Section 1. Biology - the science of life.
Plan
Topic 1. Biology as a science, its achievements, research methods, connections with other sciences. The role of biology in human life and practical activities.
Topic 2. Signs and properties of living things: cellular structure, features of chemical composition, metabolism and energy conversion, homeostasis, irritability, reproduction, development
Topic 3. Main levels of organization of living nature: cellular, organismal, population-species, biogeocenotic
Biology as a science, its achievements, methods of knowing living nature. The role of biology in the formation of modern natural sciences scientific picture peace.
Biology as a science.
Biology(from Greek bios- life, logo- word, science) is a complex of sciences about living nature.
The subject of biology is all manifestations of life: the structure and functions of living beings, their diversity, origin and development, as well as interaction with the environment. The main task of biology as a science is to interpret all phenomena of living nature on a scientific basis, taking into account that the whole organism has properties that are fundamentally different from its components.
The term “biology” is found in the works of German anatomists T. Roose (1779) and K.-F. Burdach (1800), but only in 1802 it was first used independently by J.-B. Lamarck and G.-R. Treviranus to denote the science that studies living organisms.
Biological Sciences.
Currently, biology includes a number of sciences that can be systematized according to the following criteria: subject and predominant methods research and on the subject being studied level of organization of living nature. According to the subject of study, biological sciences are divided into bacteriology, botany, virology, zoology, and mycology.
Botany is a biological science that comprehensively studies plants and the Earth's vegetation cover. Zoology- a branch of biology, the science of the diversity, structure, life activity, distribution and relationship of animals with their environment, their origin and development. Bacteriology- biological science that studies the structure and activity of bacteria, as well as their role in nature. Virology- biological science that studies viruses. Main object mycology are mushrooms, their structure and features of life. Lichenology- biological science that studies lichens. Bacteriology, virology and some aspects of mycology are often discussed as part of microbiology- section of biology, the science of microorganisms (bacteria, viruses and microscopic fungi). Taxonomy, or taxonomy,- biological science that describes and classifies into groups all living and extinct creatures.
In turn, each of the listed biological sciences is divided into biochemistry, morphology, anatomy, physiology, embryology, genetics and systematics (plants, animals or microorganisms). Biochemistry is the science of chemical composition living matter, chemical processes occurring in living organisms and underlying their life activity. Morphology- biological science that studies the form and structure of organisms, as well as the patterns of their development. In a broad sense, it includes cytology, anatomy, histology and embryology. Distinguish between the morphology of animals and plants. Anatomy is a branch of biology (more precisely, morphology), a science that studies the internal structure and shape of individual organs, systems and the organism as a whole. Plant anatomy is considered as part of botany, animal anatomy is considered as part of zoology, and human anatomy is a separate science. Physiology- biological science that studies the vital processes of plant and animal organisms, their individual systems, organs, tissues and cells. There is physiology of plants, animals and humans. Embryology (developmental biology)- a branch of biology, the science of the individual development of an organism, including the development of the embryo.
Object genetics are the laws of heredity and variability. Currently, it is one of the most dynamically developing biological sciences.
According to the level of organization of living nature being studied, molecular biology, cytology, histology, organology, biology of organisms and superorganismal systems are distinguished. Molecular biology is one of the youngest branches of biology, a science that studies, in particular, the organization of hereditary information and protein biosynthesis. Cytology, or cell biology,- biological science, the object of study of which is the cells of both unicellular and multicellular organisms. Histology- biological science, a branch of morphology, the object of which is the structure of tissues of plants and animals. To the sphere organology include the morphology, anatomy and physiology of various organs and their systems.
Organismal biology includes all sciences that deal with living organisms, e.g. ethology- the science of behavior of organisms.
The biology of supraorganismal systems is divided into biogeography and ecology. Studies the distribution of living organisms biogeography, while ecology- organization and functioning of supraorganismal systems at various levels: populations, biocenoses (communities), biogeocenoses (ecosystems) and the biosphere.
According to the prevailing research methods, one can distinguish descriptive (for example, morphology), experimental (for example, physiology) and theoretical biology.
Identification and explanation of the patterns of structure, functioning and development of living nature in various levels its organization is the task general biology. It includes biochemistry, molecular biology, cytology, embryology, genetics, ecology, evolutionary science and anthropology. Evolutionary doctrine studies the reasons driving forces, mechanisms and general patterns evolution of living organisms. One of its sections is paleontology- a science whose subject is the fossil remains of living organisms. Anthropology- a section of general biology, the science of the origin and development of humans as a biological species, as well as the diversity of modern human populations and the patterns of their interaction.
