2. The emergence of the state Eastern Slavs.

a) The first mentions of Rus'.

The first mentions of the name “Rus” date back to the 5th–7th centuries AD. Describing the tribes that lived between the Dnieper and the Dniester, the Greeks called them Ants, Scythians, Sarmatians, Gothic historians called them Rosomans (Russian people), and the Arabs called them Rus. But it's obvious that we're talking about about the same people.

The question of the beginning of the state of Rus' gave rise to a long discussion between Normanists and anti-Normanists, in which political and ideological considerations will play a large role. The Normanists created and defended the Norman theory, arguing that the state in Rus' was created by the Scandinavians - the Normans (Varangians): in the middle of the 9th century (according to the chronicle in 862), at the call of the Novgorod Slavs, Krivichi and Chuds, Rurik came to reign from Scandinavia to them, whom, apparently, were called in order to have the strength of the Vikings and to overcome acute internal contradictions, the objective basis for which was created by the complex ethnic composition of the Ilmen region.

Opponents vehemently denied the theory of the Normanists and looked for the first rulers and creators of the state of Rus' among other peoples - Western Slavs, Finns, Hungarians, Khazars, etc. However, often both of them identified the origin of the state with the origin of the ruling dynasty. The problem of the origin of the name “Rus” is also debatable. The most developed is the “Scandinavian” version, which comes from the meaning of the Old Norse verb “to row”, meaning warrior oarsmen or princely warriors.

b) Founding of Kyiv.

Already by the end of the 5th century AD, scientists date the events contained in the Russian chronicle related to the founding of the great city - Kyiv - the capital of one East Slavic tribal union, named by name, which later became the capital of the ancient Russian state.

The chronicle says that one of the Polyan princes, Kiy, together with his brothers Shchek and Khoriv and sister Lybid, founded the city and named it Kiev in honor of their elder brother. Then Kiy “went to the Tsar - the city,” that is, to Constantinople, was received there by the emperor with great honor, and returning back, he settled with his squad on the Danube, founded a “gradok” there, but subsequently entered into a fight with the local residents and again returned to the banks of the Dnieper, where he died. This legend finds well-known confirmation in archaeological data, which suggests that at the end of the 5th - 6th centuries there was a fortified urban-type settlement on the Kyiv Mountains, former center Polian union of tribes.

History of education ancient city takes place throughout the history of the ancient Russian state. After all, a once small settlement of Slavs gave its name to the whole state.

c) Formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs.

By the beginning of the 8th century, the name Rus began to be applied to the Eastern Slavs - this indicates the emergence of statehood among them, but before that they had to go a long way.

On the eve of the unification of most East Slavic tribes under the rule of Kyiv, at least 15 large tribal unions existed here. In the Middle Dnieper region lived a powerful union of tribes, united by the name “Polyane”. The Middle Dnieper region was the most developed region among other East Slavic lands. It was here, on the free black soil lands, in favorable climate conditions, on the trade “Dnieper” road, that the greatest number population. It was here that the ancient traditions of arable farming, cattle breeding, and gardening developed and were preserved, iron and pottery production was improved, and other craft specialties were born. Agriculture, the main type of economy of the early medieval world, continued to improve especially intensively. Tools of labor improved. The plow became a widespread type of agricultural machinery, and sickles began to be used for harvesting. Stone and bronze tools are a thing of the past. Every year, arable lands expanded, steppe and forest-steppe lands suitable for agriculture were widely developed. Two-field and three-field crop rotations began to spread in Slavic lands, replacing shifting agriculture, which was characterized by clearing land from forests, using it until it was depleted, and then abandoning it. Soil humiliation began to be widely practiced. And this made harvests higher and people’s livelihoods more secure. The constantly improving economy of the Eastern Slavs eventually led to the fact that an individual family, an individual house no longer needed the help of their clan or relatives. The single family household began to disintegrate, huge houses accommodating up to a hundred people increasingly began to give way to small family dwellings. Common ancestral property, common arable land, lands began to break up into separate plots, family owned. A plow with an iron plowshare, an iron axe, a shovel, a hoe, a bow and arrows appeared, steel swords significantly expanded and strengthened the power of the individual, the individual family over nature and contributed to the withering away of the tribal community.

