Which vehicle was the first to reach the moon? Space exploration of the moon

Forty years ago - July 20, 1969 - man set foot on the surface of the Moon for the first time. NASA's Apollo 11, with its crew of three astronauts (Commander Neil Armstrong, Lunar Module Pilot Edwin Aldrin, and Command Module Pilot Michael Collins), became the first to reach the Moon. space race USSR and USA.

Every month, the Moon, moving in orbit, passes approximately between the Sun and the Earth and faces the Earth with its dark side, at which time the new moon occurs. One to two days after this, a narrow bright crescent of the “young” Moon appears in the western sky.

The rest of the lunar disk is at this time dimly illuminated by the Earth, which is turned toward the Moon with its daytime hemisphere; this is a faint glow of the Moon - the so-called ashen light of the Moon. After 7 days, the Moon moves away from the Sun by 90 degrees; the first quarter of the lunar cycle begins, when exactly half of the lunar disk is illuminated and the terminator, i.e., the dividing line between the light and dark sides, becomes straight - the diameter of the lunar disk. In the following days, the terminator becomes convex, the appearance of the Moon approaches a bright circle, and after 14-15 days the full moon occurs. Then the western edge of the Moon begins to decline; on the 22nd day the last quarter is observed, when the Moon is again visible in a semicircle, but this time with its convex face facing the east. Angular distance The Moon decreases from the Sun, it again becomes a tapering crescent and after 29.5 days the new Moon comes again.

The points of intersection of the orbit with the ecliptic are called the ascending and descending nodes, have an uneven retrograde motion and make full turn along the ecliptic in 6794 days (about 18.6 years), as a result of which the Moon returns to the same node after a time interval - the so-called draconic month - shorter than the sidereal month and on average equal to 27.21222 days; This month is associated with the periodicity of solar and lunar eclipses.

Visual magnitude (a measure of the illumination created by a celestial body) full moon at an average distance it is equal to - 12.7; it sends the full moon to Earth 465,000 times less light than the Sun.

Depending on what phase the Moon is in, the amount of light decreases much faster than the area of ​​the illuminated part of the Moon, so when the Moon is at quarter and we see half of its disk bright, it is sending to Earth not 50%, but only 8 % of light from the full moon.

The color index of moonlight is +1.2, i.e. it is noticeably redder than sunlight.

The Moon rotates relative to the Sun with a period equal to a synodic month, so a day on the Moon lasts almost 15 days and the night lasts the same amount.

Not being protected by the atmosphere, the surface of the Moon heats up to +110° C during the day and cools down to -120° C at night, however, as radio observations have shown, these huge temperature fluctuations penetrate only a few dm deep due to the extremely weak thermal conductivity of the surface layers. For the same reason, during total lunar eclipses, the heated surface quickly cools, although some places retain heat longer, probably due to high heat capacity (so-called “hot spots”).

Relief of the Moon

Even with the naked eye, irregular darkish extended spots are visible on the Moon, which were mistaken for seas: the name was preserved, although it was established that these formations have nothing in common with earth's seas don't have. Telescopic observations, which began in 1610 year Galileo Galileo (Galileo Galilei), made it possible to discover the mountainous structure of the surface of the Moon.

It turned out that the seas are plains of a darker shade than other areas, sometimes called continental (or mainland), replete with mountains, most of which are ring-shaped (craters).

Based on long-term observations, we compiled detailed maps Moons. The first such maps were published in 1647 by Jan Hevelius (German: Johannes Hevel, Polish: Jan Heweliusz) in Danzig (modern Gdansk, Poland). Retaining the term “seas,” he also assigned names to the main lunar ridges - after similar terrestrial formations: the Apennines, the Caucasus, the Alps.

Giovanni Batista Riccioli from Ferrara (Italy) in 1651 gave fantastic names to the vast dark lowlands: Ocean of Storms, Sea of ​​Crises, Sea of ​​Tranquility, Sea of ​​Rains and so on; he called smaller dark areas adjacent to the seas bays, for example , Rainbow Bay, and small irregular spots are swamps, such as the Swamp of Rot. He named individual mountains, mostly ring-shaped, after prominent scientists: Copernicus, Kepler, Tycho Brahe and others.

These names have been preserved on lunar maps to this day, and many new names have been added outstanding people, scientists of later times. On the maps reverse side of the Moon, compiled from observations made with space probes and artificial satellites of the Moon, the names of Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky, Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin and others appeared. Detailed and accurate maps The moons were compiled from telescopic observations in the 19th century by German astronomers Johann Heinrich Madler, Johann Schmidt and others.

The maps were compiled in an orthographic projection for the middle phase of libration, i.e. approximately as the Moon is visible from the Earth.

At the end of the 19th century, photographic observations of the Moon began. In 1896–1910, a large atlas of the Moon was published by French astronomers Morris Loewy and Pierre Henri Puiseux based on photographs taken at the Paris Observatory; later, a photographic album of the Moon was published by the Lick Observatory in the USA, and in the mid-20th century, the Dutch astronomer Gerard Copier compiled several detailed atlases of photographs of the Moon taken with large telescopes at various astronomical observatories. With the help of modern telescopes, craters measuring about 0.7 kilometers in size and cracks a few hundred meters wide can be seen on the Moon.

Craters on lunar surface have different relative ages: from ancient, barely visible, highly reworked formations to very clear-cut young craters, sometimes surrounded by light “rays”. At the same time, young craters overlap older ones. In some cases, the craters are cut into the surface of the lunar maria, and in others, the rocks of the seas cover the craters. Tectonic ruptures either dissect craters and seas, or are themselves overlapped by younger formations. The absolute age of lunar formations is known so far only at a few points.

