> How to observe the Sun

Observing the Sun into the telescope: description of the design of the telescope, telescope or binoculars, what filters are available, solar activity and cycles, safety, photo of the Sun.

Sun- not just one of the many stars of the Milky Way, but the main and the only star solar system and the reason why life continues to exist on planet Earth. We depend on the Sun and it is the most familiar object to observe in the sky. Most often we pay attention to it during a solar eclipse, when in certain cases the corona (ring around the Sun) is visible. In this article we will explain not only how to observe the Sun and which telescope to buy or choose (lenses, model, design), but also introduce safety rules and what can be observed on the Sun (what are the cycles, periods of activity, spots). A pleasant bonus will be beautiful photos Suns provided by amateur astronomers.

The main purpose of a telescope is to collect the maximum amount of light from an available source. Each space object is located such a distance from us long distance, that the beam of light emanating from it is considered parallel. The human eye can see stars with luminosity greater than 6m, since this is how it receives enough light. The reason for this is this: the human pupil has a diameter of 5 mm, but it does not transmit the required amount of light. Therefore, his faithful assistant is a telescope with a large lens capable of collecting large number Sveta.

What is the design of the telescope?

To choose and buy the right telescope for observing the Sun, you need to understand the models and the design itself. A telescope consists of 2 main elements: an eyepiece and a lens. The lens is designed to accumulate light rays into one point, called the focus. The distance from the focus to the lens is called the focal length. In turn, focal length acts as one of the main characteristics optical device. What can we learn using focal length? You need to understand that the possibilities human body not unlimited. Looking at an object, a person tries to bring it closer to his eyes. However, at a distance of less than 20 cm, a person sees only the blurry outlines of an object, so he is armed with a magnifying glass or magnifying glass. Thus, a person can only see an object 0.1 mm in size from a distance of less than 25 cm. Hence, the angle is equal to 1.5 minutes. However, the Moon is located at such a distance and at such an angle from the Earth that an observer on Earth can only see objects larger than 150 km on its surface. Using a telescope lens helps a person look at the Moon right next to the eye.

At the same time, this image looks like a small dot, which is extremely difficult to see. How to deal with this problem? A magnifying glass, the role of which in a telescope is performed by an eyepiece, will come to the rescue. Thus, the telescope collects maximum quantity light from the observed object and increases the angle of its visualization.

Are there methods for calculating the size of an image constructed using a lens? Of course yes. If you place a screen behind the lens, you can see an image of the object being studied on it. The size of this image is equal to the product of the angular size of the object and the focal length of the lens. Taking into account that the angular diameter daylight is 32’, we get the following conclusion: the focal length in meters is equal to the diameter of the image of the daylight in centimeters. You should also find out the resolution of the telescope, which also depends on the focal length and lens diameter.

It is important to understand that the Sun is very bright object, during observation of which there is no need to collect light. On the contrary, for qualitative research The telescope must dim the brightness of the Sun. But you cannot reduce the size of the lens, since this will reduce the resolution of the telescope. This is the main feature of the telescope for studying the Sun.

Decide this problem possible in several ways. Firstly, you can construct a projection of the image of the Sun on the screen. In this case, the researcher studies not the image in the eyepiece, but the picture on a special screen. Thus, looking at the Sun through the eyepiece, we will receive a beam from the entire volume of collected light. Its diameter is equal to the diameter of the pupil or the diameter of the eyepiece. This can be explained using an example: we have two weights weighing 1 kg each. However, the area of ​​one is 1 meter, and the other is 10 cm. Let's place both weights on a stretched film. Obviously, a smaller area load will have a greater impact on the film.

What are the requirements for the screen? The screen must move freely along the optical axis and be fixed on the slide using locking screws. In addition, situations where the screen hangs down, when its central part, under its own weight, falls below the optical axis, should be excluded. The screen should also be protected from direct sunlight. To do this, it will be equipped with 10-centimeter sides.

For a refractor or telescope of another system, in which the eyepiece assembly is located in the rear part, a protective screen should be put on the tube several times larger than the main screen. For a Newtonian refractor or a telescope of another system, in which the eyepiece is located on its side, only screen sides will be sufficient for protection. But it is important to understand that at some distance from the eyepiece, in the place where the screen is located, the size of the light beam at the same intensity will be slightly larger. This means that the brightness of the image will decrease slightly, which will protect the viewer from injury to the retina.

The second method involves introducing a special solar filter into the optical design. These filters come in two types. The former are fixed directly in front of the lens and have a higher transmittance. The second ones are installed behind the eyepiece and practically do not let through sunlight. Filters of the first type are more comfortable and safer to use, since an eyepiece filter can quickly become unusable if used with an unsuitable telescope.

However, there is always a risk that the eyepiece filter may fall. In this case, the researcher may receive severe eye injury. Today, the popularity of filters made from special Astrosolar film is growing. They are made as follows: a hole is made in a special cover, the diameter of which is equal to the diameter of the lens. The lid hole is covered with film. The cap is then placed on the lens and the viewer is presented with a beautiful filter.

In addition, there is a whole range of methods for reducing image brightness. For example, the mirror in a reflecting telescope can be left without a reflective layer. In this case, a significant portion of the light will penetrate beyond the reflective surface of the mirror, bending around the focal point. This will reduce the brightness of the image. Another method is to build long-focus telescopes that effectively reduce the brightness. But in any case, the use of filters is necessary.

The next method involves the use of a coelostat installation. Its design has several features. The main optical design of the telescope is in horizontal position and securely fixed. Using the whole system optical mirrors the sun's rays are directed onto the main mirror.