Applied aspects of biology are included in the field of biotechnology, breeding and other rapidly developing sciences. Biotechnology called biological science, which studies the use of living organisms and biological processes in production. It is widely used in the food (baking, cheese making, brewing, etc.) and pharmaceutical industries (production of antibiotics, vitamins), for water purification, etc. Selection- the science of methods for creating breeds of domestic animals, varieties of cultivated plants and strains of microorganisms with properties necessary for humans. Selection is also understood as the process of changing living organisms, carried out by humans for their needs.
The progress of biology is closely related to the successes of other natural and exact sciences, such as physics, chemistry, mathematics, computer science, etc. For example, microscopy, ultrasound (ultrasound), tomography and other methods of biology are based on physical laws, and the study of the structure of biological molecules and processes occurring in living systems would be impossible without application of chemical and physical methods. The use of mathematical methods makes it possible, on the one hand, to identify the presence of a natural connection between objects or phenomena, to confirm the reliability of the results obtained, and on the other hand, to model a phenomenon or process. IN lately Computer methods, such as modeling, are becoming increasingly important in biology. At the intersection of biology and other sciences, a number of new sciences arose, such as biophysics, biochemistry, bionics, etc.
"Study of biology" - Genetic mechanism. Current issues in biology. Thank you for your attention! Genomics methods. DNA sequencing. Electrophoresis. Cellular engineering. Increased oxidation processes. Why are we dying? Thanatalogy is the science of death. Creative name: Do you want to know more? Topic: New directions in biology.
“Biology game” - Additions to the game. The name of which disease comes from the Latin verb “to choke”? Not just a unit of speed sea vessels, but also a section of the stem. Which living creatures did K. Linnaeus classify as “chaos”? Write famous proverb. What breed was the dog in D. London's story "White Fang"? 80. “A furry bumblebee for fragrant hops...” Music by A. Petrov, and whose words?
“Portfolio of educational achievements” - Portfolio philosophy. Possibility of both quality and quantification portfolio materials. Personal diary schoolboy. What is a portfolio? Where did it all start? Concept. Student's resume. Analysis of a survey of students of State Medical University No. 2. Khudyakova T.M. Student's portfolio. Section “summary summary statement”.
“Achievements of Astronomy” - Discrepancy with previous observations. 1821 tables published. He studied astronomy on his own. Search for annual parallax Friedrich Bessel (1784-1846). State-of-the-art instruments. Publication. Deviation of Mercury's orbit Longitude of perihelion - over 100 years by 527". Search for annual parallax Vasily Yakovlevich (Wilhelm) Struve (1793-1864).
“Achievements of the 19th century” - First railway laid between St. Petersburg and Moscow on November 1, 1851. Conclusion: urban transport has changed, transportation of people has become better. The streets were illuminated first with kerosene and then with gas lamps. Conclusion: it has become easier for people to communicate with each other. Fashion changed: dresses became more refined, more sophisticated, and also more comfortable to use.
“Unified State Examination in Biology 2009” - The analysis was compiled on the basis of the report of the chairman of the Unified State Examination Commission in Biology L.V. Voronin. Average score in Russia 52.3 in the Yaroslavl region 54.3 in the city of Yaroslavl 54.0. The most difficult tasks in Part C. General deficiencies in Part C answers. Unified State Exam results in biology 2009. 2 people scored 100 points in Yaroslavl region, including Tatyana Berseneva from gymnasium No. 3 in Yaroslavl. The average score is more than 70 - schools No. 80 and No. 33.
Biology is a system of sciences about living nature. Among the various biological sciences, one of the first, more than two thousand years ago, was the science that studied plants - botany (from the Greek botane - greens) - and animals - zoology (from the Greek zoon - animal - and logos). Advances in the development of biology over time led to the emergence of its various directions, which you will become familiar with in high school.
Each organism lives in a specific environmente. Habitat is a part of nature surrounding living organisms with which they interact. There are many living organisms around us. These are plants, animals,would be bacteria. Each of these groups is studied separatelyI am a biological scientist.