Scientists have been able to establish that the age of the youngest large craters is tens and hundreds of millions of years old, and the bulk of large craters arose in the “pre-marine” period, i.e. 3-4 billion years ago.

Both internal forces and external influences. Calculations of the thermal history of the Moon show that soon after its formation, the interior was heated by radioactive heat and was largely melted, which led to intense volcanism on the surface. As a result, giant lava fields and a number of volcanic craters were formed, as well as numerous cracks, ledges and more. At the same time, a huge number of meteorites and asteroids fell on the surface of the Moon in the early stages - the remnants of a protoplanetary cloud, the explosions of which created craters - from microscopic holes to ring structures with a diameter of several tens of meters to hundreds of kilometers. Due to the absence of an atmosphere and hydrosphere, a significant part of these craters has survived to this day.

Nowadays, meteorites fall on the Moon much less frequently; volcanism has also largely stopped as the Moon has used up a lot of thermal energy and radioactive elements were carried to the outer layers of the Moon. Residual volcanism is evidenced by the outflow of carbon-containing gases in lunar craters, spectrograms of which were first obtained by the Soviet astronomer Nikolai Aleksandrovich Kozyrev.

Study of the properties of the Moon and its environment began in 1966 - the Luna-9 station was launched, transmitting panoramic images of the lunar surface to Earth.

The stations “Luna-10” and “Luna-11” (1966) were involved in studies of cislunar space. Luna 10 became the first artificial satellite of the Moon.

At this time, the United States was also developing a lunar exploration program called The Apollo Program. It was the American astronauts who were the first to set foot on the surface of the planet. On July 21, 1969, as part of the Apollo 11 lunar mission, Neil Alden Armstrong and his partner Edwin Eugene Aldrin spent 2.5 hours on the Moon.

The next stage in lunar exploration was the sending of radio-controlled self-propelled vehicles to the planet. In November 1970, Lunokhod-1 was delivered to the Moon, which covered a distance of 10,540 m in 11 lunar days (or 10.5 months) and transmitted large number panoramas, individual photographs of the lunar surface and other scientific information. The French reflector installed on it made it possible to measure the distance to the Moon using a laser beam with an accuracy of a fraction of a meter.

In February 1972, the Luna 20 station delivered samples to Earth lunar soil, first taken in a remote area of ​​the Moon.

In February of the same year, the last manned flight to the Moon took place. The flight was carried out by the crew of the Apollo 17 spacecraft. In total, 12 people have visited the Moon.

In January 1973, Luna 21 delivered Lunokhod 2 to the Lemonier crater (Sea of ​​Clarity) for a comprehensive study of the transition zone between the marine and continental regions. Lunokhod-2 operated for 5 lunar days (4 months) and covered a distance of about 37 kilometers.

In August 1976, the Luna-24 station delivered samples of lunar soil to Earth from a depth of 120 centimeters (the samples were obtained by drilling).

Since that time, there has been virtually no study of the Earth's natural satellite.

Only two decades later, in 1990, Japan sent its artificial satellite Hiten to the Moon, becoming the third “lunar power”. Then there were two more American satellites - Clementine (1994) and Lunar Prospector (1998). At this point, flights to the Moon were suspended.

On September 27, 2003, the European Space Agency launched the SMART-1 probe from Kourou (Guiana, Africa). On September 3, 2006, the probe completed its mission and made a manned fall onto the lunar surface. Over the three years of operation, the device transmitted to Earth a lot of information about the lunar surface, and also carried out high-resolution cartography of the Moon.

Currently, the study of the Moon has received a new start. Development programs earth's satellite operate in Russia, USA, Japan, China, India.

According to the head of the Federal space agency(Roscosmos) Anatoly Perminov, the concept for the development of Russian manned cosmonautics provides for a program for the exploration of the Moon in 2025-2030.

Legal issues of lunar exploration

Legal issues of lunar exploration are regulated by the “Outer Space Treaty” (full name “Treaty on the principles of the activities of states in the exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies”). It was signed on January 27, 1967 in Moscow, Washington and London by the depositary states - the USSR, the USA and the UK. On the same day, other states began joining the treaty.

According to it, the exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is carried out for the benefit and interests of all countries, regardless of the degree of their economic and scientific development, and space and celestial bodies are open to all states without any discrimination on the basis of equality.

The Moon, in accordance with the provisions of the Outer Space Treaty, must be used “exclusively for peaceful purposes,” and any military activities on it are excluded. The list of activities prohibited on the Moon, given in Article IV of the Treaty, includes the placement nuclear weapons or any other types of weapons mass destruction, the creation of military bases, structures and fortifications, testing of any types of weapons and conducting military maneuvers.

Private property on the Moon

The sale of parts of the Earth's natural satellite began in 1980, when American Denis Hope discovered a California law from 1862, according to which no one's property passed into the possession of the one who first laid claim to it.

The Outer Space Treaty, signed in 1967, stated that “outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation,” but there was no clause stating that space object cannot be privately privatized, it was not, which allowed Hope register ownership of the moon and all the planets solar system, excluding Earth.

Hope opened a Lunar Embassy in the United States and organized wholesale and retail trade in the lunar surface. He successfully runs his “lunar” business, selling plots on the Moon to those interested.

To become a citizen of the Moon, you need to purchase a plot of land, receive a notarized certificate of ownership, a lunar map with the designation of the plot, its description and even the “Lunar Bill of constitutional rights" You can obtain lunar citizenship for some money by purchasing a lunar passport.

Title is registered at the Lunar Embassy in Rio Vista, California, USA. The process of processing and receiving documents takes from two to four days.

Mr. Hope is currently creating Lunar Republic and its promotion at the UN. The still failed republic has its own national holiday- Lunar Independence Day, which is celebrated on November 22.