It is important to understand that the declination of the Sun is not constant, but changes throughout the year. Therefore, the sun's rays fall on the surface of a coelestate mirror at different angles. Accurate hit of the beam on the main mirror is ensured by a mobile mirror that can move along the axis of the lens. This is related to the design features of the installation. It consists of two main components: a fixed and a movable mirror. If the latter is located south of the fixed one (coelostat), then a situation arises when the shadow from a mount or a moving mirror falls on the coelostat. This problem can be solved by providing the ability to move the coelostat along the west-east line. But the coelostat must be fixed in a position where its axis of rotation is directed toward the Celestial Pole.

Solar activity. Cycles

Solar activity- this is the totality of non-stationary phenomena on the daylight. These include torches, spots, flares, prominences, and flocculi. All these phenomena are interrelated with each other and, as a rule, appear simultaneously in a clearly defined region of the Sun. It is important to remember that solar activity and the cycles of the Sun affect the Earth and all living things ( magnetic storms, coronal mass ejections, etc.), so it is important not to forget to periodically review the forecasts available online on the site pages.

For description solar activity The concept of “creation of sunspots” and several of its indices are usually used. The most famous are the INTER SOL coefficient and the Wolf index. The Wolf index is calculated using the formula:

W=R*(10g+f), where f – total number of spots, g – total number groups on the disk, R is the correlation coefficient, which is calculated taking into account technical characteristics telescope and observing conditions. It is recommended to use R=1 by default.

The INTER SOL coefficient is calculated using the formula:

IS=g+grfp+grfn+efp+ef, where ef is the number of single spots without penumbra, efp is the number of single spots with penumbra, grfn is the number of grouped spots without penumbra, grfp is the number of grouped spots with penumbra.

Remember that each single spot should be considered a separate group.

As international system are the Wolf numbers, which are regularly published by the Zurich Observatory. These indices cannot be called very accurate, and their subjectivity for each observer is very high, but they have a number of undeniable advantages. Their values ​​are calculated over a very long period of time (258 years since 1749). Because of this, the Wolf index has been successfully used to determine correlations between solar activity and various geophysical and biological phenomena.

The main feature of solar activity is its cyclicity. The duration of the cycles varies. Just recently, another 23rd high of the 11-year cycle occurred.

During the maximum of the cycle, regions of solar activity are located over the entire surface of the solar disk. Their number is maximum, development reaches its peak. During the minimum, they shift toward the equator, and the number of such regions decreases sharply. You can recognize active regions by faculae, sunspots, filaments, prominences, and flocculi.

The most famous is the eleven-year cycle, which was discovered by Heinrich Schwabe and proven by Robert Wolf. That is why the cyclic change in solar activity over 11.1 years is called the Schwabe-Wolf law. The main feature of the eleven-year cycle is the reversal of polarity throughout each cycle. This also changes the magnetic fields of the Sun. Today, a hypothesis has been developed according to which the magnetic field affects the cyclical activity of the Sun. It is also assumed that there are 22-, 44-, 55- and 88-year cycles of changes in solar activity.

Scientists have found that the duration of cyclic highs varies over a period of 80 years. These periods can be seen on the solar activity graph. However, studies of rings on tree trunks, stalactites, ribbon clay, mollusk shells and fossil deposits have led to the assumption of longer cycles. Scientists believe that their duration is 110, 210, 420 years. In addition, there are probably secular and supersecular cycles that last 2400, 3500, 100,000, 300,000,000 years. Note that cyclicity is a characteristic feature of each phenomenon of solar activity.

Recently, the scientific community has often debated the influence of cycles on other cosmic bodies(stars, giant planets). For example, the influence of total gravity at the time of their parades is discussed.

It is likely that long super-secular cycles are in some way related to the position of the Sun in the Milky Way galaxy. Or more precisely, with the peculiarities of its rotation around the galactic core. Every amateur astronomer who regularly makes observations of the daylight can conduct comparative analysis graph of solar activity with graphs of the intensity of various atmospheric and biosphere phenomena.

However, it remains topical issue: why do you need to monitor activity so closely? main star solar system? The answer is quite simple: the Sun has the most serious influence to our planet and its abodes. As the intensity of solar winds (the flow of corpuscles - particles charged with solar energy) increases, it causes auroras and powerful magnetic storms. They, in turn, have an impact on human physical and mental health (an increase in suicides is observed during magnetic storms), on technical equipment and electronics, on crop yields, fertility and mortality of livestock.

How to Observe the Sun

Many people know the main rules of how to observe the Sun during a solar eclipse, as this is important for vision. But in scientific circles, during research with a telescope, there are other requirements that will be useful to familiarize yourself with in order not only to obtain a high-quality photo of the Sun in high resolution, but also to see the corona, spots and other signs of solar activity.

Clear rules for conducting solar observations have been developed. In addition, in the scientific community there are requirements for their design, calculation and other processes of astronomical science. First of all, let's talk about what mistakes no astronomer should make. Firstly, you cannot sketch what you see from visual observation, when an astronomer examines the surface of the Sun and immediately makes the corresponding drawings. It is better to use the screen projection method. At the first stage, you need to calculate the diameter of the solar disk; the diameter of the sketch depends on it. The brightness of the image and the resolution of your telescope should be taken into account. Next, the study is carried out in two stages. The first is to sketch the solar disk with all the formations on its surface, as well as detailed description atmosphere. At the second stage, desk processing of the results is carried out, including classification of groups of torches and spots, determination of the area and exact location of formations, and filling out the appropriate form.

Next, you should point the optical tube at the Sun. To make this process more comfortable, you should use the shadow that the telescope casts on the screen. The sun will fall into the field of view of the optical instrument if the shadow from the telescope is absolutely straight and not distorted or elongated. Thus, on the screen where a sheet with a drawn circle of the required diameter is fixed, you can see an image of the daylight. We also note that you do not need to fix the observation form to the screen. It is much wiser to make sketches on a separate sheet, and then attach the resulting drawing to the form. A similar method is used when studying groups of spots. At the next stage, you need to adjust the screen so that the circle completely coincides with the image of the Sun.

