Question 1. What do you see as the main reasons for the economic crisis in Russia in 1812-1815?

Answer. Reasons:

1) the ban on trade with Great Britain caused Russian economy more damage than British;

2) military expenses in 1812 reached astronomical amounts;

3) the devastation of the western provinces and their subsequent restoration required large amounts of funds, for example, residents of the affected cities, and not only Moscow, were paid benefits for total amount 15 million rubles;

4) French intelligence brought to Russia large number fake paper rubles specifically to undermine the economy.

Question 2. Which sectors of the economy are in the most difficult situation? What measures did landowners take to bring their farms out of crisis?

Answer. Hardest hit agriculture, and it was harder for the peasant households, which formed the basis of the economy. Their ruin meant disaster both for their immediate owners and for the economy of the empire as a whole.

Question 3. On what conditions did the liberation of peasants in the Baltic States take place? Why was there no widespread abolition of serfdom in Russia?

Answer. Baltic peasants were released without land. Accordingly, they had to be hired by the landowners, still essentially perform the same duties, only now the landowner was not obliged to care about their fate. Such a reform throughout Russia could cause unprecedented peasant unrest: Russian peasants, unlike the Balts, main value At that time they considered land, and for the sake of owning it they were even ready to endure bondage. And most importantly, the conservative circles of the landowners themselves would have opposed such measures, which would have been much more dangerous for the emperor. In the Baltics, the owners of estates themselves, overwhelmingly Germans, took the initiative for such a reform. In the rest of Russia, many nobles were not ready to revise age-old foundations.

Question 4. What was the meaning of A. A. Arakcheev’s project?

Answer. The first project of A.A. Arakcheev actually assumed the personal freedom of peasants without land, but in a disguised form and in stages. It was proposed to gradually buy out lands from landowners who would agree to this (at that time many people mortgaged their estates to pay off their debts). From the received lands, it was proposed to allocate plots to the peasants so small that they would go to hire landowners, that is, they would do the same thing that they should have done if they were freed without land.

Question 5. What tasks was the organization of military settlements supposed to solve? Have these goals been achieved?

Answer. The main task There was a reduction in the cost of maintaining the army. This task was accomplished: during the period from 1825 to 1850, 45.5 million rubles were saved. However, the creation of military settlements limited the possibilities for free development of the economy.

Question 6. Give general characteristics development Russian industry and trade.

Answer. Industry in Russia mainly fulfilled government orders, which is why its heavy industry flourished. However, gradually developed and light industry. Steam engines were introduced into production, as throughout continental Europe (in Great Britain this process took place even earlier, in late XVIII century). However, due to the preservation of serfdom, the introduction of new technologies was slow: the low cost of serf labor often made it economically unprofitable to spend large sums on new equipment, and subsequently it was not possible to save so much to cover the costs. The positive thing was that the number of hired workers in industry was growing, albeit slowly. The development of industry required better communication routes. That's why new canals were built railways It hasn’t happened in Russia yet. The main trade continued to take place at fairs. This shows how little industry was developed, despite the development, because this form of trade was sufficient to sell its products.

Reform of 1861. Abolition of serfdom

thesis

2. Liberation of the Baltic peasants

IN early XIX V. the tsarist government repeatedly engaged peasant question Baltic region. The result of this were several new laws approved by Alexander I. One of them is the peasant regulation of 1802, which recognized the peasant’s right of ownership of movable property, but the so-called “iron equipment” remained the property of the landowner, although the same peasant used it in his work. The landowner himself determined what should be included in this “iron inventory”, and in addition to agricultural implements, he often included livestock, grain, etc. Although the regulation stated that from now on the peasant has the right to pass on his farm by inheritance, the landowner could deprive peasant land plot, resettle it to other lands and even sell it. For this it was enough to accuse the peasant of bad work in corvee, in disobedience to the Church or in misbehavior.