Currently, a standard plot on the Moon has an area of ​​1 acre (just over 40 acres). Since 1980, about 1,300 thousand plots have been sold out of the approximately 5 million that were “cut” on the map of the illuminated side of the Moon.

It is known that among the owners of lunar plots - American presidents Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter, members of six royal families and about 500 millionaires, mostly from Hollywood stars - Tom Hanks, Nicole Kidman, Tom Cruise, John Travolta, Harrison Ford, George Lucas, Mick Jagger, Clint Eastwood, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Dennis Hopper and others.

Lunar missions opened in Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, and Belarus, and more than 10 thousand residents of the CIS became owners of lunar lands. Among them are Oleg Basilashvili, Semyon Altov, Alexander Rosenbaum, Yuri Shevchuk, Oleg Garkusha, Yuri Stoyanov, Ilya Oleynikov, Ilya Lagutenko, as well as cosmonaut Viktor Afanasyev and other famous figures.

The material was prepared based on information from RIA Novosti and open sources

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Soviet automatic stations "Luna"

"Luna-1"- the world's first AMS, launched into the lunar area on January 2, 1959. Having passed near the Moon at a distance of 5-6 thousand km from its surface, on January 4, 1959, the AMS left the sphere of gravity and turned into the first artificial planet Solar system with parameters: perihelion 146.4 million km and aphelion 197.2 million km. The final mass of the last (3rd) stage of the launch vehicle (LV) with the Luna-1 AMS is 1472 kg. The mass of the Luna-1 container with equipment is 361.3 kg. The AWS housed radio equipment, a telemetry system, a set of instruments and other equipment. The instruments are designed to study the intensity and composition of cosmic rays, the gas component of interplanetary matter, meteor particles, corpuscular radiation from the Sun, and the interplanetary magnetic field. At the last stage of the rocket, equipment was installed to form a sodium cloud - an artificial comet. On January 3, a visually observable golden-orange sodium cloud formed at a distance of 113,000 km from Earth. During the Luna-1 flight, the second escape velocity. Strong flows of ionized plasma have been recorded in interplanetary space for the first time. In the world press, the Luna-1 spacecraft received the name "Dream".

"Luna-2" On September 12, 1959 she made the world's first flight to another celestial body. On September 14, 1959, the Luna-2 spacecraft and the last stage of the launch vehicle reached the surface of the Moon ( west of the Sea Clarity, near the craters Aristyllus, Archimedes and Autolycus) and delivered pennants with the image State emblem USSR. The final mass of the AMS with the last stage of the launch vehicle is 1511 kg, with the mass of the container, as well as scientific and measuring equipment, 390.2 kg. An analysis of the scientific information obtained by Luna-2 showed that the Moon practically does not have its own magnetic field and radiation belt.

Luna-2

Luna-3

Luna-4

Luna-9

Luna-10

Luna-11

Luna-12

Luna-13

"Luna-15" launched on July 13, 1969, three days before the launch of Apollo 11. The purpose of this station was to take samples of lunar soil. It entered lunar orbit at the same time as Apollo 11. If successful, our station could take soil samples and launch from the Moon for the first time, returning to Earth before the Americans. In the book by Yu.I. Mukhin “Anti-Apollo: the US lunar scam” it says: “although the probability of a collision was much lower than in the sky above Lake Constance, the Americans asked the USSR Academy of Sciences about the orbital parameters of our AMS, They were informed. For some reason, the AWS hung around in orbit for a long time. Then it made a hard landing on the regolith. The Americans won the competition. How? What do these days of circling Luna-15 around the Moon mean: problems that arose on board or... negotiations of some authorities? Did our AMS collapse on its own or did they help it do it?” Only Luna-16 was able to take soil samples.

Luna-15

Luna-16

When developing and creating the lunar rover, Soviet scientists and designers faced the need to solve the complex complex problems. It was necessary to create a completely new type of machine capable of long time function in unusual conditions of outer space on the surface of another celestial body. Main objectives: creating an optimal propulsion device with high maneuverability with low weight and energy consumption, ensuring reliable operation and traffic safety; systems remote control movement of the lunar rover; ensuring the necessary thermal conditions using a thermal control system that maintains the temperature of the gas in the instrument compartments, structural elements and equipment located inside and outside the sealed compartments (in outer space during periods of lunar days and nights) within specified limits; selection of power sources, materials for structural elements; development lubricants and lubrication systems for vacuum conditions and more.

Scientific equipment HP A. should have ensured the study of topographical and selenium-morphological features of the area; determination of the chemical composition and physical and mechanical properties of the soil; study of the radiation situation on the flight route to the Moon, in the lunar space and on the lunar surface; X-ray cosmic radiation; experiments on laser ranging of the Moon. First L. s. A. - the Soviet "Lunokhod-1" (Fig. 1), intended for carrying out a large complex of scientific research on the surface of the Moon, was delivered to the Moon by the automatic interplanetary station "Luna-17" (see Error! Reference source not found.), worked on it surface from November 17, 1970 to October 4, 1971 and covered 10,540 m. Lunokhod-1 consists of 2 parts: the instrument compartment and the wheeled chassis. The mass of Lunokhod-1 is 756 kg. The sealed instrument compartment has the shape of a truncated cone. Its body is made of magnesium alloys, providing sufficient strength and lightness. The upper part of the compartment body is used as a radiator-cooler in the thermal control system and is closed with a lid. During a moonlit night, the lid covers the radiator and prevents heat from escaping from the compartment. During the lunar day, the lid is open, and the solar battery elements located on its inside recharge the batteries that supply the on-board equipment with electricity.