When sketching, you shouldn’t mark every small detail. In most cases, such meticulousness disrupts the scale. It is better to do the following: after sketching the main details on the image of the solar disk, you need to assign each group of details its own number, and on the back of the sheet sketch all the groups in detail. The main sketch should have a daily parallel and orientation to the cardinal points (W, E, S, N). On the daily parallel, the trajectory of the screen displacement should be noted, which is done when the clock drive is turned off.

In the telescope lens, we will first of all see groups of spots. Taking a closer look, we will notice a decrease in brightness along the edges of the disk, where the bright torches are located. We must draw the image we see as accurately as possible on a piece of paper. To do this, we will place a sheet of paper directly on the screen where the image of the solar disk is projected, and accurately outline all its features. There are only a few steps left, one of which is to draw a daily parallel, for which we must mark the location of any spot near the solar equator at several points along the trajectory of the solar disk. In this case, the sketch is carried out with the clock mechanism or guiding turned on, while the daily parallel is carried out with a stationary telescope. After this, we make markings according to the cardinal directions. It is important to understand that west is the direction the sun's disk goes when guiding stops. And north is in the direction north pole Earth.

Upon completion of sketching the solar disk, we must make a detailed sketch of all groups of sunspots. During this work, it is no longer necessary to use a screen. It is quite possible to get by with a solar filter, since a small image error is acceptable here. The most important thing is to pay attention to all the features of each group of spots. For this purpose, it is recommended to increase the magnification of the telescope.

To describe the atmosphere, astronomers create sick systems of criteria. You can use two classification systems that stipulate calm and cloudy atmosphere. In addition, you need to understand some subtleties, for which a “Notes” column is provided.

Now we’ll tell you in detail how to correctly formulate your observations. There is a special form for this, consisting of two sides. On the front side there are columns for describing observation data, the conditions for their implementation and characteristics of the solar disk. Here the surface of the disk is sketched.

In addition, each astronomer classifies spots according to the most convenient system for him: Zurich, Tsesevich, etc. Next comes the data processing stage, which begins with the classification of formations on the solar disk. We describe all the features of each group in accordance with the chosen system. We also describe all the characteristics and brightness of the flare field. It is extremely important to accurately measure the heliographic coordinates of each spot. For this purpose, special heliographic coordinate grids are used. Since the solar axis of rotation is not perpendicular to the plane earth's orbit, and the Earth, as is known, revolves around the Sun, the terrestrial observer sees the poles of the daylight at various points of the disk. In some cases, two poles are visualized at once, sometimes only one remains visible.

At the same time, the equator of the Sun can be located north or south of the central part of the solar disk. To measure the distance between central part units of measurement such as heliographic degrees are used between the solar disk and the equator. And the distance itself is called the heliographic latitude of the center of the disk B0. The value of this parameter affects the choice of a specific heliographic grid. There are several types of heliographic grids: 0.00; +- 1.00; +-2.00; +- 3.00; .... +-7.00.

In addition, every solar researcher must know the angle between the daily parallel (P) and the direction of the equator. This angle can have a positive value ( eastern part daily parallel is north of the equator) or negative value(if the eastern part of the daily parallel is south of the equator). Another extremely important quantity is the heliographic longitude of the central meridian (L0).

All these quantities (B, L0, P0, d) can be found in astronomical calendar. Let us give an example of calculating the coordinates of formations on the solar disk. To make calculations more comfortable, you can print the mesh on a transparent material. In this case, the scale should be such that the diameter of the grid coincides with the diameter of the sketch. To do this, we will select the desired grid taking into account the value of B0, rounded to whole numbers. For example, B0, = -3.21, then the grid we need is B = -3˚. To correctly apply the grid, you must determine the position of the solar equator. This is done based on the position of the daily parallel and the angle between the equator and this parallel. We further assume that P = -26.03, then the equator from the east will be located 26.03 north of the daily parallel. Let's build the angle P (the vertex is the center of the solar disk), we have the position of the solar equator.

Having placed the heliographic grid, you need to interpolate the L0 value for the moment of observation. In the calendar it corresponds to 0h universal time. You must convert this value from Universal Time to Local Time. For example, on April 2 L0 = 134.54, and on April 3 L0 = 122.21. The difference of 12.33 is indicated by the marking dL. Let's calculate the longitude of the central meridian during observation. If the observer is in Moscow at 12:43 (08:43 universal time), this parameter is 0.36 days (8 hours 43 minutes is 8.75 hours, which means 8.75 / 24 = 3.64). We use i to denote the parameter. Next we proceed according to the formula:

L0 - dL*i= 134.54-12.33*0.36=130.10

longitudes increase from east to west, so for formations in the eastern part of the disk you need to subtract them angular distance to the central meridian from the value of Lн. Next, we calculate the area of ​​groups of spots, faculae and spots large size. The subtlety here is that the formations at the edges of the solar disk are visually elongated along the diameter. Their true size can be determined using the formula:

Dist = dobserved * R/r

r is the distance of the object from the center of the solar disk in the same units as the radius,

R is the radius of the image of the solar disk.

If the direction is perpendicular perpendicular to the radius direction, the formula is used:

Sist = Sob * R/r

Sobserved is usually measured in square arcseconds.

It remains to say only a few words about photographic observation of the daylight. Working with a camera has several advantages, the main one being the shorter time spent observing. However, there are also some disadvantages. For example, the Earth’s atmosphere is unstable, so spots with a weak glow are not always visualized. This necessitates a whole series of photographs.

Also in moment of light Due to cloudiness, some areas of the disk may be obscured, so observations are postponed until more suitable weather.

However, it is very convenient to carry out photographic observations of the Sun. From a series of images, you can choose the most successful one, which reflects all the spots as accurately as possible. The photograph is then inserted into the observation form. Photographing the Sun is carried out at a significant magnification, then the daily parallel is determined.

