Russia: formation great power
At the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. Russia established itself as a great power. During the 18th century alone, its population increased from approximately 15.6 million people to 37.3 million. This was more than in France and England combined. After the creation of metallurgical enterprises in the Urals in the 18th century, Russia smelted more cast iron and iron than England.
Russia and Ukraine in the 17th century
The most significant changes in the position of Russia and the nature of its development occurred during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov (reigned 1645-1676).
During these years, Russia waged almost continuous wars with its traditional opponents - the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden and Crimean Khanate.
In 1648, a war began between Poland and Zaporozhye Cossack army. In 1649, the Cossacks turned to Russia for help. She was not yet ready to fight, but promised to support the Cossacks with money, weapons and volunteers.
The Zaporozhye army was unique public education, which arose in the 16th century on the vast territory of the middle and lower Dnieper region. These lands, bordering the Crimean Khanate from the south and constantly subject to its raids, and Russia from the north
They were considered to belong to Poland, but she had no real power over them. Peasants from Russian, Polish and Lithuanian lands settled here for decades, escaping the tyranny of the landowners. They mixed with the local population, started farming, and fought back Crimean Tatars, themselves carried out raids on the Crimea, and sometimes on Polish lands. Ukrainian Cossacks who lived in the middle reaches of the Dnieper received money for their service from the Polish crown. The hetman, colonels, and captains they chose were established in Warsaw. The Cossacks who lived in the lower reaches of the Dnieper - “beyond the rapids” (hence Zaporozhye) were formally subjects of the Polish crown, but considered themselves independent of it. Their support was a fortified settlement - Zaporozhye Sich.
Poland's attempts to subjugate all the Cossacks to its power became the cause of the war, which with varying success lasted until 1654. In 1653, the hetman Zaporozhye army Bogdan Khmelnytsky (1595 - 1657) officially turned to Russia with a request to accept Ukraine “under the high royal hand.” Zemsky Sobor in 1654 he decided to join Ukraine as part of Russia. The agreement signed and approved by the All-Ukrainian Rada in Pereyaslavl provided for the preservation of Ukrainian Cossacks broad rights, in particular the election of all officials.
The reunification of Ukraine with Russia became the reason Russian-Polish war 1654-1667 It went poorly for Poland, which was also attacked by Sweden. Under these conditions, Russia signed a truce with Poland in 1656 and opposed Sweden, which it saw as a more dangerous enemy.
Meanwhile, the situation in Ukraine has worsened. B. Khmelnitsky's successor, Hetman I. Vygovsky, in 1658 terminated the agreement with Russia and entered into an alliance with Poland and Crimea, they jointly began military operations against Russia. In a difficult situation for yourself Russian government was forced, at the cost of returning all the conquered territories to Sweden, to urgently make peace with it. The problem of accessing Baltic Sea again remained unresolved.
The situation of Russia, whose army suffered big losses, worsened the split of Ukraine into Right Bank and Left Bank. In 1667, Russia concluded a truce with Poland. Right Bank Ukraine remained under her authority.
The war in the south did not end there. In 1672, the armies of Turkey and the Crimean Khanate invaded Ukraine. The outbreak of war between Turkey and Russia proceeded with varying degrees of success. Only in 1681 was a peace treaty signed, according to which Kyiv and Left Bank Ukraine remained with Russia.