The importance of biology in life
person. In our time, humanity faces a particularly acutethey get up like this common problems as health protection,providing food and preserving the diversity of organisms on our planet. Biology, whose research is aimed at solving these and other issues, closely interacts with medicine, agriculture, industry, in particular food and beverages.light, etc.
You all know that when a person gets sick, he uses medicine. Majority medicinal substances obtained from plants or waste products of microorganisms. For example, the lives of hundreds of millions of people were saved by the use of antibiotics (from the Greek anti - pr.otiv - and bios). They are produced certain types fungi and bacteria. Antibiotics kill the causative agents of many dangerous diseases in humans and animals.
Biology also plays an important role in providing food for humanityI eat. Scientists are creating new high-yielding plant varieties and animal breeds, which makes it possible to obtain more food productsania. Research by biologistsdirected
to preserve and increase soil fertility, which ensures high yields. Living organisms are widely used
lare also used in industry. For example, people get yogurt, kefir, and cheeses thanks to the activity of certain types of bacteria and fungi.
However, active and often ill-considered human economic activity has led to significant pollution. environment substances harmful to all living things, to the destruction of forests, virgin steppes, and reservoirs. Over the past centuries, thousands of species of animals, plants and fungi have disappeared, and tens of thousands are on the verge of extinction. But the disappearance of even one species of organism means irretrievable loss for the biological diversity of our planet. Therefore, scientists create lists of species of plants, animals and fungi that need protection (the so-called Red Books), as well as
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identify territories where these species are taken under protection (reserves, nationalsame parks, etc.).
Thus, biology is a science designed to convince people through its research of the need to respect nature and comply with its laws. Therefore, it is considered the science of the future.
The role of biology in modern reality is difficult to overestimate, because it studies in detail human life in all its manifestations. Currently, this science combines such important concepts like evolution, cell theory, genetics, homeostasis and energy. Its functions include the study of the development of all living things, namely: the structure of organisms, their behavior, as well as relationships among themselves and the relationship with the environment.
The importance of biology in human lifeIt becomes clear if we draw a parallel between the main problems of an individual’s life, for example, health, nutrition, as well as the choice of optimal living conditions. Today, there are numerous sciences that have separated from biology, becoming no less important and independent. These include zoology, botany, microbiology, and virology. Of these, it is difficult to single out the most significant; they all represent a complex of the most valuable fundamental knowledge accumulated by civilization.
Outstanding scientists worked in this field of knowledge, such asClaudius Galen, Hippocrates, Carl Linnaeus, Charles Darwin, Alexander Oparin, Ilya Mechnikov and many others. Thanks to their discoveries, especially the study of living organisms, the science of morphology appeared, as well as physiology, which collected knowledge about the systems of organisms of living beings. Genetics has played an invaluable role in the development of hereditary diseases.
Biology has become a solid foundation in medicine, sociology and ecology. It is important that this science, like any other, is not static, but is constantly updated with new knowledge, which is transformed in the form of new biological theories and laws.
The role of biology in modern society, but special
but in medicine, priceless. It was with its help that methods of treating bacteriological and rapidly spreading viral diseases were found. Every time we think about the role of biology in modern society, we remember that it was thanks to the heroism of medical biologists that centers of terrible epidemics disappeared from planet Earth: plague, cholera, typhoid fever, anthrax, smallpox and other diseases no less dangerous to human life.
We can safely say, based on the facts, that the role of biology in modern society is growing continuously. It's impossible to imagine modern life without selection, genetic research, production of new food products, as well as environmentally friendly energy sources.
The main significance of biology is that it represents the foundation and theoretical basis for many advanced sciences, for example, such as genetic engineering and bionics. She owns a great discovery - deciphering the human genome. A direction such as biotechnology was also created on the basis of knowledge combined in biology. Currently, technologies of this nature make it possible to create safe medicines for prevention and treatment that do not harm the body. As a result, it is possible to increase not only life expectancy, but also its quality.
The importance of biology as a science is extremely great, since knowledge historical development organic world, patterns in the structure and functioning of living systems of different ranks, their interrelations, stability and dynamism plays vital role in the formation of a materialistic worldview, drawing up a scientific picture of the world.
In addition, biology contributes to the solution of vital practical problems.