Sun Safety

Now let's pay attention safety precautions when observing the Sun. Let us recall that observing the Sun is the most dangerous type of astronomical research. Even the naked eye can be damaged by direct sunlight, and a telescope increases the intensity of the light beam tens of times. Therefore, when conducting observations of the solar disk, it is necessary to use special light filters or a solar screen onto which the image of the Sun will be projected. Filters are also needed when photographing the Sun. Remember that a beam of light directed at the skin will definitely cause severe burns. And if you allow the light beam to hit any flammable object, it will cause it to ignite.

Goals: - develop the idea that when the sun is shining, it’s warm outside;

Maintain a joyful mood.

Progress of observation: On a sunny day, invite the children to look out the window. The sun looks out the window, looks into our room. We will clap our hands, We are very happy about the sun. When going out to the site, draw the children’s attention to the warm weather. (Today the sun is shining - it’s warm.) The sun is huge, hot. Heats the entire earth, sending it rays. Take a small mirror outside and say that the sun sent its ray to the children so that they could play with it. Point the beam at the wall. Sunny bunnies are playing on the wall, lure them with your finger - let them run to you. Here it is, a bright circle, here, there, to the left, to the left - it ran up to the ceiling. At the command “Catch the bunny!” the children are trying to catch him.

Labor activity: Collecting stones on the site.

Target: - continue to cultivate the desire to participate in work.

Outdoor games : "Mice in the pantry."

Target: - learn to run easily, without bumping into each other, move in accordance with the text, quickly change the direction of movement.

There is also a game "Fox."

Goals:- learn to act quickly on a signal, navigate in space;

Develop dexterity.

Remote material: Sandbags, balls, hoops, small toys, molds, signets, pencils, buckets, scoops.

Abstract analysis.

Positive aspects.

1. Analysis of goals: The program content is quite easily implemented during its implementation.

2. Analysis of the structure and organization of the event: The choice of the type of lesson was well thought out, its structure, logical sequence and interconnection of stages, the plot was very well chosen.

3. Content analysis: Completeness, reliability, accessibility of information.

4. Organization of independent work for children: All children were actively involved in the lesson.

5. Analysis of the event methodology: Intensive didactic visual material, in this lesson the children were very active, everyone was interested.

6. Analysis of the work and behavior of children at the event: The children showed great interest, activity and performance at different stages.

Negative aspects. There were no negative aspects during this event.

Thus: the event reflects all the assigned tasks, they correspond to the age of the children, the relationship between the degree of complexity of the program tasks and the content of the material; the connection between the program objectives of this event and the material covered, the specificity of the wording of the program material. The selection of didactic material corresponds to the topic. The teacher competently, clearly gives instructions and explanations, and is able to organize the practical, independent activities of children; knows how to activate the mental activity of children; activate children's speech (specificity, accuracy of questions, variety of their wording); lead children to generalizations.

Introduction

The sun plays an exceptional role in the life of the Earth. The sun is not only a source of light and heat, but also the original source of many other types of energy (oil, coal, water, wind).

Only one five hundred millionth of the Sun's energy reaches our planet. But even these “crumbs” from the solar “table” are enough to nourish and support all life on Earth. But that's not all. If these “crumbs” are used effectively, then the energy needs of modern society can be more than met.

Most books on astronomy say that the Sun is an ordinary star, "a typical representative of the population of the cosmos." But is the Sun really ordinary in all respects? celestial body? According to astronomer Guillermo Gonzalez, our Sun is unique.

What are some of the features of our Sun that make it capable of supporting life?

A little bit of history

The sun is the most familiar celestial body to everyone. The Sun has always attracted the attention of people, but even today scientists have to admit that the Sun is fraught with many mysteries.

Modern view The Sun was preceded by the difficult centuries-long path of man from ignorance to knowledge, from phenomenon to essence, from the deification of the Sun to practical use his energy. There was a time when people knew nothing about the size of the Sun and its temperature, the state of the substance of the Sun, etc. Not knowing about the distance to the Sun, the ancients took apparent sizes for actual ones. Heraclitus, for example, believed that “the Sun is as wide as a man’s foot.” Anaxagoras very hesitantly admitted that the Sun could be larger than it seems, and compared it with the Peloponnesian Peninsula. The picture of the physical nature of the Sun remained completely unclear. The Pythagoreans, for example, classified it as a planet and endowed it with a crystal sphere. One of Pythagoras’ students, Philolaus (5th century BC), who admitted the idea of ​​the movement of the Earth, believed that the Sun has nothing to do with the “central fire”, around which it, in his opinion, itself rotates along with The Earth, the Moon and five planets (and a fictional celestial body - the “counter-Earth”) and which remains invisible to the inhabitants of the Earth. It should be noted that such fictitious ideas about the movement of the Earth cannot be confused with the first scientific guesses about the movement of the Earth, apparently belonging to Aristarchus of Samos (III century BC), who first gave a method for determining comparative distances to the Sun and Moon. Despite the unsatisfactory results obtained (it was found that the Sun is 19-20 times farther from the Earth than the Moon), ideological and scientific significance there are very many of them, since it was first scientifically formulated and partly issue resolved on determining the distance to the Sun. Without a fundamentally correct solution to this question there could be no question of finding out true dimensions Sun. In the II century. BC e. Hipparchus finds that the parallax of the Sun (i.e., the angle at which the radius of the Earth is visible from the distance of the Sun) is equal to 3, which corresponds to a distance to it of 1200 Earth radii, and this was considered correct for almost eighteen centuries - before the works of Kepler and Hevelius , Halley, Huygens. The latter (XVII century) belongs to the most precise definition distance to the Sun (160 million km). In the future, researchers refuse direct determination solar parallax and apply indirect methods. So, for example, quite exact value horizontal parallax was obtained from observations of Mars at opposition or Venus during its passage across the solar disk.