The instrument compartment houses thermal control systems, power supplies, receiving and transmitting devices of the radio complex, instruments of the remote control system and electronic converting devices of scientific equipment. In the front part there are: television camera windows, an electric drive of a movable highly directional antenna, which serves to transmit television images of the lunar surface to Earth; a low-directional antenna that provides reception of radio commands and transmission of telemetric information, scientific instruments and an optical corner reflector made in France. The following are installed on the left and right sides: 2 panoramic telephoto cameras (in each pair, one of the cameras is structurally combined with a local vertical locator), 4 whip antennas for receiving radio commands from the Earth in a different frequency range. An isotope source of thermal energy is used to heat the gas circulating inside the apparatus. Next to it is a device for determining the physical and mechanical properties of lunar soil.

Sharp temperature changes during the change of day and night on the surface of the Moon, as well as a large temperature difference between the parts of the apparatus located in the Sun and in the shade, necessitated the development of a special thermal control system. At low temperatures During the lunar night, to heat the instrument compartment, the circulation of coolant gas through the cooling circuit is automatically stopped and the gas is directed to the heating circuit.

The Lunokhod's power supply system consists of solar and chemical buffer batteries, as well as automatic control devices. The solar battery drive is controlled from the Earth; in this case, the cover can be installed at any angle ranging from zero to 180°, necessary for maximum use of solar energy.

The onboard radio complex ensures the reception of commands from the Control Center and the transmission of information from the vehicle to Earth. A number of radio complex systems are used not only when working on the surface of the Moon, but also during the flight from Earth. Two television systems L.S. A. serve to solve independent problems. The low-frame television system is designed to transmit to Earth television images of the terrain necessary for the crew controlling the movement of the lunar rover from the Earth. The possibility and feasibility of using such a system, which is characterized by a lower image transmission rate compared to the broadcast television standard, was dictated by specific lunar conditions. The main one is the slow change of the landscape as the lunar rover moves. The second television system is used to obtain a panoramic image of the surrounding area and film areas starry sky, Sun and Earth for the purpose of astro-orientation. The system consists of 4 panoramic telephoto cameras.

The self-propelled chassis provides a solution to a fundamentally new problem in astronautics - the movement of an automatic laboratory on the surface of the Moon. It is designed in such a way that the lunar rover has high maneuverability and operates reliably for a long time with minimal own weight and consumed electricity. The chassis allows the lunar rover to move forward (with 2 speeds) and backward, and to turn in place and while moving. It consists of a chassis, an automation unit, a traffic safety system, a device and a set of sensors for determining the mechanical properties of the soil and assessing the maneuverability of the chassis. Turning is achieved due to different speeds of rotation of the wheels on the right and left sides and changing the direction of their rotation. Braking is carried out by switching the chassis traction motors to electrodynamic braking mode. To hold the lunar rover on slopes and bring it to a complete stop, electromagnetic-controlled disc brakes are activated. The automation unit controls the movement of the lunar rover using radio commands from the Earth, measures and controls the main parameters of the self-propelled chassis and the automatic operation of instruments for studying the mechanical properties of lunar soil. The traffic safety system provides automatic stopping when extreme angles roll and trim and overloads of wheel electric motors.

A device for determining the mechanical properties of lunar soil allows you to quickly obtain information about ground conditions of movement. The distance traveled is determined by the number of revolutions of the driving wheels. To take into account their slipping, a correction is made, determined using a freely rolling ninth wheel, which is lowered to the ground by a special drive and raised to its original position. The vehicle is controlled from the Deep Space Communications Center by a crew consisting of a commander, driver, navigator, operator, and flight engineer.

The driving mode is selected as a result of an assessment of television information and promptly received telemetric data on the amount of roll, trim of the distance traveled, condition and operating modes of the wheel drives. In conditions of space vacuum, radiation, significant temperature changes and difficult terrain along the route, all systems and scientific instruments of the lunar rover functioned normally, ensuring the implementation of both the main and additional programs of scientific research of the Moon and outer space, as well as engineering and design tests.

Luna-17

"Lunokhod-1"

"Luna-19"- sixth Soviet ISL; launched on September 28, 1971. On October 3, the station entered a selenocentric circular orbit with the following parameters: altitude above the lunar surface 140 km, inclination 40° 35", orbital period 2 hours 01 minutes 45 seconds. On November 26 and 28 the station was transferred to a new orbit. Conducted systematic long-term observations of the evolution of its orbit in order to obtain necessary information for clarification gravitational field Moons. The characteristics of the interplanetary magnetic field in the vicinity of the Moon were continuously measured. Photographs of the lunar surface were transmitted to Earth.

"Luna-19"

"Luna-21" delivered Lunokhod 2 to the lunar surface. The launch took place on January 8, 1973. Luna 21 made a soft landing on the Moon on the eastern edge of the Mare Serenity, inside the Lemonnier crater, at a point with coordinates 30° 27" E and 25° 51" N. w. On January 16, I walked down the ramp from the Luna 21 landing stage. "Lunokhod-2".

"Luna-21"

"Lunokhod-2"

"Luna-23" was launched on October 28, 1974 and soft-landed on the Moon on November 6. Probably its launch was timed to coincide with the next anniversary of the Great October Revolution. The mission of the station included taking and studying lunar soil, but the landing took place in an area with unfavorable terrain, which is why the soil-collecting device broke down. On November 6-9, the research was carried out according to a shortened program.

"Luna-24" was launched on August 9, 1976 and landed on the Moon on August 18 in the Sea of ​​Crisis area. The mission of the station was to take “sea” lunar soil (despite the fact that Luna-16 took soil on the border of the sea and the mainland, and Luna-20 - on the mainland area). The take-off module with lunar soil launched from the Moon on August 19, and on August 22 the capsule with the soil reached the Earth.