Now it became a neighborhood one, where each family had the right to its share of communal property. This is how the right of private ownership, private property was born, and the opportunity arose for individual strong families

To develop large tracts of land, obtain more products through fishing activities, and create certain surplus accumulations. Under these conditions, the power and economic capabilities of tribal leaders, elders, tribal nobility, and warriors surrounding the leaders increased sharply. This is how property inequality arose in the Slavic environment, which most often fell into the hands of the propertied, deepened the property difference between rich and poor, and gave rise to classes. And also the products of artisans multiplied every year. Gradually their work became increasingly separated from rural labor. The artisans themselves began to settle where it was more convenient and easier for them to sell and exchange their products.

Such places became, of course, settlements located where shrines were located, where many people came to worship. This contributed to the formation of cities and the development of trade relations.

Cities originated as settlements that simultaneously performed all political, economic, religious, and military tasks. They had prospects further development and turned into large population centers, uniting vast territories with each other, which acquired the status of a state.

d) Formation Kievan Rus as states.

Political side the genesis of feudal society among the Slavs in the 8th – 10th centuries was the formation medieval states. It came in two main forms: Great Moravia, in Rus', Poland and the Czech Republic - by subordinating the tribal principalities of other unions to one union; in Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia - within the same union of tribal principalities. With the exception of the territories south of the Danube, taken by the Slavs from the Eastern Roman Empire, Slavic states arose in areas that were not part of the zone of ancient civilization, and their feudal relations, unlike Western Europe, developed in a slow, non-synthetic way. The state of the Eastern Slavs arose in the 9th – 10th centuries. Its capital became the city of Kyiv. This is where the name of the state came from - Kievan Rus. Already in the 7th-9th centuries, a social structure had developed in it - military democracy, which represented the last period primitive communal system, which already contained signs of social inequality and future class relations. The leaders of the tribe now turned into princes, in whose hands the control of the tribe and the union of tribes was concentrated. They were marked by wealth, the presence of companions and military support. Next to the prince, the governor and leader stood out tribal army. More important role played by a squad personally devoted to the prince. She was separated from the tribal militia, whose main job was war, a feature-privilege in society. The main part of the tribe were free people- smerds, who had the right to participate in the war and folk tribal meetings - veche. Then, among the free people, they began to single out those who had to obey them - servants. At the lowest levels of society were the “slaves” - the poor people of the community who did not have their own families and households. And the very bottom of the social ladder was filled with “slaves” - captives engaged in forced labor. Thus, the structure of tribal life of the ancient Russian state had a complex, branched system, in which there were clearly distinguished social differences.

The early feudal state was still characterized by such features as underdevelopment state apparatus and the presence of remnants of the tribal organization of society (veche, militia of peasants and artisans, court based on customs).

e) Submission of the East Slavic tribes to the Russian princes.

In the 8th – 10th centuries, the Kyiv princes gradually subjugated East Slavic unions tribal principalities. The leading role in this was played, of course, by the military-service nobility - the squad. Some of the unions were subjugated in two stages. At first, they only paid taxes - tribute, while maintaining internal autonomy. Tribute was collected through polyudye - collection of tribute from vassal tribes from late autumn to spring. At the second stage, the unions were directly subordinated to the Kyiv prince. The local reign was liquidated, and a representative of the Kyiv dynasty was appointed as governor. At the same time, in order to neutralize the separatist tendencies of the local nobility, a new “city” was built instead of the old tribal center: Vladimir-Volynsky, Turov, Smolensk, etc.

The lands of the Drevlyans, Dryagovichs, Radimichis, and Krivichis were subjugated in the 9th century. The Vyatichi still fought for their independence for a long time. The Volynians and Croats immediately submitted to Kyiv, but only at the end of the 10th century. The lands of the Ulichs and Tivirs were occupied by the Pechenegs, also in the 10th century.

f) The first Russian princes.

As mentioned earlier, the founder of the reign in Rus' was Rurik, invited from Scandinavia by the Slavic tribes. But after his death in 879, the throne in Kyiv was seized by his successor - Oleg - uniting the two most important centers of the Eastern Slavs: Kyiv and Novgorod. According to chronicles, in 882 Oleg lured out of Kyiv and killed Askold and Dir, the Varangians who freed the glades from tribute to the Khazars. Then he subjugated the Drevlyans, northerners, and Radimichi. The prince ruled in Kyiv for 33 years. The legend of his death was sung by A. S. Pushkin in the “Song of Prophetic Oleg". Thus, the more developed Middle Dnieper region became the core state territory Rus', and northern lands turned into a region subordinate to the Kyiv princes.