Theoretical achievements of biology are widely used in medicine. It is the successes and discoveries in biology that determine modern level medical science. Thus, genetic data made it possible to develop methods early diagnosis, treatment and prevention of hereditary human diseases. Selection of microorganisms makes it possible to obtain enzymes, vitamins, and hormones necessary for the treatment of a number of diseases. Development genetic engineering opens up broad prospects for biologically produced active compounds and medicinal substances. For example, using genetic engineering methods, the gene for the hormone insulin was obtained and then inserted into the genome of Escherichia coli. This strain of E. coli is capable of synthesizing human insulin, which is used to treat diabetes. In a similar way, somatotropin (growth hormone) and other human hormones, interferon, immunogenic drugs and vaccines are currently obtained.
General biological patterns are used to solve the most various issues in many industries national economy. The rapid growth of the planet's population and the constant reduction of territories occupied by agricultural production have led to global problem modernity - food production. This problem can be solved by such sciences as plant growing and animal husbandry, based on the achievements of genetics and selection. Thanks to knowledge of the laws of heredity and variability, it is possible to create highly productive varieties cultivated plants and breeds of domestic animals, which will allow intensive agricultural production and meet the needs of the planet's population for food resources.
The use of the principles of organization of living beings (bionics) in industry, mechanical engineering, and shipbuilding brings significant economic benefits now and in the future.
Resolving such important issues modernity, such as environmental protection, rational use natural resources, helps the environment. It involves identifying and eliminating negative consequences human impact on nature (environmental pollution by numerous harmful substances), definition of modes rational use biosphere reserves. An urgent task of ecology is to ensure the preservation of the biosphere and the ability of nature to reproduce itself.
Achievements of biology in modern versions taxonomy of life
Based on the latest scientific achievements of modern biological science, the following definition of life has been given: “Life is an open self-regulating and self-reproducing system of aggregates of living organisms, built from complex biological polymers - proteins and nucleic acids"(I. I. Mechnikov).
Recent advances in biology have led to the emergence of fundamentally new directions in science. Revealing the Molecular Structure structural units heredity (genes) served as the basis for the creation of genetic engineering. Using its methods, organisms are created with new, including those not found in nature, combinations of hereditary characteristics and properties. It opens up the possibility of breeding new varieties of cultivated plants and highly productive breeds of animals, creating effective medicines, etc.
Wildlife has arranged itself ingeniously simply and wisely. She has a single self-reproducing DNA molecule on which the program of life is written, and more specifically, the entire process of synthesis, structure and function of proteins as the basic elements of life. In addition to preserving the life program, the DNA molecule performs another important function - its self-reproduction and copying create continuity between generations, the continuity of the thread of life. Once life has arisen, it reproduces itself in a huge variety, which ensures its stability, adaptability to diverse environmental conditions and evolution.
Modern biotechnology
Modern biology is an area of rapid and fantastic transformations in biotechnology.
Biotechnology is based on the use of living organisms and biological processes in industrial production. On their basis, mass production of artificial proteins, nutrients and many other substances has been mastered, with many properties superior to products of natural origin. Microbiological synthesis of enzymes, vitamins, amino acids, antibiotics, etc. is successfully developing. Using genetic technologies and natural bioorganic materials, biologically active substances are synthesized - hormonal drugs and compounds that stimulate the immune system.
Modern biotechnology makes it possible to transform waste wood, straw and other plant materials into valuable nutritious proteins. It includes the process of hydrolysis of the intermediate product - cellulose - and neutralization of the resulting glucose with the introduction of salts. The resulting glucose solution is a nutrient substrate for microorganisms - yeast fungi. As a result of the vital activity of microorganisms, a light brown powder is formed - a high-quality food product containing about 50% raw protein and various vitamins. Nutrient medium Sugar-containing solutions such as molasses stillage and sulfite liquor produced during the production of cellulose can also be used for yeast fungi.
Some species of fungi convert oil, fuel oil and natural gas into edible biomass rich in proteins. Thus, from 100 tons of crude fuel oil, 10 tons of yeast biomass can be obtained, containing 5 tons of pure protein and 90 tons of diesel fuel. The same amount of yeast is produced from 50 tons of dry wood or 30 thousand m3 of natural gas. To produce this amount of protein would require a herd of 10,000 cows, and to support them would require vast areas of arable land. Industrial production proteins are fully automated, and yeast cultures grow thousands of times faster than cattle. One ton of nutritional yeast allows you to get about 800 kg of pork, 1.5-2.5 tons of poultry or 15-30 thousand eggs and save up to 5 tons of grain.