"Luna-24"

SPACE VEHICLES CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN CIRCULUNAR SPACE AND ON THE SURFACE OF THE MOON

The table shows the name of the device, the country from whose territory the launch was carried out, the launch date and brief information about the scientific research carried out. Particular attention should be paid to landing sites spacecraft in various areas of the lunar surface. These sites, studied in detail directly on the Moon, serve as reference sites for studying the lunar surface using the methods of astronomy, geology, geochemistry and geophysics. It will be useful for the observer, when familiarizing himself with the lunar surface, to identify the landing sites of various spacecraft on it in accordance with the data given in the table. The sites where research was carried out on the Moon are relatively small. Therefore, it is impossible to directly compare the results of observations from Earth using amateur telescopes with low resolution with data obtained directly on the Moon. However, some indirect comparison is quite possible. For example, using a number of spacecraft directly on the Moon or by analyzing samples delivered to Earth, the average chemical composition of rocks in various areas Moons. These data can generally be considered representative of the surface surrounding the landing site. It is possible to compare the differences in the reflectivity of such places, and with sufficient observational skill, their color shades with the types of rocks that make up the surface layers.

Based on samples delivered to Earth, the average absolute age of rocks in different areas was determined visible hemisphere Moons. This information can be compared with morphological features observed landforms, try to detect visible signs of different periods of formation of the studied places.

On January 2, 1959, for the first time in history, a Soviet space rocket reached the second escape velocity required for interplanetary flights and launched the Luna-1 automatic interplanetary station onto the lunar trajectory. This event marked the beginning of the “moon race” between the two superpowers - the USSR and the USA.

"Luna-1"

On January 2, 1959, the USSR launched the Vostok-L launch vehicle, which launched the Luna-1 automatic interplanetary station onto the lunar trajectory. The AWS flew at a distance of 6 thousand km. from the lunar surface and entered a heliocentric orbit. The goal of the flight was for Luna 1 to reach the surface of the Moon. All onboard equipment worked correctly, but an error crept into the flight cyclogram, and the AMP did not reach the surface of the Moon. This did not affect the effectiveness of onboard experiments. During the flight of Luna-1, it was possible to register the Earth’s outer radiation belt and measure parameters for the first time solar wind, establish the absence of a magnetic field on the Moon and conduct an experiment to create an artificial comet. In addition, Luna-1 became a spacecraft that managed to reach the second cosmic speed, overcame gravity and became an artificial satellite of the Sun.

"Pioneer-4"

On March 3, 1959, the American spacecraft Pioneer 4 was launched from the Cape Canaveral Cosmodrome, which was the first to fly around the Moon. A Geiger counter and a photoelectric sensor were installed on board for photographing the lunar surface. The spacecraft flew at a distance of 60 thousand kilometers from the Moon at a speed of 7,230 km/s. For 82 hours, Pioneer 4 transmitted data on the radiation situation to Earth: no radiation was detected in the lunar environs. Pioneer 4 became the first American spacecraft to overcome gravity.

"Luna-2"

On September 12, 1959, an automatic interplanetary station Luna 2, which became the first station in the world to reach the surface of the Moon. AMK did not have its own propulsion system. The scientific equipment on Luna 2 included Geiger counters, scintillation counters, magnetometers and micrometeorite detectors. Luna 2 delivered a pennant depicting the coat of arms of the USSR to the lunar surface. A copy of this pennant N.S. Khrushchev presented it to US President Eisenhower. It is worth noting that the USSR demonstrated the Luna 2 model at various European exhibitions, and the CIA was able to gain unlimited access to the model to study possible characteristics.

"Luna-3"

On October 4, 1959, the Luna-3 spacecraft launched from Baikonur, the purpose of which was to study outer space and the Moon. During this flight, for the first time in history, photographs of the far side of the Moon were obtained. The mass of the Luna-3 apparatus is 278.5 kg. Telemetric, radio engineering and phototelemetric orientation systems were installed on board the spacecraft, which made it possible to navigate relative to the Moon and the Sun, a power supply system with solar panels and a complex of scientific equipment with a photo laboratory.

Luna 3 made 11 revolutions around the Earth, and then entered the Earth's atmosphere and ceased to exist. Despite low quality photographs, the resulting photographs provided the USSR with priority in naming objects on the surface of the Moon. This is how the circuses and craters of Lobachevsky, Kurchatov, Hertz, Mendeleev, Popov, Sklodovskaya-Curie and the lunar sea of ​​Moscow appeared on the map of the Moon.

"Ranger 4"

On April 23, 1962, the American automatic interplanetary station Ranger 4 launched from Cape Canaveral. The spacecraft carried a 42.6 kg capsule containing a magnetic seismometer and a gamma-ray spectrometer. The Americans planned to drop the capsule in the Ocean of Storms area and conduct research for 30 days. But the onboard equipment malfunctioned, and Ranger 4 was unable to process the commands that came from Earth. The flight duration of the Ranger 4 is 63 hours and 57 minutes.

"Luna-4S"

On January 4, 1963, the Molniya launch vehicle launched the Luna-4S spacecraft into orbit, which was supposed to be for the first time in history space flights make a soft landing on the surface of the Moon. But the start towards the Moon is technical reasons did not happen, and on January 5, 1963, Luna-4C entered the dense layers of the atmosphere and ceased to exist.

Ranger-9

On March 21, 1965, the Americans launched Ranger 9, the purpose of which was to obtain detailed photographs of the lunar surface on last minutes before a hard landing. The device was oriented in such a way that the central axis of the cameras completely coincided with the velocity vector. This was supposed to avoid “image blurring”.

17.5 minutes before the fall (the distance to the lunar surface was 2360 km), it was possible to obtain 5814 television images of the lunar surface. The work of Ranger 9 received the highest marks from the world scientific community.