In the 20th century Successful measurements of solar parallax were carried out during observations of asteroids. Significant accuracy has been achieved in determining the parallax of the Sun ( r=8",790±0",001). Solar parallax was measured by a variety of other methods, of which the most accurate were radar observations of Mercury and Venus, carried out by Soviet and American scientists in the early 60s.

By the beginning of the 17th century. include the famous telescopic observations by Galileo sunspots, his fight to prove that the spots are on the surface of the Sun. The rotation of the Sun was discovered, data on the nuclei and penumbra of sunspots was accumulated, and sunspot-forming zones on the Sun were discovered. However, for a long time the spots were mistaken for mountain tops or products of volcanic eruptions. For more than half a century, the fantastic theory of William Herschel, proposed by him in 1795, was recognized, which was based on the subsequently confirmed ideas of A. Wilson that spots are depressions in the solar surface. According to Herschel's theory, inner core The sun is a cold, hard, dark body surrounded by two layers: the cloudy outer layer is the photosphere, and the inner one plays the role of a protective screen (protecting the core from the action of the fire-breathing photosphere). The sunspot shadow is the gleam of the cold core of the Sun through the cloudy layers, and the penumbra is the lumen of the cloudy inner layer. Herschel made the following general conclusion from his theory: “With this new point From my perspective, the Sun seems to me to be an unusually majestic, huge and bright planet; Obviously, this is the first, or, more precisely, the only primary body of our system... it is most likely that it is inhabited, like the other planets, by creatures whose organs are adapted to the special conditions prevailing on this huge ball.” How different these naive ideas about the Sun are from Lomonosov’s brilliant thoughts about the nature of our daylight.

Now scientists are studying the nature of the Sun, finding out its influence on the Earth, and working on the problem of practical application of inexhaustible solar energy. It is also important that the Sun is the closest star to us, the only star in the Solar system. Therefore, by studying the Sun, we learn about many phenomena and processes inherent in stars and inaccessible to detailed observation due to the enormous distance of the stars.

The sun is like a celestial body

The Sun, the central body of the Solar System, is a very hot plasma ball. The Sun is the closest star to Earth. The light from it reaches us in 8? min.

The radiation power of the Sun is very high: it is equal to 3.8 * 10 20 MW. A tiny fraction of solar energy reaches the Earth, amounting to about half a billionth. She supports in gaseous state the earth's atmosphere, constantly heats land and water bodies, gives energy to winds and waterfalls, and ensures the vital activity of animals and plants. Part of the solar energy is stored in the bowels of the Earth in the form of coal, oil and other minerals.

The diameter of the Sun visible from Earth is about 0.5°, the distance to it is 107 times its diameter. Therefore, the diameter of the Sun is 1,392,000 km, which is 109 times the diameter of the Earth.

If you compare several successive photographs of the Sun, you will notice how the position of details, such as spots on the disk, changes. This occurs due to the rotation of the Sun. The sun does not rotate like a rigid body. Spots located near the equator of the Sun are ahead of spots located in mid-latitudes. Therefore, the rotation speeds different layers The suns are different: points in the equatorial region of the Sun have not only the highest linear, but also the highest angular velocities. The rotation period of the equatorial regions of the Sun is 25 Earth days, and the polar regions are more than 30.

The Sun is a spherically symmetrical body in equilibrium. Everywhere at the same distances from the center of this ball, the physical conditions are the same, but they change noticeably as you approach the center. Density and pressure quickly increase in depth, where the gas is more strongly compressed by the pressure of the overlying layers. Consequently, the temperature also increases as it approaches the center. Depending on the change physical conditions The sun can be divided into several concentric layers that gradually merge into each other.

At the center of the Sun, the temperature is 15 million degrees, and the pressure exceeds hundreds of billions of atmospheres. The gas is compressed here to a density of about 1.5*105 kg/m3. Almost all of the Sun's energy is generated in a central region with a radius of approximately ? sunny. Through the layers surrounding central part, this energy is transferred outward. Over the last third of the radius there is a convective zone. The reason for mixing (convection) in the outer layers of the Sun is the same as in a boiling kettle: the amount of energy coming from the heater is much greater than that removed by thermal conductivity. Therefore, the substance is forced to move and begins to transfer heat on its own.

All the layers of the Sun discussed above are actually not observable. Their existence is known either from theoretical calculations or on the basis of indirect data. Above the convective zone are the directly observable layers of the Sun, called its atmosphere. They are better studied, since their properties can be judged from observations.

The solar atmosphere also consists of several different layers. The deepest and thinnest of them is the photosphere, directly observed in the visible continuous spectrum. The photosphere—the “luminous sphere” of the Sun—is the lowest layer of its atmosphere, emitting the lion’s share of the energy coming from the Sun. The thickness of the photosphere is about 300 km. The deeper the layers of the photosphere, the hotter they are. In the outer, cooler layers of the photosphere, Fraunhofer absorption lines form against the background of a continuous spectrum.

The study of Fraunhofer lines makes it possible to determine the chemical composition of the solar atmosphere. More than 70 have been discovered on the Sun chemical elements. The Sun does not contain any “unearthly” elements. The most common elements in the Sun are hydrogen (about 70% of the total mass of the Sun) and helium (29%).

During times of greatest calm earth's atmosphere Through a telescope, you can observe the characteristic granular structure of the photosphere. The alternation of small light spots - granules - about 1000 km in size, surrounded by dark spaces, creates the impression of a cellular structure - granulation. The occurrence of granulation is associated with convection occurring under the photosphere. Individual granules are several hundred degrees hotter than the gas surrounding them, and within a few minutes their distribution across the solar disk changes. Spectral changes indicate the movement of gas in granules, similar to convective ones: gas rises in the granules, and falls between them.

These movements of gases generate acoustic waves in the solar atmosphere, similar to sound waves in the air.