Practical application of achievements modern biology already allows you to receive industrially significant amounts of biologically active substances.
Biotechnology, apparently, will take a leading position in the coming decades and, perhaps, will determine the face of civilization in the 21st century.
Gene technologies
Genetics is the most important area of modern biology.
Modern biotechnology was born on the basis of genetic engineering. There are now a huge number of companies in the world doing business in this area. They make everything: from drugs, antibodies, hormones, food proteins to technical things - ultra-sensitive sensors (biosensors), computer chips, chitin diffusers for good acoustic systems. Genetically engineered products are conquering the world; they are environmentally safe.
At the initial stage of development of gene technologies, a number of biologically active compounds were obtained - insulin, interferon, etc. Modern gene technologies combine the chemistry of nucleic acids and proteins, microbiology, genetics, biochemistry and open up new ways to solve many problems of biotechnology, medicine and agriculture.
Gene technologies are based on the methods of molecular biology and genetics associated with the targeted construction of new gene combinations that do not exist in nature. The main operation of gene technology is to extract from the cells of an organism a gene encoding a desired product, or a group of genes, and combine them with DNA molecules that can multiply in the cells of another organism.
DNA, stored and working in the cell nucleus, reproduces not only itself. IN right moment certain sections of DNA - genes - reproduce their copies in the form of a chemically similar polymer - RNA, ribonucleic acid, which in turn serve as templates for the production of many proteins necessary for the body. It is proteins that determine all the characteristics of living organisms. The main chain of events at the molecular level:
DNA -> RNA -> protein
This line contains the so-called central dogma of molecular biology.
Gene technologies led to the development of modern methods for analyzing genes and genomes, and they, in turn, led to synthesis, i.e. to the construction of new, genetically modified microorganisms. To date, the nucleotide sequences of various microorganisms have been established, including industrial strains, and those that are needed to study the principles of genome organization and to understand the mechanisms of microbial evolution. Industrial microbiologists, in turn, are convinced that knowledge of the nucleotide sequences of the genomes of industrial strains will make it possible to “program” them to generate great income.
Cloning of eukaryotic (nuclear) genes in microbes is the fundamental method that led to the rapid development of microbiology. Fragments of animal and plant genomes are cloned in microorganisms for their analysis. For this purpose, artificially created plasmids are used as molecular vectors, gene carriers, as well as many other molecular formations for isolation and cloning.
Using molecular tests (DNA fragments with a specific nucleotide sequence), it is possible to determine, say, whether donor blood is infected with the AIDS virus. And genetic technologies for identifying certain microbes make it possible to monitor their spread, for example, inside a hospital or during epidemics.
Genetic technologies for vaccine production are developing in two main directions. The first is the improvement of existing vaccines and the creation of a combined vaccine, i.e. consisting of several vaccines. The second direction is obtaining vaccines against diseases: AIDS, malaria, stomach ulcers, etc.
For recent years Gene technologies have significantly improved the efficiency of traditional producer strains. For example, in a fungal strain that produces the antibiotic cephalosporin, the number of genes encoding expandase, an activity that determines the rate of cephalosporin synthesis, was increased. As a result, antibiotic production increased by 15-40%.
Targeted work is being carried out to genetically modify the properties of microbes used in bread production, cheese making, the dairy industry, brewing and winemaking in order to increase the resistance of production strains, increase their competitiveness against harmful bacteria and improve the quality of the final product.
Genetically modified microbes are beneficial in the fight against harmful viruses and germs and insects. For example:
- plant resistance to herbicides, which is important for combating weeds that clog fields and reduce the yield of cultivated plants. Herbicide-resistant varieties of cotton, corn, rapeseed, soybeans, sugar beets, wheat and other plants have been obtained and used.
- plant resistance to insect pests. Development of a delta-endotoxin protein produced by different strains of the bacterium Bacillus turingensis. This protein is toxic to many species of insects and is safe for mammals, including humans.
- plant resistance to viral diseases. To do this, genes are introduced into the genome of a plant cell that block the reproduction of viral particles in plants, for example interferon, nucleases. Transgenic tobacco, tomato and alfalfa plants with the beta-interferon gene have been obtained.