"Luna-9"

On January 31, 1966, the Soviet spacecraft Luna-9 launched from Baikonur, which made the first soft landing on the Moon on February 3. The AMS landed on the Moon in the Ocean of Storms. There were 7 communication sessions with the station, the duration of which was more than 8 hours. During communication sessions, Luna 9 transmitted panoramic images of the lunar surface near the landing site.

"Apollo 11"

On July 16-24, 1969, the American manned spacecraft of the Apollo series took place. This flight is famous primarily for the fact that earthlings landed on the surface for the first time in history. cosmic body. July 20, 1969 at 20:17:39 lunar module The ship on board with crew commander Neil Armstrong and pilot Edwin Aldrin landed on the moon in the southwestern part of the Sea of ​​​​Tranquility. The astronauts made an exit to the lunar surface, which lasted 2 hours 31 minutes 40 seconds. Command module pilot Michael Collins was waiting for them in lunar orbit. The astronauts planted the US flag at the landing site. The Americans placed a set of scientific instruments on the lunar surface and collected 21.6 kg of lunar soil samples, which were delivered to Earth. It is known that after returning, the crew members and lunar samples underwent strict quarantine, which did not reveal any lunar microorganisms.

Apollo 11 led to the achievement of the goal set by US President John Kennedy - to land on the Moon, overtaking the USSR in the lunar race. It is worth noting that the fact that Americans landed on the surface of the Moon raises doubts among modern scientists.

"Lunokhod-1"

During its operation, Lunokhod-1 covered 10,540 meters, moving at a speed of 2 km/h, and surveyed an area of ​​80 thousand square meters. He transmitted 211 lunar panoramas and 25 thousand photos to earth. During 157 sessions with the Earth, Lunokhod-1 received 24,820 radio commands and produced chemical analysis soil at 25 points.

On September 15, 1971, the isotope heat source was exhausted, and the temperature inside the sealed container of the lunar rover began to drop. On September 30, the device did not make contact, and on October 4, scientists stopped trying to contact it.

It is worth noting that the battle for the Moon continues today: space powers are developing the most incredible technologies, planning.

Spacecraft of the Luna series

“Luna” is the name of the Soviet lunar exploration program and a series of spacecraft launched in the USSR to the Moon starting in 1959. The first generation spacecraft (“Luna-1” - “Luna-3”) flew from the Earth to the Moon without first launching an artificial Earth satellite into orbit, making corrections on the Earth-Moon trajectory and braking near the Moon. The devices flew over the Moon (“Luna-1”), reached the Moon (“Luna-2”), flew around it and photographed it (“Luna-3”). Second-generation spacecraft (“Luna-4” - “Luna-14”) were launched using more advanced methods: preliminary insertion into orbit of an artificial Earth satellite, then launch to the Moon, trajectory correction and braking in cislunar space. During the launches, they practiced flying to the Moon and landing on its surface (“Luna-4” - “Luna-8”), soft landing (“Luna-9” and “Luna-13”) and transferring into orbit an artificial lunar satellite (“Luna -10", "Luna-11", "Luna-12", "Luna-14"). More advanced and heavier third-generation spacecraft (“Luna-15” - “Luna-24”) flew to the Moon according to the scheme used by second-generation satellites; Moreover, to increase the accuracy of landing on the Moon, it is possible to make several corrections on the flight path from the Earth to the Moon and in the orbit of an artificial satellite of the Moon. The Luna devices provided the first scientific data on the Moon, the development of a soft landing on the Moon, the creation of artificial lunar satellites, the taking and delivery of soil samples to Earth, and the transportation of lunar self-propelled vehicles to the surface of the Moon. Creation and launch of various automatic lunar probes is a feature of the Soviet lunar exploration program.

Luna 1 is the world's first spacecraft launched to the Moon on January 2, 1959. Having passed near the Moon (5-6 thousand km from its surface) on January 4, 1959, the device left the sphere of gravity and turned into the first artificial satellite of the Sun. The final mass of the last stage of the launch vehicle with the Luna-1 spacecraft is 1472 kg (the mass of the container with the equipment is 361.3 kg). The device housed radio equipment, a telemetry system, a complex of scientific instruments and other equipment designed to study the intensity and composition of cosmic rays, the gas component of interplanetary matter, meteor particles, corpuscular radiation from the Sun, and the magnetic field. On the last stage of the launch vehicle, equipment was installed to create a sodium cloud - an artificial comet. During the flight of Luna-1, the second escape velocity was achieved for the first time and information was obtained about radiation belt Earth and outer space. In the world press, the Luna-1 spacecraft was called “Dream”.

Luna 2 is a spacecraft that was the first in the world to fly from Earth to another celestial body. Launched 12.9.1959. The Luna-2 apparatus and the last stage of the launch vehicle reached the surface of the Moon on September 14, 1959 (the region of the Sea of ​​Serenity, near the craters Aristil, Archimedes and Autolycus) and delivered pennants with the image of the State Emblem of the USSR. The final mass of the spacecraft with the last stage of the launch vehicle is 1511 kg (the mass of the container with scientific and measuring equipment is 390.2 kg). Research carried out with the help of Luna-2 showed that the Moon has practically no magnetic field of its own and no radiation belt.