Oleg's successor was Igor (912 - 945), according to the chronicle - the son of Rurik, who was killed while collecting additional tribute from the Drevlyans in 945. His widow, Olga, cruelly took revenge on the Drevlyans, destroying their lands and exterminating the nobility.

g) Activities of the first Russian princes.

Already during the reign of Rurik, the Russian army carried out military campaigns against the Crimean possessions of Byzantium, moving on high-speed boats along the Black, Azov, and Caspian seas, conquering the coast of Crimea from Chersonese to Kerch. As a result of these campaigns and an accidental serious illness, Rurik was the first to be baptized. Thanks to Rurik, by the beginning of the 9th century, Rus' was freed from paying tribute to the Khazars. After Byzantium, Rurik headed to Asia Minor, conquering lands along the Dnieper, in the areas of the Black and Azov Seas, the Volga, the Caspian Sea, as well as conquering the Greeks and Khazars, Avars and Balts. So, Rurik marked the beginning of the emergence of a powerful power with certain military and strategic interests.

Oleg, having come to power, strengthened it by accepting the title of Grand Duke, making other princes his tributaries. He also carried out campaigns against Byzantium.

This was one of the the most important areas Russian foreign policy, because the campaigns of the Kyiv princes, ending in victory, opened up the most important trade routes that promised prosperity and strengthening to the barely formed ancient Russian state.

It should also be said that the first Russian princes took the initiative to add the eastern title “Kagan” to the title “prince”. This act symbolized independence from Khazaria, a Turkic state that formed in the 7th century between the lower Don and Volga rivers, which also bore the name Khazar Kaganate.

3. Kievan Rus at the end of the 9th century.

Formation territorial structure The state of Rus' ended at the end of the 9th century, although not completely. But by this time, autonomy had been eliminated in almost all East Slavic unions of tribal principalities, except for the Vyatichi, Volynians and Croats. The form of collecting tribute also changed. Polyudye was liquidated. Tribute was now collected by the governors Prince of Kyiv. Two-thirds of it was sent to Kyiv, and the remaining part was distributed among the prince’s warriors - the governors. The territories governed by princely governors received the name volost. In general, in the 9th century the state was called “Rus”, “Russian Land”. The name spread from the Middle Dnieper region to the entire territory subject to the great Kyiv princes.

III. Conclusion.

So, in the 9th century AD, the Eastern Slavs formed the feudal state of Rus', the common historical cradle of three peoples: Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. After the name of its capital, this power of the Eastern Slavs was called Kievan Rus. From Kievan Rus there is a continuous thousand-year line historical development to Muscovite Rus' of the 15th–17th centuries, to Russian Empire XVIII - early XX centuries and, finally, to the modern state - Russia of the XXI century. That is why it is very important for each of us to know not only the history of Kievan Rus, but also to find out the question of how this largest state, which is our Motherland, emerged in Europe. This question interests scientists to this day. To answer it, you need to understand historical roots Russian and others Slavic peoples, identify their place on the ancient geographical map of Europe, understand their relationships with other European peoples. These issues are passed on from generation to generation, while Russia is considered the only country in the world, a kind of world bridge, where the two world civilizations of Europe and Asia meet, and where their active interpenetration and mutual influence takes place.

References

S.G. Goryainov, A.A. Egorov. History of Russia IX - XVIII centuries. V. Rostov-on-Don. "Phoenix". 1996

John Fenner. The crisis of Medieval Rus'. Moscow. "Progress". 1989.

Tutorial: History of Russia. Moscow. "Bustard". 2000

B.A. Rybakov. Kievan Rus and Russian principalities. Moscow. "Science". 1993

A.N. Sakharov, V.I. Buganov. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. Moscow. "Enlightenment". 1997

Subjugating the mass of ordinary community members, he needs to maintain his dominance in government agencies. The processes of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the split of society into classes precede the formation of the ancient Russian state and proceed immanently, of course in connection with the outside world, evidence of which is foreign trade, coins, and treasures, but without its decisive participation...