In 1804, new laws were adopted that prohibited the sale of peasant farm owners and the punishment of them by domestic courts. These laws, to a certain extent, also guaranteed the right of inheritance, stipulating it with the condition of regular payment of duties. The reform of 1804 gave some Estonian peasants several more possibilities to work on her own farm, but she left the peasants, yard servants and other peasant layers in the same position. Such half-hearted measures could not stop the unrest among the peasants. In 1803-1806. in Estland and Livonia, riots occurred in 49 estates, especially in the central counties and in the vicinity of Dorpat. Fierce and bloody clashes took place on the Kose-Uusmõisa estate, where the head of a military detachment and a non-commissioned officer were killed by farm laborers, and several soldiers were seriously wounded. The rebels also suffered losses: they killed six and seriously wounded seven peasants.

Even at the Landtag of the Estonian province in 1811, the landowners, under the pressure of peasant unrest and public opinion began to speak out for the liberation of peasants without land. Alexander I was pleased with their initiative, but the development of relevant laws was prevented Patriotic War 1812, although it did not directly affect this territory. After the end of the war, the Estonian nobility drew up a bill that provided for the provision of personal freedom to the peasants, but did not give them land and left broad police rights to the landowner. Thus, in relation to his peasants, the landowner found himself in the role of a government official who administered justice and reprisals. Alexander I approved the bill on June 8, 1816, and on January 8, 1817 the law came into force in the Estonian province.

In the summer of 1818, the discussion of a similar bill began in the Livonia province, and in 1819 it was approved by Alexander I, and in January 1820 it came into force. The procedure for putting the law into effect locally was very difficult, because landowners were afraid of unrest as a result of the liberation of peasants without land. Not all peasants were freed at once, but gradually, in parts, at different times for different categories until 1832. For example, in the first three years, a peasant received the right to move only within the parish, then the county, and only from 1832 - within the province, but it was forbidden to move to other provinces.

The rights of the patrimonial police, which were vested in the landowner, gave him power over all persons living on the territory of the estate. He could arrest and sentence corporal punishment: men to 15 blows with a stick, women - to 30 blows with a rod (in the Livonia province - to 15), hand over the accused peasant to the highest police and judicial authorities. Thus, the fate of the peasant did not change significantly; they continued to remain completely dependent on the landowner.

The regulations on peasants of the Livonia province of 1819 determined that before the introduction of personal freedom, all duties of the peasants were determined by the Wackenbukhs according to the regulations of 1804, and after liberation they were established through a “free agreement.”

In 1819, the Livland nobility renounced all rights associated with serfdom and hereditary subordination of the peasants, but retained the right of ownership of land and unlimited use of it. The natural consequence of this new situation was the abolition of the norm of corvee. Now the landowner himself determined the amount of duties. In practice, the peasant was forced to agree to every offer from the owner, as long as it gave him the opportunity to feed himself.

Such freedom, naturally, could not satisfy the peasants, and from the first days of the promulgation of the law, unrest continued in Estonia and Livonia. By 1823, 69 estates were engulfed in unrest. The tsarist government allocated a battalion of soldiers to each district court to suppress the unrest, but it did not lead to armed conflicts, because farm laborers and the poor did not participate in the unrest. Having lost hope of providing their family with work on land rented from the landowner, they received the right to move to cities and look for work in industry.

The liberation of the peasants gave impetus to the capitalist path of development also in the countryside. Distillation began to develop especially. In 1820-1824. In Livonia, on average, about 1.5 million quarters of grain were produced annually. Of this amount, more than 20% was spent on distilling. Flax growing, potato growing, and fattening livestock using waste from distillation to supply meat to St. Petersburg were developed. Among the peasants in the second quarter of the 19th century, the process of social differentiation began, the emergence of wealthy peasants, innkeepers, millers, etc., who were called “gray barons.” At the same time, poor peasants increasingly found themselves in debt dependence on merchants and landowners.

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Page 2

In 1804−1805 the first stage was carried out agrarian reform V Baltic region− in Latvia and Estonia. In 1804, the “Regulations on the Livonian Peasants” was published, which was extended to Estonia. Farmers' peasants were declared lifelong and hereditary holders of their land plots, for which they had to serve corvee and quitrent to the land owner, while the size of corvée and quitrent increased significantly. The power of the landowner over the peasants was limited. The provision did not apply to landless peasant farm laborers.

The decree of March 10, 1809 abolished the right of the landowner to exile his peasants to Siberia for minor offenses.