The Luna-3 spacecraft was launched on October 4, 1959. The final mass of the last stage of the launch vehicle with the spacecraft is 1553 kg (the mass of scientific and measuring equipment with power sources is 435 kg). The mass of the Luna-3 apparatus is 278.5 kg. The device had systems: radio engineering, telemetry, photo-television, orientation (relative to the Sun and Moon), power supply (with solar panels), thermal control and a complex of scientific equipment. Launched into a highly elongated elliptical orbit of an artificial Earth satellite, the spacecraft circled the Moon and passed at a distance of 6200 km from its surface. On October 7, 1959, during a photography session (two devices with long- and short-focus lenses), almost half of the Moon’s surface was photographed (one third in the edge zone, two thirds on the far side, invisible from the Earth). After developing the film on board the spacecraft, the images were transmitted via a photo-television system to Earth. The maximum distance of Luna-3 from the Earth at its apogee was 480 thousand km. Having completed 11 revolutions around the Earth, the device entered the Earth's atmosphere and ceased to exist.

"Luna-4" - "Luna-8" were launched in 1963-1965. for further exploration of the Moon and solving the problem of ensuring a soft landing of the spacecraft on the lunar surface. During these flights, experimental testing of a complex of systems was completed: celestial orientation, motion control and on-board radio equipment, power supply, thermal control, radio engineering complex and others. The mass of spacecraft is 1422-1552 kg.

“Luna 9” is a spacecraft that was the first in the world to perform a soft landing on the Moon; launched 31.1.1966. During the flight to the Moon, which lasted 3.5 days, the flight trajectory was corrected. At an altitude of 75 km from the surface of the Moon (48 seconds before landing), the propulsion system was turned on, which ensured that the speed was reduced from 2600 m/s to several m/s. The Luna-9 lander landed on 3/2/1966 in the Ocean of Storms, west of the Reiner and Mari craters, at a point with coordinates 64°22′ W. longitude and 7° 08′ north. w. 7 radio communication sessions were carried out with the spacecraft total duration over 8 hours for transmitting scientific information. Television images of the lunar surface were transmitted over four sessions under different lighting conditions. The duration of the active existence of the device on the surface of the Moon was 46 hours 58 minutes 30 seconds. Panoramas of the lunar surface obtained at different heights of the Sun above the horizon (7, 14, 27 and 41°) made it possible to study the microrelief of the lunar soil and determine the size and shape of depressions and rocks. The Luna-9 spacecraft consisted of a descent module (mass 100 kg) designed to operate on the lunar surface, compartments with equipment for control systems, astro-orientation, radio systems and a propulsion system for correction and braking before landing. The total mass of Luna-9 after separation from the booster stage of the launch vehicle is 1583 kg. The descent vehicle included a sealed instrument compartment in which TV equipment, radio communication equipment, a software-time device, scientific equipment, power supply and thermal control systems were located. The instrument compartment is equipped with shock absorbers (inflatable cylinders), antennas and more. Images of the lunar surface transmitted by Luna 9 and the successful landing of the spacecraft on the Moon had great value for further flights to the Moon, including human flights.

Luna 10 is the first artificial satellite of the Moon; launched 31.3.1966. The mass of the spacecraft after separation from the rocket is 1582 kg, mass lunar satellite, launched on April 3, 1966 into orbit of the artificial satellite of the Moon, 240 kg. It had scientific equipment: a gamma spectrometer for studying the intensity and spectral composition gamma radiation of the lunar surface, a device for studying the radiation situation near the Moon, equipment for studying solar plasma, recording devices infrared radiation lunar surface, meteor particle recorder. The Luna-10 ISL was active for 56 days, completing 460 revolutions around the Moon. 219 radio communication sessions were conducted, information was obtained on the gravitational and magnetic fields of the Moon, the Earth’s magnetic plume, and indirect data on the chemical composition and radioactivity of the surface rocks of the Moon.

"Luna-11" - the second ISL; launched 24.8.1966. The mass of the spacecraft is 1640 kg. On August 27, 1966, the device entered lunar orbit. During 38 days of active existence, 137 communication sessions were carried out and 277 orbits around the Moon were made. Scientific equipment made it possible to continue the research begun by the Luna-10 spacecraft.

"Luna-12" - the third Soviet ISL; launched 10/22/1966. The mass of the spacecraft is 1620 kg. On October 25, 1966, the Luna-12 apparatus entered the orbit of an artificial satellite of the Moon. It existed actively for 85 days and completed 602 orbits. In addition to scientific equipment, there was a photo-television system on board, with the help of which large-scale images of areas of the lunar surface were obtained.

Luna 13 is the second spacecraft to make a soft landing on the Moon; launched 12/21/1966. Weight 1620 kg. On December 24, 1966, the descent vehicle (mass 112 kg) made a soft landing in the Ocean of Storms region at a point with coordinates 62°03′ W. longitude and 18°52′ north. w. The descent vehicle was equipped with: a mechanical soil meter-penetrometer to determine the strength of the outer layer of soil; radiation density meter; a dynamograph to record the duration and value of the overload that occurs during the landing of the station; measuring instruments heat flow from the lunar surface; counters for recording corpuscular radiation. Five panoramas of the lunar surface were transmitted to Earth, taken at different heights of the Sun above the horizon - from 6 to 38°.

"Luna-14" - the fourth Soviet ISL; launched 7.4.1968. Systematic long-term observations of changes in orbital parameters made it possible to clarify the ratio of the masses of the Earth and the Moon and data on the gravitational field of the Moon and its shape. Cosmic rays and flows of charged particles coming from the Sun, the conditions of passage and stability of radio signals transmitted from the Earth to the spacecraft and back when the device is in different points orbits and when entering the lunar disk, adjustment of ground-based radio communications was carried out.

"Luna-15" - the fifth Soviet ISL; launched 7/13/1969. The first third generation spacecraft. Weight 5700 kg. After entering the selenocentric orbit, 2 orbit corrections were carried out. Scientific research was carried out in cislunar space, new navigation systems were tested; information was received on the operation of the new station systems. At the end of the program, on the 52nd orbit on July 21, the propulsion system was turned on, the spacecraft left orbit and reached the lunar surface.