Development of Ukrainian culture in the XIV - first half of the XVII century. organically connected with the historical circumstances that took place in the lands of Ukraine, which was then part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Union of Kreva (in 1385) marked the beginning of the unification of Lithuania and Poland, giving the Polish gentry the right to own Ukrainian lands, thereby legitimizing expansion Latin culture for several centuries. On a positive note in this process there was the entry of Ukrainian lands into space Western civilization. On the other hand, Poland launched an all-out attack on Ukrainian culture, Orthodox faith, customs, traditions, language. Incredibly hard for Ukrainian people was the first half of the 15th century. through annual attacks Tatar hordes. This factor had a negative impact on the economic and cultural development Ukraine. In the XVI century. Ukraine entered into ruin. The Union of Lublin (in 1569) finally legitimized the policy of national, religious and social oppression of the Ukrainian people, which in turn led to open protest of the Ukrainian population. Polish magnates led the way in the colonization offensive against Ukraine. Having captured the Kholm region, Galicia and Podolia, after the Union of Lublin they moved to Volyn, Bratslav region, Kiev region and, ultimately, to the Left Bank. Soreka, Yazlovetski, Zamoyski, Sinyavski, Zholkevski, Kalinovski, Pototski and other magnate families took huge spaces, creating real latifundia, to which hundreds of villages, dozens of towns and castles, and entire spacious provinces belonged. These “royals” were unlimited owners of their lands, because they occupied highest positions in public administration. All sorts of complaints local population they were brought to power to no avail, because the magnate elite concentrated all power in their hands. Small businesses moved to Ukraine together with the tycoons Polish gentry, hungry and poor, who, with her masters and herself, hoped to acquire estates and wealth. Under the magnates, Jews also found a living for themselves, who were lordly agents and factors, renting taverns, mills, tolls and even churches. The main colonization campaign was led by the Latin clergy. Already in the 15th century, in addition to Lvov, Przemishl and Kholm, Latin bishoprics were also founded in Kamenka, Lutsk and Kyiv. In the first half of the 17th century. unusually widespread propaganda in the east was carried out by the Jesuits, who settled in Yaroslavl, Peremishli, Lvov, Berest, Lutsk, Ostrog, Kamenka, Bar, Vinnitsa, Kyiv and other cities. The Jesuits carried out propaganda among magnates, gentry, and philistines; they paid special attention to the wealthy, talented and outstanding people, trying to attract them to the Latin Church and the same to the Polish national camp. Jesuits founded schools with good teachers, in order to attract Ukrainian youth to themselves and thereby denationalize them. Consequently, the process of colonization was carried out simultaneously in both the economic and cultural spheres of life of Ukrainian society. In the next three decades after the Union of Lublin, the process of colonization was opposed by Ukrainian aristocratic families. They considered it their duty to defend culture, to protect the church, education, and charitable institutions. This was done by such outstanding representatives of the aristocracy as Grigory Khotkevich, who established a printing house in Zabludovi, or Konstantin Ostrozky, who founded an academy in Ostrog, or Vasily Zagorovsky, who founded a school in his village. However, the patriotism of the aristocracy was closely related to service to the state. When State of Lithuania gone, new generations soon forgot its traditions and began to bow to a new state that promised significance and dignity - Poland. Meletiy Smotritsky wrote about the path of renegadery that almost all noble families followed in his “Tre-carry, or holy lamenti” eastern church"(in 1612). Peasant yard The peasant yard usually included: a hut covered with shingles or straw, heated “in black”; a crate for storing property; a cattle shed, a shed. In winter, peasants kept (piglets, calves) in their hut , lambs). Poultry (chickens, geese, ducks). interior walls the houses were heavily smoked. For lighting, a torch was used, which was inserted into the stove crevices. The peasant hut was quite meager, and consisted of simple tables and benches, but also for sleeping, fixed along the wall (they served not only for sitting, but also for sleeping). In winter, peasants slept on the stove. The material for clothing was homespun canvas, sheep skins (sheepskin) and animals caught in hunting (usually wolves and bears). Shoes were mainly bast shoes. Wealthy peasants wore pistons (pistons) - shoes made from one or two pieces of leather and gathered around the ankle with a strap, and sometimes boots. Peasant nutrition Food was prepared in a Russian oven in earthenware. The basis of nutrition was grain crops - rye, wheat, oats, millet. Bread and pies were baked from rye (sowing) and wheat (on holidays) flour. Jelly, beer and kvass were made from oats. A lot was eaten - cabbage, carrots, radishes, cucumbers, turnips. On holidays in small quantities prepared meat dishes. Fish became a more common product on the table. Wealthy peasants had garden trees that provided them with apples, plums, cherries, and pears. IN northern regions country peasants collected cranberries, lingonberries, and blueberries; V central regions- strawberries. Hazelnuts were also used as food. Conclusion: Thus, despite the preservation of traditional life, customs and morals in the main features, in the 17th century in life and everyday life all classes there were significant changes, which were based on both the eastern and Western influence. Appendix Peasant in traditional clothes Peasant costume.
The people living “against the sun, with their heads towards the Chumatsky cart, with their feet towards blue sea", as it is sung in an old song. Whitewashed huts surrounded by gardens, beautiful stove tiles and pottery, bright, cheerful fairs - all these are recognizable signs of a rich traditional culture Ukrainians...
Settlement and formation of ethnicity
Group of girls and married women in festive outfits
In the southwest Eastern Europe"against the sun, head towards the Chumatsky cart ( Big Dipper), feet to the blue sea,” as the people sang, the ancient Slavic land Ukraine.