They call another one - “the third Rus'”. As studies have shown, Baltic Rus' and the “third Rus'” are closely related. And this problem today is one of the most important in the topic of the origin of Rus' and education Old Russian state. The previously mentioned legend of the 15th century about the origin of Rurik from the territory of Neman Rus' was intended to disavow another legend: about the origin of Lithuanian (or...

And showing Igor, he said: “Here is the son of Rurik!” In a word, Askold and Dir, sentenced to execution, fell dead at the feet of the Olegs under the swords of the murderers.” III. The formation of the Old Russian state ancient Rus' Varangians Kyiv 1. Initial forms of Russian statehood The embryonic form of statehood was represented by East Slavic tribal unions that united into super-unions, however...

Lands and tribal principalities. The Old Russian state has not yet taken shape; its formation ends with the merger of the Dnieper region with the Ilmen region, Kyiv and Novgorod, the two most important centers of Rus'. The merger of Kyiv and Novgorod completed the formation of the Old Russian state. The chronicle associated this event with the name of Oleg. In 882 As a result of the campaign of the squads led by Oleg from Novgorod to Kyiv along...

The emergence of a state among the Eastern Slavs

3. features of the formation of the state of the Eastern Slavs.

The object of the study is the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs.

The subject of the study is social relations related to the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs.

1. Prerequisites for the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs

The Old Russian state arose as a result of the complex interaction of a whole complex of both internal and external factors.

The following preconditions for the emergence of a state among the Eastern Slavs are identified.

1.1 Spiritual background

Like some other factors, the evolution of the pagan ideas of the Slavs of that era contributed to the establishment of the power of the prince. Thus, as the military power of the prince grew, bringing booty to the tribe, defending it from external enemies and taking upon his shoulders the problem of resolving internal disputes, his prestige grew and at the same time alienation from free community members occurred.

Thus, as a result of the prince’s removal from the circle of affairs and concerns familiar to the community members, which often resulted in the creation of a fortified inter-tribal center - the residence of the prince and the squad of military successes, as well as as a result of his performing complex administrative functions, he was endowed supernatural powers and abilities. They began to see the prince as the guarantee of the well-being of the entire tribe, and his personality was identified with the tribal totem. All of the above led to sacralization, that is, the deification of princely power, and also created spiritual prerequisites for the transition from communal relations to state ones. .

1.2 Foreign policy prerequisites

External prerequisites include the “pressure” that its neighbors, namely the Normans and Khazars, exerted on the Slavic world.

On the one hand, their desire to take control of the trade routes that connected the West with the South and East accelerated the formation of princely squad groups that were drawn into foreign trade. Receiving food from your fellow tribesmen agriculture and trades, primarily furs, as well as exchanging them for products of prestigious consumption and silver from foreign merchants, selling them captured foreigners, the local nobility increasingly subjugated the tribal structures, enriched themselves and isolated themselves from ordinary community members. Over time, she, having united with the Varangian warrior-traders, will begin to exercise control over trade routes and trade itself, which will lead to the consolidation of previously disparate tribal kingdoms located along these routes.

On the other hand, interaction with more developed civilizations led to the borrowing of some socio-political forms of their life. Byzantine Empire has long been considered a true standard of state-political structure.

It is no coincidence that for a long time the great princes in Rus' were named after the example of a powerful state formation Khazar Khaganate- Khakans (khagans). It should also be noted that the existence of the Khazar Kaganate in the Lower Volga protected the Eastern Slavs from the raids of nomads, who in previous eras (Huns in the 4th - 5th centuries, Avars in the 7th century) slowed down their development, interfered with peaceful work and, ultimately , the emergence of the “embryo” of statehood. .

1.3 Socio-economic prerequisites

ancient Russian state sacralization princely

Development of agriculture. First of all, it should be noted the changes that took place in the economy of the Eastern Slavs in the 7th - 9th centuries. For example, the development of agriculture, especially arable farming in the steppe and forest-steppe region of the Middle Dnieper, led to the emergence of excess product, and this created conditions for the separation of the princely-retinue group from the community (there was a separation of military-administrative labor from productive labor).