Propagating into the upper layers of the solar atmosphere, the waves that arose in convective zone and in the photosphere, they transfer part of the mechanical energy of convective movements to them and produce heating of the gases of subsequent layers of the solar atmosphere - the chromosphere and corona. As a result, the upper layers of the photosphere with a temperature of about 4500 K are the “coldest” on the Sun. Both deep into and upward from them, the temperature of the gases increases rapidly.

The layer located above the photosphere, called the chromosphere, during full solar eclipses in those minutes when the Moon completely covers the photosphere, it is visible as a pink ring surrounding a dark disk. At the edge of the chromosphere, protruding tongues of flame are observed - chromospheric spicules, which are elongated columns of compacted gas. At the same time, the spectrum of the chromosphere, the so-called flare spectrum, can be observed. It consists of bright emission lines of hydrogen, helium, ionized calcium and other elements that suddenly flare during the total phase of the eclipse. By isolating the radiation of the Sun in these lines, one can obtain its image in them. Attached is a photograph of a section of the Sun obtained in hydrogen rays (red spectral line with a wavelength of 656.3 nm). The chromosphere is opaque for radiation at this wavelength, and therefore there is no radiation from the deeper-lying photosphere in the image.

The chromosphere differs from the photosphere much more irregularly heterogeneous structure. Two types of inhomogeneities are noticeable: bright and dark. In size they exceed photospheric granules. In general, the distribution of inhomogeneities forms a so-called chromospheric network, which is especially noticeable in the line of ionized calcium. Like granulation, it is a consequence of gas movements in the subphotospheric convective zone, only occurring on a larger scale. The temperature in the chromosphere is growing rapidly, reaching tens of thousands of degrees in its upper layers.

The outermost and very rarefied part of the solar atmosphere is the corona, which can be traced from the solar limb to distances of tens of solar radii. It has a temperature of about a million degrees. The corona can only be seen during a total solar eclipse or using a coronagraph.

The entire solar atmosphere is constantly fluctuating. Both vertical and horizontal waves with lengths of several thousand kilometers propagate in it. The oscillations are resonant in nature and occur with a period of about 5 minutes.

Magnetic fields play an important role in the occurrence of phenomena occurring on the Sun. The matter on the Sun is everywhere a magnetized plasma. Sometimes there is tension in certain areas magnetic field increases rapidly and greatly. This process is accompanied by the emergence of a whole complex of solar activity phenomena in various layers of the solar atmosphere. These include faculae and spots in the photosphere, flocculi in the chromosphere, and prominences in the corona. The most remarkable phenomenon, covering all layers of the solar atmosphere and originating in the chromosphere, are solar flares.

During observations, scientists found that the Sun is a powerful source of radio emission. Radio waves penetrate into interplanetary space, which are emitted by the chromosphere (centimeter waves) and the corona (decimeter and meter waves).

Radio emission from the Sun has two components - constant and variable (bursts, “noise storms”). During strong solar flares, radio emission from the Sun increases thousands and even millions of times compared to radio emission from the quiet Sun. This radio emission is non-thermal in nature.

X-rays come mainly from the upper layers of the chromosphere and corona. The radiation is especially strong during the years of maximum solar activity.

The sun emits not only light, heat and all other types of electromagnetic radiation. It is also a source of a constant flow of particles - corpuscles. Neutrinos, electrons, protons, alpha particles, and heavier atomic nuclei all together make up corpuscular radiation Sun. A significant portion of this radiation is a more or less continuous outflow of plasma -- solar wind, which is a continuation of the outer layers of the solar atmosphere - the solar corona. Against the background of this constantly blowing plasma wind, individual regions on the Sun are sources of more directed, enhanced, so-called corpuscular flows. Most likely, they are associated with special regions of the solar corona - coronary holes, and also, possibly, with long-lived active regions on the Sun. Finally, with solar flares the most powerful short-term flows of particles, mainly electrons and protons, are associated. As a result of the most powerful flares, particles can acquire speeds that are a noticeable fraction of the speed of light. Particles with such high energies are called solar cosmic rays.

Solar corpuscular radiation has a strong influence on the Earth, and primarily on the upper layers of its atmosphere and magnetic field, causing many interesting geophysical phenomena.

Solar observation devices

Special instruments called solar telescopes are used to observe the Sun. The power of radiation coming from the Sun is hundreds of billions of times greater than from the brightest stars, so solar telescopes use lenses with diameters of no more than a meter, but even in this case, the large amount of light makes it possible to use high magnification and thus work with images of the Sun with a diameter of up to 1 m. For this, the telescope must be long-focus. The largest solar telescopes have focal lengths of up to hundreds of meters. Such long instruments cannot be mounted on parallax installations and are usually made immobile. To direct the rays of the Sun into a stationary solar telescope, use a system of two mirrors, one of which is stationary, and the second, called a coelostat, rotates so as to compensate for the apparent daily movement of the Sun across the sky. The telescope itself is positioned either vertically (tower solar telescope) or horizontally (horizontal solar telescope). The convenience of the fixed location of the telescope also lies in the fact that it can be used large appliances for the analysis of solar radiation (spectrographs, magnifying cameras, various types of filters).

In addition to tower and horizontal telescopes, ordinary small telescopes with a lens diameter of no more than 20-40 cm can be used to observe the Sun. They must be equipped with special magnifying systems, light filters and cameras with shutters that provide short exposures.

To observe the solar corona, a coronagraph is used, which makes it possible to isolate the weak radiation of the corona against the background of a bright circumsolar halo caused by the scattering of photospheric light in the earth's atmosphere. At its core, this is a conventional refractor in which scattered light is greatly attenuated thanks to the careful selection of high-quality glass types, the high class of their processing, a special optical design that eliminates most of the scattered light, and the use of narrow-band filters.

To study the solar spectrum, in addition to conventional spectrographs, special instruments are widely used - spectroheliographs and spectrohelioscopes, which make it possible to obtain a monochromatic image of the Sun at any wavelength.