The origin of the name meaning “edge, extreme” dates back to the time of existence ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus. So in the XII-XIII centuries. the southerners called it southwestern lands- right bank Dnieper region: Kiev region, Pereyaslav region, Chernigovo-Severshchyna, which became the center of formation of the Ukrainian nationality. Subsequently, the name Ukraine was assigned to the entire ethnic territory.
Main activity
The main occupation of Ukrainians - agriculture - regulated the way of life of the peasant family and the community as a whole. Grain and products prepared from it (porridge, kutia, loaf) were present as attributes in almost all rituals of the calendar cycle and rituals associated with life cycle person. For Ukrainians, like for many other peoples, bread was a symbol of hospitality. There was always bread and salt on the table in the house. Eyewitnesses noted that the Ukrainians received their guests cordially and kindly, sparing nothing for their dear guest. Cattle breeding predominated in the mountainous regions of the Carpathians.
Settlements and housing
Ukrainian villages were located near rivers, occupying lands not suitable for arable land. Farm settlements were built in the steppe regions.
"Rushnik" - a towel. Late XIX century. Kharkov province, Zmeevsky district
The main dwelling of the Ukrainians was a whitewashed adobe hut with a high hipped roof, covered with straw or reeds, the edges of which protruded significantly above the walls, protecting the inhabitants of the hut from the cold in winter and from the heat in summer. For additional insulation in winter, the walls of the hut were lined with straw. Clean, whitewashed huts were almost always surrounded by gardens, and light fences and narrow gates made of poles made it possible to see the courtyard and its inhabitants.
The owner and her daughters whitewashed the hut after every rainstorm, and also three times during the year: for Easter, Trinity and Intercession.
Interior space huts
Painted stove and painting on the wall near the stove
The stove occupied almost a quarter of the hut and was located in the left corner from the entrance. This angle was called “baked”, and empty space under the stove - "pidpichcha" - was used to store fuel, or a cage for chickens - "kuku" - was placed there.
Opposite the stove corner there was a red corner - “pokuttya”. Here, on the shelves - shrines, there were icons that were called blessed, since they were used to bless the owner, the mistress and their sons before the wedding. The icons were covered with patterned towels - “gods”.
The corner to the right of the doors, called “deaf,” had exclusively economic purposes. The space above the door and top part A blind corner was occupied by a shelf - a “polytsia”, on which stood spare pots, turned upside down. Closer to the corner, numerous women's jewelry was kept in pottery. Below were shelves with the best tableware placed in a prominent place: painted clay and wooden bowls, spoons, plates and flasks.
Hutsul ceramics
Ceramic Kandiyka bowls. Poltava province, Zenkovsky u., metro station Opashnya.
The natural and geographical conditions of the Carpathian region predetermined the unique culture of its population, known as the Rusyns, or Hutsuls. Despite the fact that this group of the Ukrainian people lived in isolation from them due to territorial and political alienation, they did not lose their cultural and historical unity with their ethnic group. The Hutsul region was famous for its ceramic products.
The stove made a special impression on those entering the Hutsul hut. inner part the chimney of which - the fireplace - was lined with tiles - "kahls". The fireplace consists of two or three tiers of tiles, closed at the top and bottom with rows of narrow cornices. The upper edge of the fireplace was completed by two or three pediments - “hidden” and “bumps” at an angle. The tiles depicted scenes from the life of the Hutsuls, churches, crosses, faces of saints, Austrian coat of arms, flowers.
Vessel. Eastern Galicia, p. Pistyn. End of the 19th century. Ukrainians are Hutsuls
The decoration of the stove fireplace was consistent with the “mysnik” - a cabinet of three or four shelves, placed in the partition between the door to the hut and the side wall, and the “mysnik” - a shelf above the door where pottery stood: “gleki” (“dzbanki”), “chersaki” (pots), bathhouses, vessels for drinks - rolls, “pleskanki”, bowls, etc. The most elegant bowls, serving exclusively as interior decoration, were placed on the “mysnik”, which for the same reason was decorated with carvings and burnt patterns.
Clay products attracted attention with the perfection of forms, variety of decor and color scheme- brown, yellow and green. All products were covered with glaze, which glittered, creating a cloudy days atmosphere of festivity and elegance.
The production of ceramics was carried out by Hutsul potters from Kosovo and Pistyn. The most famous of them: I. Baranbk, O. Bakhmatyuk, P. Tsvilik, P. Koshak. As a rule, they were all hereditary potters who embodied in their products not only best achievements predecessors, but, of course, revealed their individuality.