In the north of Eastern Europe, where, due to harsh climatic conditions, agriculture could not become widespread, fisheries continued to play a large role, and the emergence of surplus products was the result of the development of exchange and foreign trade.

In the area where arable farming spread, the evolution of the tribal community began, which, due to the fact that it is now separate big family could ensure its existence, began to transform into an agricultural or neighboring (territorial) one. As before, such a community consisted mainly of relatives, but unlike the clan community, the arable land, which was divided into plots, and the products of labor were here in the use of individual small families who owned tools, livestock and labor. This created some conditions for property differentiation. Social stratification did not occur in the community itself, since the productivity of agricultural labor remained too low. Archaeological excavations East Slavic settlements of that period revealed almost identical semi-dugout family dwellings with the same set of objects and tools.

In addition, in the vast forest territory of the East Slavic world, clearing was preserved, and because of its labor intensity, it required the efforts of the entire clan collective. Thus, unevenness emerged in the development of individual tribal unions.

1.4 Socio-political background

Intertribal clashes, as well as the complication of intra-tribal relations, accelerated the formation of princely power and increased the role of princes and squads, both defending the tribe from external enemies and acting as arbiters in various kinds of disputes.

In addition, the struggle between tribes led to the formation of inter-tribal alliances led by the most powerful tribe and its prince. These unions took the form of tribal kingdoms. In the end, the power of the prince, who sought to turn it into hereditary power, depended less and less on the will veche meetings, strengthened, and his interests became increasingly alienated from the interests of his fellow tribesmen.

In the Soviet historical science For a long time, priority in the formation of the state was given to internal socio-economic processes. Some modern historians They believe that external factors played a decisive role. However, it is worth noting that only the interaction of both internal and external, with insufficient socio-economic maturity of the East Slavic society, could lead to the historical breakthrough that occurred in the Slavic world in the 9th-10th centuries.

2. The main stages of the formation of the Old Russian state

At the first stage of the formation of the ancient Russian state (8th - mid-9th centuries), the maturation of prerequisites took place, as well as the formation of intertribal unions and their centers, mentioned by eastern authors. By the 9th century the emergence of the system of polyudya, that is, the collection of tribute from community members in favor of the prince, which in that era was still perceived as compensation for military and administrative services and was of a voluntary nature, began to emerge.

At the second stage (2nd half of the 9th - mid-10th century), the process of the formation of the state accelerated, largely due to the active intervention of external forces - the Khazars and Normans (Varangians). .

The chronicler notes (862) that the Slavs managed to drive the Varangians overseas. But soon a discord broke out between them, “and generation after generation went and fought each other.” (Most likely, the chronicle reflected the rivalry between the tribal unions of the North and their nobility, between whom there was a “struggle of prestige”). In these conditions, not wanting to give primacy to any of their own, the Slavs and Finno-Ugric peoples, with the words: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order (order) in it. Let you come to reign and rule over us,” they decided to turn to their neighbors - to the Varangians, who were called Russia, and their prince, Rurik, with his brothers Sineus and Truvor. The invitation was accepted, Rurik sat in Novgorod (according to other sources - in Staraya Ladoga), Sineus - in Beloozero, Truvor - in Izborsk. Two years after the death of the brothers, Rurik began to rule alone. In 882, his successor, Prince Oleg, captured Kyiv by cunning, killing the rulers there, Askold and Dir, the Normans who had previously left Rurik. After this, he freed the Slavic tribes from the Khazar tribute and brought them under his rule. Thus, according to the chronicle legend, the formation of the Russian state took place.

Norman theory of the origin of the ancient Russian state. These chronicle data formed the basis of the so-called. "Norman theory", developed in the 17th century. German scientists in Russian service.

The chronicle makes it clear that in the 9th century. our ancestors lived in conditions of statelessness, although this is not directly stated in the Tale. We are only talking about the fact that the southern Slavic tribes paid tribute to the Khazars, and the northern ones to the Varangians, that the northern tribes once drove out the Varangians, but then changed their minds and called the Varangian princes to themselves. This decision was caused by the fact that the Slavs fought among themselves and decided to turn to foreign princes to establish order. It was then that the famous phrase was uttered: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no decoration in it. May you come and reign over us.” The Varangian princes came to Rus' and in 862 sat on the thrones: Rurik - in Novgorod, Truvor - in Izborsk (not far from Pskov), Sineus - in Beloozero.