“Luna-16” is a spacecraft that made an Earth-Moon-Earth flight and delivered samples of lunar soil to Earth; launched 12.9.1970. On September 17, the device entered a circular selenocentric orbit. Weight 5727 kg, when landing on the Moon 1880 kg. The spacecraft consisted of two main parts - a unified landing stage (common to all third-generation spacecraft, except Luna-19 and Luna-22) and an instrument torus compartment with a take-off stage (return rocket) Luna-Earth. The landing stage consisted of a KTDU-417 with a block of main tanks, two jettisonable compartments, instrument compartments and a landing gear. After the formation of a pre-landing orbit with a low population, on September 21, 1970, a soft landing was made in the Sea of ​​Plenty area at a point with coordinates 56° 18′ E. Longitude and 0° 41′ S w. The soil intake device (the drill bit had an outer diameter of 26 mm, an internal diameter of 20 mm, a length of 370 mm, and a stroke of 320 mm) ensured drilling and collection of soil into the return vehicle. The take-off stage was launched by command from the Earth on September 21, 1970 (by turning on the KRD-61). On September 24, the return vehicle was separated from the rocket’s instrument compartment and made a soft landing on Earth 80 km southeast of Dzhezkazgan. The mass of soil delivered to Earth is 105 g.

“Luna-17” is the spacecraft that delivered the first automatic self-propelled vehicle “Lunokhod-1” to the Moon; launched 11/10/1970. On November 17, he made a soft landing on the Moon in the Mare des Mares area at coordinates 35° W. longitude and 38° 17′ north. w.

The Luna-18 spacecraft was launched on September 2, 1971. On September 7, it was transferred to a circular lunar orbit, where maneuvering was carried out to test new methods of navigation and landing on the Moon. After 54 orbits on September 11, the braking propulsion system was turned on, the device left orbit and reached the Moon. The landing area is a mountainous region near the Sea of ​​Plenty, which is of great scientific interest. Landing in difficult mountainous conditions turned out to be unfavorable.

"Luna-19" - the sixth Soviet ISL; launched 28.9.1971. On October 3, the spacecraft was transferred to a lunar circular orbit. On November 26 and 28, orbit corrections were carried out. The duration of observation of Luna 19 made it possible to clarify the gravitational field of the Moon. The device measured the magnetic field of the Moon and transmitted photographs of the lunar surface.

The Luna-20 spacecraft was launched on February 14, 1972. On February 18, it was transferred to lunar orbit. On February 21, a soft landing was carried out on the lunar surface in the mountainous continental region between the Sea of ​​Plenty and the Sea of ​​Crisis at a point with coordinates 56° 33′ E. D. and 3° 32′ N. w. The Luna-20 spacecraft is similar in design to Luna-16. The soil sampling device (the parameters of the drilling rig are the same as those of the Luna-16 apparatus) drilled and collected soil, which was placed in the container of the return vehicle. On February 23, the takeoff stage launched from the Moon, and on February 25, the return vehicle made a soft landing on Earth in the target area. The mass of soil delivered to Earth is 55 g.

Luna-21 is the spacecraft that delivered Lunokhod-2 to the lunar surface; launched 8.1.1973. On January 16, a soft landing on the Moon was made on the eastern edge of the Mare Serenity, inside the Lemonnier crater at a point with coordinates 30° 27′ E, longitude and 25° 51′ N. w.

"Luna-22" - the seventh Soviet ISL; launched 5/29/1974. On June 2, the device entered a selenocentric orbit. The mass of the spacecraft is 5700 kg. On June 9 and 13, orbit corrections were carried out. The gravitational field of the Moon was measured, altimetry of individual sections of the lunar surface was carried out in areas of possible landing of the spacecraft; Images of the lunar surface were received and transmitted to Earth, and scientific research was carried out.

The Luna-23 spacecraft was launched on October 28, 1974. On October 31, the flight path was corrected. On November 2, 1974, the Luna-23 apparatus reached the vicinity of the Moon and was transferred to a selenocentric orbit. To ensure the landing of the spacecraft in the estimated area of ​​the Moon, on November 4 and 5, corrections were made to reduce the peripopulation to 17 km. On November 6, 1974, it landed in the southern part of the Sea of ​​Crisis. The landing of the device took place on an area of ​​the lunar surface with unfavorable terrain, as a result of which the device intended for taking samples of lunar soil was damaged.

"Luna-24" is the third spacecraft to complete the Earth-Moon-Earth flight; launched 9.8.1976. On August 11, the flight path was corrected. On August 14, 1976, the spacecraft reached the vicinity of the Moon and was transferred to a circular selenocentric orbit with an altitude above the lunar surface of 115 km and an inclination to the lunar equator of 120°. On August 16 and 17, corrections were made to form a pre-landing orbit with a low perimeter of 12 km and an apopulation of 120 km; on August 18, 1976, a landing was carried out in the southeastern region of the Sea of ​​Crisis with coordinates 12° 45′ N. w. and 62° 12′ E. e. The soil sampling device (the drilling tool had an outer diameter of 15 mm, an inner diameter of 8 mm, a length of 3157 mm, a stroke of 2575 mm), upon command from the Earth, drilled the lunar soil to a depth of ~2 m. The samples taken were placed in the container of the take-off stage return vehicle , which launched towards Earth on August 19. On August 22, 1976, the return vehicle with lunar soil samples reached the Earth and made a soft landing in the estimated area. The mass of soil delivered to Earth is 170.1 g.

Launches of the Luna series spacecraft were carried out by the Vostok launch vehicle (Luna-1 - Luna-3), the Molniya launch vehicle (Luna-4 - Luna-14), the - a Proton carrier with an additional 4th stage (“Luna-15″ - Luna-24”).