Despite the fact that the main occupations of the Hutsuls were cattle breeding and, first of all, sheep breeding, as well as logging and rafting of timber, many of them were also engaged in trades, especially those who lived in towns and had neither land nor livestock. For a Hutsul girl there was nothing more honorable than to marry a craftsman.
Ukrainian fair
Fair in the village of Yankovtsi. Poltava province, Lubensky district. Ukrainians.
In most Ukrainian villages there were fairs on major temple holidays. The busiest of them took place in the fall, after the harvest. The marketplace was located on the temple square or on a pasture outside the village.
The fair for peasants was a kind of “club” where they supported public relations and dating. The fair rows were located in strict sequence: in one row they sold pottery, factory utensils and icons, there were also grocery and tea shops located here; in another row - textiles, haberdashery, caps, women's scarves, shoes; in the next - wood products - wheels, arches, chests, etc.; in the latter - tar and fish.
There were separate places where cattle and horses were sold. Here the gypsies acted as intermediaries. After a successful purchase and sale business as usual there was drinking magarych: “The beggars exchanged crutches, and even then they drank magarych for three days,” - that’s what the people said.
At fairs, people were entertained by traveling gymnasts or comedians, but more often by performers folk songs to the accompaniment of the lyre or blind musicians playing the harmonium. The trade lasted three to four hours, then everything was cleared away, and by evening there was not a trace left of the motley noisy crowd and crush except the fair's litter. The big fair lasted two or three days.
As a matter of fact, it is no secret that the word “Ukraine” (oukraina, outskirts) means “borderland” in Russian. For the first time it is found in Russian chronicles in this meaning, in relation to the Peryaslav principality, which really was the border between Russia and the steppe in 1187 in the Ipatiev Chronicle:
and everyone cried for Pereslavtsi. I love the druzhin. and don’t collect gold. the name will not be spared. but let's have a druzhin. The prince is kind. and strong in the army. and with the courage of a strong show. and filled with all kinds of virtues. ѡ it’s not Ukraine moaning a lot
Regarding the Galician borderland
And he rode and Smolensk in a greyhound and came to him Ukraine Galichkoi
[PSRL. - T. 2. Ipatiev Chronicle. - St. Petersburg, 1908. - Stlb. 652-673.]
And regarding the Volyn borderland
Danilo returned the show to the house. and driving with my brother. and under Berestia. and Ougrovesk. and Vereshchin. and Stolp Komov. and all Oukrainou .
[PSRL. - T. 2. Ipatiev Chronicle. - St. Petersburg, 1908. - Stlb. 715-736.]
One should not assume that this term was applied exclusively to modern Ukrainian lands (which, of course, were the Russian borderland, just look at the map of Rus').
And for this reason Andrei from Polochana and his of Ukraine Having driven the missing and fought for a while, he sat down.
In the summer of 6856 (1348) June, on Ivan's Day, the Pskov mayor Ilya and the Pskovites rode to the town of Oreshk to help the Novgorodians against the Sveian king Magnush. And at that time Nemtsi destroyed the peace with the Pskovites and, having moved to Norov, fought the Pskov village. And then again, with another of Ukraine came, you fought Ostrovskaya and Izborskaya; and, having arrived near Pskov, burned Zavelichye and repaired a lot of evil and burned the Izborsk volosts
Pskov I Chronicle
IN in this case, there is no doubt that for Russian chroniclers the meaning of the word “ukraine” is unambiguous - borderland.
This word exists in the same meaning in the 17th century. The most famous map of the Ukrainian borderland of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is the Boplan map of 1648.
It is indicative what the map is called: Delineatio generalis Camporum Desertorum vulgo Ukraine, i.e. General plan desert plains commonly called Ukraine
Naturally, over the years Mongol invasion, then the yoke, and then constant raids, this region, which was once the southern borderland of Rus' on the border with the steppe, became depopulated. The center of this Polish Ukraine itself was approximately the Dnepropetrovsk region. Interestingly, on another map of the same time, compiled by the Blau brothers, these lands already belong to Russia, but are called Ocraina Dikoia (Wild Borderland).
What does NOT apply to Ukraine in the Boplan map: Severshchina, Kiev region, Chernihiv region, Podolia (with Bratslav region), Pokuttya, and Russian Voivodeship (Galicia and Lodomeria). Those. the inhabitants of these regions are NOT Ukrainians.
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