In addition to genes in the cells of living organisms, there are also independent genes in nature. They are called viruses if they can cause infection. It turned out that the virus is nothing more than packaged in a protein shell genetic material. The shell is a purely mechanical device, like a syringe, for packaging and then injecting genes, and only genes, into the host cell and falling off. Then the viral genes in the cell begin to reproduce their RNA and their proteins on themselves. All this overwhelms the cell, it bursts, dies, and the virus in thousands of copies is released and infects other cells.
Illness and sometimes even death are caused by foreign, viral proteins. If the virus is “good”, the person does not die, but may be sick for the rest of his life. Classic example– herpes, the virus of which is present in the body of 90% of people. This is the most adaptable virus, usually infecting a person in childhood and living in him constantly.
Thus, viruses are, in essence, biological weapons invented by evolution: a syringe filled with genetic material.
Now an example from modern biotechnology, an example of an operation with the germ cells of higher animals for noble purposes. Humanity is experiencing difficulties with interferon, an important protein with anticancer and antiviral activity. Interferon is produced by animals, including humans. Alien, non-human, interferon cannot be used to treat people; it is rejected by the body or is ineffective. A person produces too little interferon for its release for pharmacological purposes. Therefore, the following was done. The human interferon gene was introduced into a bacterium, which then multiplied in large quantities produced human interferon in accordance with the human gene contained in it. Now this standard technique is used all over the world. In the same way, and for quite some time now, genetically engineered insulin has been produced. With bacteria, however, many difficulties arise in purifying the desired protein from bacterial impurities. Therefore, they are beginning to abandon them, developing methods for introducing the necessary genes into higher organisms. It is more difficult, but provides enormous benefits. Now, in particular, dairy production of the necessary proteins using pigs and goats is already widespread. The principle here, very briefly and simplified, is this. Eggs are removed from the animal and foreign genes are inserted into their genetic apparatus, under the control of the animal's milk protein genes, which determine the production of the necessary proteins: interferon, or antibodies necessary for humans, or special food proteins. The eggs are then fertilized and returned to the body. Some of the offspring begin to produce milk containing the necessary protein, and it is quite easy to isolate it from milk. It turns out to be much cheaper, safer and cleaner.
In the same way, cows were bred to produce “human” milk (cow's milk with the necessary human proteins), suitable for artificial feeding of human babies. And this is now a rather serious problem.
In general, we can say that in practical terms, humanity has reached a rather dangerous milestone. We learned to influence the genetic apparatus, including those of higher organisms. We learned how to target, selectively influence genes and produce so-called transgenic organisms—organisms that carry any foreign genes. DNA is a substance that can be manipulated. In the last two or three decades, methods have emerged that can cut DNA in the right places and glue it to any other piece of DNA. Moreover, not only certain ready-made genes can be cut and pasted, but also recombinants - combinations of different genes, including artificially created ones. This direction is called genetic engineering. Man became a genetic engineer. In his hands, in the hands of a being who was not so intellectually perfect, boundless, gigantic possibilities appeared - like those of the Lord God.
Modern cytology
New methods, especially electron microscopy, the use of radioactive isotopes and high-speed centrifugation, make it possible to achieve enormous advances in the study of cell structure. In developing a unified concept of the physicochemical aspects of life, cytology is increasingly moving closer to other biological disciplines. At the same time, her classical methods, based on fixation, staining and studying cells under a microscope, still retain practical importance.
Cytological methods are used, in particular, in plant breeding to determine the chromosomal composition of plant cells. Such studies are of great assistance in planning experimental crosses and evaluating the results obtained. A similar cytological analysis is carried out on human cells: it allows us to identify some hereditary diseases associated with changes in the number and shape of chromosomes. Such an analysis in combination with biochemical tests is used, for example, in amniocentesis to diagnose hereditary defects in the fetus.
However, the most important application of cytological methods in medicine is the diagnosis of malignant neoplasms. Specific changes occur in cancer cells, especially in their nuclei. Malignant formations are nothing more than deviations in the normal development process due to the systems that control development, primarily genetic ones, going out of control. Cytology is a fairly simple and highly informative method of screening diagnostics. various manifestations papillomavirus. This study is conducted in both men and women.
Cloning
Cloning is a process in which living creature produced from a single cell taken from another living being.
Cloning is generally defined as the production of cells or organisms with the same nuclear genomes as another cell or organism. Accordingly, by cloning it is possible to create any living organism or part of it, identical to an existing one or, etc.................