Now, with the permission of the landowner, peasants could trade, take bills, and engage in contracts. In general, these were concessions to the bourgeois development of the country, without encroaching on the rights and privileges of the landowners.

In 1818, Alexander I tried to resolve the peasant issue. Several projects have been prepared. Alexander I approved the project of A. Arakcheev and Minister of Finance D. Guryev (gradual elimination of serfdom through redemption landowner peasants from their allotments to the treasury). To practical implementation the project did not come to fruition. The last liberal action of Alexander I was the provision in 1816−1819. personal freedom for Baltic peasants (without land).

By 1825, 375 thousand state peasants were in military settlements (1/3 of the Russian army), from which they formed a Separate Corps under the command of Arakcheev. In the settlements, peasants simultaneously served and worked under conditions of strict discipline, subject to numerous punishments.

On February 19, 1855, Alexander II ascended the throne. His reign (1855−1881) was a period of radical transformation Russian society, the main of which was the liberation of peasants from serfdom.

The basis of the concept peasant reform the following ideas were put forward: its goal is a revolution in the agrarian system of Russia, the initial stage of which is the liberation of peasants from personal dependence, the final stage is their transformation into small owners while maintaining a significant part of landownership.

It was supposed to provide peasants with the use (for duties) and then for ownership (for redemption) of land plots that they used before the abolition of serfdom, the calculation of duties based on their pre-reform amounts, and the participation of the state in the process of redemption operations as a creditor. And although, during the discussion of projects for the abolition of serfdom in the Main Committee and the State Council, they were introduced under pressure conservative forces amendments in the interests of landowners (the allotment fund was reduced by 20%, duties were increased, which increased the cost of purchasing each tithe of land), in official documents The liberal concept of resolving the peasant question was preserved, which consisted in the release of peasants with land on the terms of redemption.

On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed all the reform laws and the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom. These documents determined the fate of 23 million serfs. They received personal freedom and civil rights. For the land plots allotted to them (until they redeem them), the peasants had to serve labor duty or pay money, and therefore were called “temporarily obligated.” The size of peasant plots varied in size in different agricultural regions (non-chernozem, chernozem, steppe) and ranged from 1 to 12 dessiatines per male capita (an average of 3.3 dessiatines). For the plots, the peasants had to pay their landowner such an amount of money that, if deposited in the bank at 6%, would bring him an annual income equal to the pre-reform quitrent. According to the law, the peasants had to pay the landowner a lump sum for their allotment about a fifth of the stipulated amount (they could pay it not in money, but by working for the landowner). The rest was paid by the state. But the peasants had to return this amount to him (with interest) in annual payments for 49 years.

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At the beginning of the 19th century. The tsarist government repeatedly dealt with the peasant issue of the Baltic region. The result of this were several new laws approved by Alexander I. One of them is the peasant regulation of 1802, which recognized the peasant’s right of ownership of movable property, but the so-called “iron equipment” remained the property of the landowner, although the same peasant used it in his work. The landowner himself determined what should be included in this “iron inventory”, and in addition to agricultural implements, he often included livestock, grain, etc. Although the regulation stated that from now on the peasant has the right to pass on his farm by inheritance, the landowner could deprive peasant of a plot of land, resettle him to other lands and even sell him. To do this, it was enough to accuse the peasant of poor work in the corvee, of disobedience to the Church or of unworthy behavior.

In 1804, new laws were adopted that prohibited the sale of peasant farm owners and the punishment of them by domestic courts. These laws, to a certain extent, also guaranteed the right of inheritance, stipulating it with the condition of regular payment of duties. The reform of 1804 gave some Estonian peasants somewhat more opportunities to work on their own farms, but left the peasants, domestic servants and other peasant layers in the same position. Such half-hearted measures could not stop the unrest among the peasants. In 1803–1806 in Estland and Livonia, riots occurred in 49 estates, especially in the central counties and in the vicinity of Dorpat. Fierce and bloody clashes took place on the Kose-Uusmõisa estate, where the head of a military detachment and a non-commissioned officer were killed by farm laborers, and several soldiers were seriously wounded. The rebels also suffered losses: they killed six and seriously wounded seven peasants.