Solar observation devices

Special instruments called solar telescopes are used to observe the Sun. The power of radiation coming from the Sun is hundreds of billions of times greater than from the brightest stars, so solar telescopes use lenses with diameters of no more than a meter, but even in this case, the large amount of light makes it possible to use high magnification and thus work with images of the Sun with a diameter of up to 1 m. For this, the telescope must be long-focus. The largest solar telescopes have focal lengths of up to hundreds of meters. Such long instruments cannot be mounted on parallax installations and are usually made immobile. To direct the rays of the Sun into a stationary solar telescope, they use a system of two mirrors, one of which is stationary, and the second, called a coelostat, rotates so as to compensate for the apparent daily movement of the Sun across the sky. The telescope itself is positioned either vertically (tower solar telescope) or horizontally (horizontal solar telescope). The convenience of a fixed location of the telescope also lies in the fact that you can use large instruments for analyzing solar radiation (spectrographs, magnifying cameras, various types of filters).

In addition to tower and horizontal telescopes, ordinary small telescopes with a lens diameter of no more than 20-40 cm can be used to observe the Sun. They must be equipped with special magnifying systems, light filters and cameras with shutters that provide short exposures.

To observe the solar corona, a coronagraph is used, which makes it possible to isolate the weak radiation of the corona against the background of a bright circumsolar halo caused by the scattering of photospheric light in the earth's atmosphere. At its core, this is a conventional refractor in which scattered light is greatly attenuated thanks to the careful selection of high-quality glass types, the high class of their processing, a special optical design that eliminates most of the scattered light, and the use of narrow-band filters.

To study the solar spectrum, in addition to conventional spectrographs, special instruments are widely used - spectroheliographs and spectrohelioscopes, which make it possible to obtain a monochromatic image of the Sun at any wavelength.

Solar radiation and its impact on the Earth

Of the total amount of energy emitted by the Sun into interplanetary space, only 1/2000000000 reaches the boundaries of the earth's atmosphere. About a third of the solar radiation falling on the Earth is reflected by it and scattered in interplanetary space. Lots of sunshine energy goes to warm the earth's atmosphere, oceans and land. But the remaining Share also ensures the existence of life on Earth.

In the future, people will definitely learn to directly convert solar energy into other types of energy. Already used in national economy The simplest solar installations: various types solar greenhouses, greenhouses, desalination plants, water heaters, dryers. Sun rays brought into focus concave mirror, melt the most refractory metals. Work is underway to create solar power plants, to use solar energy for heating houses and desalination sea ​​water. Practical Application find semiconductor solar cells that directly convert the sun's energy into electrical energy. Along with chemical sources current solar panels are used, for example, on artificial satellites Earth and space rockets. All these are just the first successes of solar technology.

Ultraviolet and x-rays come mainly from the upper layers of the chromosphere and corona. This was proven by launching rockets with instruments during solar eclipses. The very hot solar atmosphere is always a source of invisible short-wave radiation, but it is especially powerful during the years of maximum solar activity. At this time, ultraviolet radiation increases approximately twofold, and X-ray radiation increases tens and even hundreds of times compared to radiation during the minimum years. The intensity of short-wave radiation also varies from day to day, increasing sharply when flares occur in the solar chromosphere.

Short-wave radiation from the Sun influences processes occurring in the Earth's atmosphere. For example, ultraviolet and X-rays partially ionize layers of air, forming a layer of the earth's atmosphere - the ionosphere. The ionosphere is playing important role in long-distance radio communications: radio waves coming from the radio transmitter, before reaching the receiver antenna, are repeatedly reflected from the ionosphere and from the surface of the Earth. The state of the ionosphere changes depending on the conditions of its illumination by the Sun and the phenomena occurring on the Sun. Therefore, to ensure stable radio communication, it is necessary to take into account the time of day, time of year and the state of solar activity. During the most powerful solar flares, the number of ionized atoms in the ionosphere increases and radio waves are partially or completely absorbed by it. This leads to deterioration or even temporary interruption of radio communications.

Systematic research into radio emission from the Sun began only after the Second World War, when it became clear that the Sun is a powerful source of radio emission. Radio waves penetrate into interplanetary space, which are emitted by the chromosphere (centimeter waves) and the corona (decimeter and meter waves) - they reach the Earth.

The radio emission of the Sun has two components - constant, almost unchanged, and variable, sporadic (bursts, “noise storms”). The radio emission of the “quiet” Sun is explained by the fact that hot solar plasma always emits radio waves along with electromagnetic vibrations other wavelengths (thermal radio emission). During large chromospheric flares, the radio emission of the Sun increases thousands and even millions of times compared to the radio emission of the quiet Sun. This is radio emission generated by fast-flowing non-stationary processes, has a non-thermal nature.

A number of geophysical phenomena (magnetic storms, i.e. short-term changes in the Earth's magnetic field, auroras, etc.) are caused by solar activity. But these phenomena occur no earlier than a day after solar flares. They are not called electromagnetic radiation, reaching the Earth in 8.3 minutes, and erupted corpuscles that penetrate into the near-Earth space with a delay.

Corpuscles are emitted by the Sun even when there are no flares or spots on it. The continuously expanding corona creates a solar wind that envelops planets and comets moving near the Sun. The flares are accompanied by “gusts” of solar wind. Experiments on space rockets and artificial Earth satellites made it possible to directly detect solar corpuscles in interplanetary space.

During flares, not only corpuscles penetrate into interplanetary space, but also a magnetic field - all this determines the “situation” in near-Earth space. For example, the solar wind deforms the geomagnetic field, compresses it and localizes it in space; corpuscles fill radiation belt. Polar lights are associated with the penetration of corpuscles into the earth's atmosphere. After solar flares, magnetic storms occur on Earth. Thus, after the flare on August 4, 1972, a strong magnetic storm occurred, which disrupted radio communications on short waves, auroras and a sharp decrease in the level of cosmic rays, which came to us from the depths of the Galaxy and whose path was blocked by plasma streams erupted by the Sun (Forbush effect).