This interpretation raises at least two objections. Firstly, the factual material presented in The Tale of Bygone Years does not provide grounds for the conclusion that the Russian state was created by calling the Varangians. On the contrary, like other sources that have come down to us, it says that statehood among the Eastern Slavs existed even before the Varangians. Secondly, modern science cannot agree with such a primitive explanation of the complex process of formation of any state. The state cannot be organized by one person or several even the most outstanding men. The state is a product of the complex and long development of the social structure of society. Nevertheless, the chronicle mention in a certain sense was adopted back in the 17th century. This is how the notorious Norman theory of the origin of the Old Russian state was born.

Already at that time, Normanism met with objections from advanced Russian scientists, among whom was M.V. Lomonosov. Since then, all historians involved in Ancient Russia, divided into two camps - Normanists and anti-Normanists.

Modern domestic scientists predominantly reject the Norman theory. They are joined by the largest foreign researchers of Slavic countries. . However certain part foreign authors still preach this theory, although not in such a primitive form as was done previously.

The main refutation of the Norman theory is the fairly high level of social and political development Eastern Slavs in the 9th century. The Old Russian state was prepared by the centuries-old development of the Eastern Slavs. In terms of their economic and political level, the Slavs were higher than the Varangians, so they could not borrow state experience from the newcomers.

The chronicle story contains, of course, elements of truth. It is possible that the Slavs invited several princes with their squads as military specialists, as was done in later times in Rus', and even in Western Europe. It is reliably known that the Russian principalities invited squads not only of the Varangians, but also of their steppe neighbors - the Pechenegs, Karakalpaks, and Torks. . However, it was not the Varangian princes who organized the Old Russian state, but the already existing state that gave them the corresponding government posts. However, some authors, starting with M.V. Lomonosov, doubt the Varangian origin of Rurik, Sineus and Truvor, believing that they could also be representatives of some Slavic tribes. In any case, there are practically no traces of Varangian culture in the history of our Motherland. Scientists, for example, have calculated that per 10 thousand square meters. km of Russian territory, only five Scandinavian geographical names can be found, while in England, which the Normans conquered, this number reaches 150.

We do not know exactly when and how exactly the first principalities of the Eastern Slavs arose, preceding the formation of the Old Russian state, but in any case they existed until 862, before the notorious “calling of the Varangians.” In German chronicles, already from 839, Russian princes were called Khakans - kings.

But the moment of unification of the East Slavic lands into one state is known with certainty. In 882 Novgorod prince Oleg captured Kyiv and united the two most important groups of Russian lands; then he managed to annex the rest of the Russian lands, creating a huge state for those times.

Russian Orthodox Church tries to link the emergence of statehood in Rus' with the introduction of Christianity. .

Of course, the baptism of Rus' was of great importance for strengthening the feudal state, since the church sanctified the subordination of Christians to the exploitative state. However, the baptism occurred no less than a century after the formation of the Kievan state, not to mention the earlier East Slavic states.

In addition to the Slavs, the Old Russian state also included some neighboring Finnish and Baltic tribes. This state was thus ethnically heterogeneous from the very beginning. However, its basis was the Old Russian people, which was the cradle of three Slavic peoples - Russians (Great Russians), Ukrainians and Belarusians. It cannot be identified with any of these peoples separately. Even before the revolution, Ukrainian nationalists tried to portray the Old Russian state as Ukrainian. This idea has been picked up in our time in nationalist circles, trying to quarrel the three fraternal Slavic peoples. Meanwhile, the Old Russian state neither in territory nor in population coincided with modern Ukraine, they only had common capital- city of Kyiv. In the 9th and even in the 12th century. It is still impossible to talk about specifically Ukrainian culture, language, etc. All this will appear later, when, due to objective historical processes The Old Russian people will split into three independent branches.

The final stage of the formation of the state begins with the reforms of Princess Olga.

The complete elimination of tribal principalities occurs during the reign of Vladimir the Saint (980-1015).