Even at the Landtag of the Estonian province in 1811, landowners, under the pressure of peasant unrest and public opinion, began to speak out for the liberation of peasants without land. Alexander I was pleased with their initiative, but the development of relevant laws was prevented by the Patriotic War of 1812, although it did not directly affect this territory.

After the end of the war, the Estonian nobility drew up a bill that provided for the provision of personal freedom to the peasants, but did not give them land and left broad police rights to the landowner. Thus, in relation to his peasants, the landowner found himself in the role of a government official who administered justice and reprisals. Alexander I approved the bill on June 8, 1816, and on January 8, 1817 the law came into force in the Estonian province.

The unsatisfactory nature of the law on “liberation” was noted in one anonymous note of that time, which was quoted by Yu. Kahk: “Thus, the peasant, having received from the landowner as the owner of the land, a right that the same landowner as a government official can prohibit him from using when just as he pleases, he will receive one ghost of freedom. Such a peasant can be compared to a man who, having shackled his hands and feet in iron, was ordered to do what he wanted and go wherever he wanted.”

In the summer of 1818, the discussion of a similar bill began in the Livonia province, and in 1819 it was approved by Alexander I, and in January 1820 it came into force. The procedure for putting the law into effect locally was very difficult, because landowners were afraid of unrest as a result of the liberation of peasants without land. Not all peasants were freed at once, but gradually, in parts, at different times for different categories until 1832. For example, in the first three years, a peasant received the right to move only within the parish, then - the district, and only from 1832 - within province, but it was forbidden to move to other provinces.

The rights of the patrimonial police, which were vested in the landowner, gave him power over all persons living on the territory of the estate. He could arrest and sentence him to corporal punishment: men to 15 blows with a stick, women - to 30 blows with a rod (in the Livonia province - to 15), hand over the accused peasant to the highest police and judicial authorities. Thus, the fate of the peasant did not change significantly; they continued to remain completely dependent on the landowner.

The law of 1819, according to F. Jung-Stilling, worsened the financial situation of peasants because it abolished the legal measure of rental duties for the right to use peasant plots, leaving its definition to voluntary agreement, and destroyed the hereditary right of peasants to use plots under certain conditions.

The liberation of the peasants gave impetus to the capitalist path of development also in the countryside. Distillation began to develop especially. In 1820–1824 In Livonia, on average, about 1.5 million quarters of grain were produced annually. Of this amount, more than 20% was spent on distilling. Flax growing, potato growing, and fattening livestock using waste from distillation to supply meat to St. Petersburg were developed. Among the peasants in the second quarter of the 19th century, the process of social differentiation began, the emergence of wealthy peasants, innkeepers, millers, etc., who were called “gray barons.” Their deposits in various credit and savings banks by 1841 reached almost 718,000 rubles. in bank notes, which at that time was a very significant amount.

At the same time, poor peasants increasingly found themselves in debt dependence on merchants and landowners. So, in 1832, one Verro merchant demanded the return of a debt from 137 peasants. The layer of farm laborers and peasants became very numerous. According to data from 1850–1880, about 115,000 people lived on peasant estates, of which about 30,000 were farm laborers and servants; at the same time, there were more than 122,000 bobyls in the province. It turns out that about 1/3 rural population she tried to make a living for herself by renting land from the landowner, the rest looked for work from a nobleman, the owner of the estate, or a peasant tenant, or the owner of the estate.

At the end Northern War For the needs of the Orthodox army, Swedish garrison kirks were selected in the cities of the Baltic region, which were converted into Orthodox churches.

Since 1711, Russian merchants and artisans were allowed to settle in the Baltic states, and from the conquered districts, by order of Peter I, hostile Swedes were resettled deep into Russia. At the same time orthodox churches were subordinated directly to the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, Metropolitan of Ryazan Stefan Yavorsky, who entrusted the supervision of them to the Riga cathedral archpriest Timothy Koreisha. Governors also received the necessary instructions. So, in 1715, Peter I wrote to P. A. Golitsyn, the governor of Livonia, that he should find “good and skillful” priests with a clergy in Smolensk instead of those in Riga, because everyone knows that they are “very bad” and ashamed of them in front of the parishioners.