The Sun-Earth problem, which connects solar activity with its impact on the Earth, is at the intersection of several sciences that are most important for humanity - astronomy, geophysics, biology, medicine.

Some parts of this complex problem have been studied for several decades, such as ionospheric manifestations of solar activity. Here it was possible not only to accumulate a lot of facts, but also to discover patterns that have great value for uninterrupted radio communication (selection of operating radio frequencies and forecasts of radio communication conditions).

It has long been known that oscillations of the magnetic needle during a magnetic storm are especially noticeable during the daytime and have the greatest amplitude, sometimes reaching several degrees, during periods of maximum solar activity. It is also well known that magnetic storms are usually accompanied by a glow in the upper layers of the atmosphere. These auroras are one of the most beautiful natural phenomena. The extraordinary play of colors, the sudden change from a calm glow to the rapid movement of arcs, stripes and rays, forming either giant tents or majestic curtains, has long attracted people. Polar lights are usually observed in polar regions globe. But sometimes during the years of maximum solar activity they can be observed in mid-latitudes. There are two predominant colors in auroras: green and red. Coloring polar lights caused by the emission of oxygen atoms. There is a connection between phenomena on the Sun and processes in the lower layers of the earth's atmosphere. Solar radiation affects the troposphere. Clarification of the mechanism of this effect is necessary for meteorology.

Recently, increasing attention of scientists has been attracted by various phenomena in the biosphere, which, as observations show, are associated with solar activity. Thus, biologists note that during the 11-year cycle of solar activity, changes occur in the growth of forest plantations and the living conditions of certain species of animals, birds, and insects. Doctors have noticed that during the years of maximum solar activity, some cardiovascular diseases and nervous diseases become noticeably worse. This, in particular, is associated with the discovered influence of the geomagnetic field on various colloidal systems, including human blood. The study of such solar-terrestrial connections is just beginning.

In order to comprehensively study the phenomena occurring on the Sun, systematic observations Sun at numerous observatories. Studying the impact of the Sun on the Earth requires the combined efforts of scientists from many countries.

Tanya Sorokina
Summary of the walk “Watching the Sun” (middle group)

Pedagogical goal: give children an idea of ​​the role sun in the life of all living things; develop cognitive interests, sustained attention, observation; cultivate a love for nature; develop logical thinking, the ability to notice inconsistencies in judgments; teach to follow certain rules.

Educational targets: shows interest in natural objects; is proactive in conversation, answers questions, asks counter questions; listens carefully to an adult; understands words denoting the properties of objects and methods of examining them; shows a desire for work activities and activity during the game.

Educational courses being mastered region: "Social and communicative development", "Cognitive Development", « Speech development» , "Artistic and aesthetic development".

Types of children's activities: gaming, motor, communicative, labor, cognitive.

Means of implementation: mirror, scoops, spatulas, bell.

Organizational structure walks.

1. Watching the sun.

in spring the sun warms up, solar the days are getting longer, it's shining Sun bright - children wear lighter clothes than in winter. Compare. Where Sun sometimes in the morning and sometimes in the evening. Describe Sun, what it is. (Warm, affectionate, orange, round, spring)

Signs: golden morning dawn, Sun it seemed not because of the clouds - it meant good weather; Sun sets in the fog - it means rain.

Sayings and proverbs: bad spring - when there is no sun.

Artistic word.

Before anyone else in the world the sun has risen, If you suddenly find him in the forest,

And as soon as they got up, they set to work case: Not wake up: y sun sleep - minutes,

Walked around the whole earth, and tiredly, No make some noise: it worked all day

Rest for dark forest village of J. Martsinkevičius

Mystery. Kind, good looks at people. And he doesn’t tell people to look at themselves. (Sun)

I am always friendly with the light if sunshine everywhere, am I running along the wall from the mirror, from the puddle? (sunny bunny)

Who comes through the window and doesn't break it (sunny bunny) , show solar bunny using a mirror.

2. Conversation on issues:

How can you describe the weather?

Is it always Sun is it in one place in the sky?

What can you see in the sky during the day?

What can you see in the sky at night?

How can you trace the path? sun?

What can children play in the spring?

3. Play activities.

Game low mobility "Find and keep silent"

Progress of the game: The children are on one side of the veranda, turning away and closing their eyes. The driver places the object, without covering it, in a conspicuous place. After the driver’s permission, the children open their eyes and walk along the veranda, looking for this item.

4. Didactic game “Does this happen or not?”

Progress of the game: The teacher explains the rules games: “Now I will tell you about something. In my story you should notice something that does not happen.

"In the spring, when Sun it was shining brightly, the children and I went out to walk. They made a slide out of snow and started sliding down it.”

“Spring has come, all the birds have flown south. The bear crawled into his den and decided to sleep all spring.”

5. Work assignments.

Throwing snow to melt quickly. Wipe dust on doll furniture.

Independent activities of children.

Publications on the topic:

Walking schedule (middle group) Day of the week Monday MORNING 1. Observation of wildlife. 2. Outdoor games with a ball. 3. Labor in nature. 4. Individual work on.

B] Purpose: to consolidate children’s understanding of characteristic features autumn and autumn phenomena. Objectives: Educational – teach children to name.

Observation during a walk in February (middle group) February. 1. Observation of wintering birds - consider a pigeon. Define general shape, color, plumage. Note that the pigeon's are red.

OOD on environmental education “Observing a parrot” (middle group) Program content: 1. Clarify children’s ideas about the characteristic features external image parrot (oval body, features.

Summary of the autumn walk “Observing insects” Purpose: to continue acquaintance with the variety of insect species, to systematize.

Summer! This is an amazing time in nature, when beauty can be seen at every step. You just need to not miss the exciting moments.