounced diffuse changes
Transformations in the pancreas indicate the presence of an inflammatory process or disease in the body. When the modification of the organ is pronounced, the doctor conducts additional studies digestive system. IN difficult cases diffuse transformations are accompanied pain syndrome, a feeling of a tightness in the pancreatic area, disorders of the digestive system.
The most common cause of the formation of pronounced changes is pancreatitis, which manifests itself in several forms:
- The acute stage of the disease causes stagnation of pancreatic fluid in the glandular organ. The patient is in in serious condition, is experiencing severe pain. In this case, doctors recommend taking medications aimed at relaxing the digestive muscles and inhibiting the function of the gland.
- The chronic course of the pathology can be determined by both pronounced and moderately expressed changes. With this type of disease, stages of remission and exacerbation are recorded. Acute phase requires therapeutic intervention.
Symptoms
Signs of diffuse changes in the pancreas depend on the underlying disease. The list of clinical symptoms includes the following conditions:
- heaviness in the stomach;
- diarrhea;
- regular constipation.
Acute pancreatitis and dystrophic changes are characterized by a significant increase in pressure in the gland duct, which leads to deformation of the organ. Enzymes necessary for digestion penetrate the cellular structures of the pancreas, causing intoxication of the body. Such poisoning is accompanied by pain localized under the sternum on the left side. The patient also experiences nausea, vomiting, low blood pressure, and tachycardia. The condition requires surgical therapeutic intervention.
The initial stage of chronic pancreatitis is manifested by the formation of edema and hemorrhages in the pancreas. As the pathology progresses, the size of the gland decreases and connective tissue grows, which replaces the enzyme-forming damaged cells. As a result, the production of digestive substances is disrupted.
With the development of fibrosis, the displacement of healthy pancreatic cells with the formation of connective tissue is diagnosed. Thanks to this replacement, it happens sharp decline production of enzymes and hormones. The onset of the disease is not accompanied by a clear symptomatic picture.
Lipomatosis is characterized by the replacement of normal gland cells with adipose tissue. The patient has a deficiency of hormonal and enzyme substances. The severity of the pathology depends on the volume of diffuse transformations. With minimal changes, the disease does not manifest itself. With the progressive proliferation of lipoid cells, a disruption in the functioning of the gland occurs with painful symptoms.
Reasons
The causes of diffuse changes vary significantly. Elderly people are often diagnosed with gland atrophy, which is expressed by a decrease in its size. In this case, echogenicity (the situation when pancreatic tissue reflects ultrasound waves) is within normal limits. Patients do not experience pain and do not require treatment.
Another cause of diffuse modifications of the gland is pancreatitis, in which enzymes and toxic substances are released. Once in the blood, toxins cause destruction of all organs and systems, including the pancreas. Patients complain of severe pain, fever, vomiting, and rapid pulse. With this disease, the gland has an increased size and an unclear structure. Echo signs are reduced, the diameter of the ducts is changed, and neurotic areas are revealed.
Inflammatory processes occurring long time in the pancreas, cause the development of fibrosis, accompanied by the proliferation of connective tissue, replacing damaged cells. The pathology is detected during ultrasound diagnostics, echoscopically determined by the enhancement and increased density of the organ. If there are no complaints of malaise, the patient does not require treatment.
Lipomatosis, characterized by diffuse distortions, occurs in the elderly and diabetics. The disease is manifested by the proliferation of fat cells, resulting in pinching of the gland tissue. Steatosis, which belongs to the category of diseases caused by an unhealthy lifestyle, can lead to excess formation of lipids.
Complications
Various pathologies accompanied by DIP can lead to serious consequences:
- abscess - penetration of pus into organs and systems, leading to the development of an inflammatory process;
- neoplasms in the form of cysts and tumors;
- internal bleeding;
- pleurisy and pneumonia develop as a result of infection entering the circulatory system;
- duodenal stenosis - excessive pressure from the pancreas on the duodenum leads to a narrowing of its lumen.
You can prevent the formation of complications by carefully following doctor’s prescriptions, proper diet, and lifestyle changes. Detection of diffuse degenerations on early stage allows a person to avoid the formation severe consequences.
Diagnostics
Examination of changes in the gland is carried out using ultrasound diagnostics. This method allows you to determine the level of gland density and changes in homogeneity, and identify the area of inflammation. The presence of diffusion can be confirmed using a comprehensive examination, which consists of the following activities:
- taking anamnesis;
- clarification of patient complaints;
- palpation of the pancreatic area;
- general blood test (carried out to determine the level of pancreatic substances);
- urinalysis (allows you to detect pancreatic enzymes);
- computed tomography.
Determination of echographic signs of diffuse changes takes a leading position when conducting an ultrasound examination. A method based on the ability of human body tissue to reflect ultrasonic waves allows one to obtain an objective picture of the condition internal organs. First of all, the specialist pays attention to deciphering the following echo signs:
- heterogeneity of the organ structure with identification of areas of increased echogenicity;
- change in gland size;
- degree of expansion of the ducts;
- presence of neoplasms.
The pancreas on ultrasound is defined as an organ with a homogeneous structure and unchanged echogenicity. The level of density may vary from normal values towards decreasing or increasing. A decrease in echo characteristics and density is detected with the formation of cysts and the presence of fluid in the organ. Increased echogenicity indicates the development of fibrosis.
Treatment
Diffuse changes in the pancreas do not require treatment, since this condition is not an independent disease. Modifications of the organ indicate natural processes occurring in the body, or diseases suffered in the past. In such cases, the changes do not cause pain or anxiety, so therapy is prescribed when the diagnosis is clarified.
Treatment in both children and adults is aimed at correcting the underlying identified disease. It is impossible to eliminate the formed diffuse degenerations, since there has been a significant replacement of healthy pancreatic cells with fatty or connective tissues.
If the cause of the changes is diabetes mellitus, then the therapeutic effect is aimed at maintaining glucose levels. This treatment involves following a specialized diet and taking glucose-lowering medications. Elderly patients who have gland modifications are recommended to do gymnastics and follow other rules healthy image life.
Diet
The diet during diffuse metamorphosis is determined by the final diagnosis, since the condition is caused by various pathologies, including pancreatitis, moderate hepatomegaly, and diabetes. Regardless of the identified disease, patients are contraindicated in drinking alcohol. Alcohol-containing drinks cause worsening of the condition and exacerbation of painful sensations.
The basis of the diet of people suffering from pathologies of the pancreas is dairy and plant products, various cereals. Smoked and salty foods, spices, and preservatives are excluded from the diet. Portions should not be large to promote increased production of digestive juice.
The list of prohibited foods includes alcoholic drinks, products with a bright salty, smoked, spicy taste, sausages, canned food, seasonings.
Experts recommend the following dishes as the most suitable foods for consumption:
- porridge;
- lean meat, fish;
- fruits;
- dairy products;
- vegetables.
The preferred cooking method is steaming. You should avoid dry food, as well as excessive consumption of salt and sugar, as this can lead to the deposition of unnecessary substances in the body.
Prevention and consequences of the disease
Prevention of diffuse changes occurring in the tissues of the pancreas consists of following certain principles:
- in order to increase the performance of the organ, exposure to fatty foods, alcohol, and nicotine on the body should be excluded;
- drinking teas based on medicinal herbs;
- moderation and fractional nutrition;
- Carrying out regular examinations of the whole body.
Compliance with preventive measures can significantly reduce the likelihood of the formation of diffuse transformations, as well as severe consequences, expressed in severe pain and necessity surgical intervention. Diffuse rearrangements themselves are not a disease and do not require specialized therapy.