2. Liberation of the Baltic peasants

In 1804, new laws were adopted that prohibited the sale of peasant farm owners and the punishment of them by domestic courts. These laws, to a certain extent, also guaranteed the right of inheritance, stipulating it with the condition of regular payment of duties. The reform of 1804 gave some Estonian peasants somewhat more opportunities to work on their own farms, but left the peasants, domestic servants and other peasant layers in the same position. Such half-hearted measures could not stop the unrest among the peasants. In 1803–1806 in Estland and Livonia, riots occurred in 49 estates, especially in the central counties and in the vicinity of Dorpat. Fierce and bloody clashes took place on the Kose-Uusmõisa estate, where the head of a military detachment and a non-commissioned officer were killed by farm laborers, and several soldiers were seriously wounded. The rebels also suffered losses: they killed six and seriously wounded seven peasants.

Even at the Landtag of the Estonian province in 1811, landowners, under the pressure of peasant unrest and public opinion http://www.sedmitza.ru/index.html?sid=128&did=1496 - note_link_1#note_link_1, began to speak out for the liberation of peasants without land. Alexander I was pleased with their initiative, but the development of relevant laws was prevented by the Patriotic War of 1812, although it did not directly affect this territory. After the end of the war, the Estonian nobility drew up a bill that provided for the provision of personal freedom to the peasants, but did not give them land and left broad police rights to the landowner. Thus, in relation to his peasants, the landowner found himself in the role of a government official who administered justice and reprisals. Alexander I approved the bill on June 8, 1816, and on January 8, 1817 the law came into force in the Estonian province.

In the summer of 1818, the discussion of a similar bill began in the Livonia province, and in 1819 it was approved by Alexander I, and in January 1820 it came into force. The procedure for putting the law into effect locally was very difficult, because landowners were afraid of unrest as a result of the liberation of peasants without land. Not all peasants were freed at once, but gradually, in parts, at different times for different categories until 1832. For example, in the first three years, a peasant received the right to move only within the parish, then - the district, and only from 1832 - within province, but it was forbidden to move to other provinces.

The liberation of the peasants gave impetus to the capitalist path of development also in the countryside. Distillation began to develop especially. In 1820–1824 In Livonia, on average, about 1.5 million quarters of grain were produced annually. Of this amount, more than 20% was spent on distilling. Flax growing, potato growing, and fattening livestock using waste from distillation to supply meat to St. Petersburg were developed. Among the peasants in the second quarter of the 19th century, the process of social differentiation began, the emergence of wealthy peasants, innkeepers, millers, etc., who were called “gray barons.” At the same time, poor peasants increasingly found themselves in debt dependence on merchants and landowners.

With the elimination of the class rights of the nobles to land, the land began to be sold), and the domestic market began to develop faster. New factories and plants are being built in Russia, developing. The abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 and the other reforms that followed it were a “pass”, a “turning point” Russian history, comparable in its consequences to European bourgeois revolutions, − ...

Termination of temporary obligatory relations) was established by the Regulations on the redemption of plots still remaining in obligatory relations with landowners in the provinces consisting of Great Russian and Little Russian local provisions on February 19, 1861 from December 28, 1881, and in nine western provinces (Vilna, Grodno, Kovno, Minsk, Mogilevskaya, Kyiv, Podolsk and Volynskaya).

The corvee system to the capitalist one. In addition, start-up capital and experience in running a business were needed, that is, something that the vast majority of landowners did not have. Moreover, in the first decades after the reform of 1861. peasant farm It was not yet completely separated from the landowners: peasant and landowners' lands were not demarcated everywhere. Malozemelye, sections from...

He further reduced the size of peasant land plots and increased duties. On February 17, 1861, the reform project was approved State Council. On February 19, it was signed by Alexander P. The basic principles and conditions for the abolition of serfdom were formulated in the Manifesto “On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of free rural inhabitants...” and the Regulations. Manifesto and "...

Serfdom in the Baltics. If you had a bad dream

Reform of 1861. Abolition of serfdom

2. Liberation of the Baltic peasants