The next decisive step, completing the creation of the state, was Vladimir’s replacement of the tribal princes with his sons, called upon to defend the new faith and strengthen the power of the Kyiv prince locally. Thus, he turned the Russian land into the possession of the Rurik family. The consolidation of power gave him the opportunity to organize the population of the entire country to create powerful defensive lines on the southern borders and resettle here some of the Slovenes, Krivichi, Chud and Vyatichi. Myself Grand Duke, as evidenced by epics, began to be perceived by the popular consciousness no longer as a warrior-defender, but as the head of state, organizing the protection of its borders. .

2. the main stages of the formation of the Old Russian state; 3. features of the formation of the state of the Eastern Slavs. The object of the study is the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs. The subject of the research is social relations...

The emergence of a state among the Eastern Slavs

The Old Russian state emerged as a result of the complex interaction of a whole complex of both internal and external factors. The following prerequisites for the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs are identified...

The emergence of a state among the Eastern Slavs

The object of the study is the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs. The subject of the study is social relations related to the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs. 1...

The emergence of a state among the Eastern Slavs

Among the main features of the Old Russian state by the end of the 10th century, the following were distinguished: 1. tributary system; 2. the territorial principle of settlement, displacing the tribal one; 3...

The emergence of a state among the Eastern Slavs

The emergence of a state among the Eastern Slavs

The object of the study is the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs. The subject of the study is social relations related to the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs. Main part 1...

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Subjects of civil legal relations

Introduction

Main part:

1. Prerequisites for the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs

2. The main stages of the formation of the Old Russian state

3. Features of the formation of the state of the Eastern Slavs

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Relevance of the research topic.

The Slavs are the largest group of peoples in Europe, connected by related origin, common territory of residence, proximity of language, culture, and traditions.

The Eastern Slavs - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians - are the successors of the political and cultural heritage of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus. Their history continues to be closely interconnected: in the confrontation between the emerging Moscow State and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in the formation and development of a single Russian state and the vast Russian Empire.

Global changes affecting last decade all aspects of the life of the peoples of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus demanded that historians pay closer attention to the problems of the Eastern Slavs. In their study, traditional views are increasingly being replaced by new points of view, fresh sets of sources are being introduced, and thematic priorities are changing.

Goals and objectives of the work. The purpose of this work is to examine the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs.

To achieve this goal, the work solves the following: particular problems :

1. the prerequisites for the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs;

2. the main stages of the formation of the Old Russian state;

3. features of the formation of the state of the Eastern Slavs.

Object of study- the emergence of a state among the Eastern Slavs.

Subject of research are social relations related to the consideration of the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs.

Main part

1. Prerequisites for the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs

The Old Russian state emerged as a result of the complex interaction of a whole complex of both internal and external factors.

The following preconditions for the emergence of a state among the Eastern Slavs are identified.

Spiritual prerequisites.

Like some other factors, the evolution of the pagan ideas of the Slavs of that era contributed to the establishment of the power of the prince. Thus, as the military power of the prince grew, bringing booty to the tribe, defending it from external enemies and taking upon his shoulders the problem of resolving internal disputes, his prestige grew and at the same time alienation from free community members occurred.

Thus, as a result of the prince’s alienation from the usual circle of affairs and concerns for the community members, which often resulted in the creation of a fortified inter-tribal center - the residence of the prince and the squad of military successes, as well as as a result of his performing complex managerial functions, he was endowed with supernatural powers and abilities. They began to see the prince as the guarantee of the well-being of the entire tribe, and his personality was identified with the tribal totem. All of the above led to sacralization, that is, the deification of princely power, and also created spiritual prerequisites for the transition from communal relations to state ones.

Foreign policy prerequisites.

External prerequisites include the “pressure” that its neighbors, namely the Normans and Khazars, exerted on the Slavic world.

On the one hand, their desire to take control of the trade routes that connected the West with the South and East accelerated the formation of princely squad groups that were drawn into foreign trade. Receiving agricultural and craft products from their fellow tribesmen, primarily furs, and also exchanging them for products of prestigious consumption and silver from foreign merchants, selling them captured foreigners, the local nobility increasingly subjugated the tribal structures, became enriched and isolated from ordinary community members. Over time, she, having united with the Varangian warrior-traders, will begin to exercise control over trade routes and trade itself, which will lead to the consolidation of previously disparate tribal principalities located along these routes.

On the other hand, interaction with more developed civilizations led to the borrowing of some socio-political forms of their life. The Byzantine Empire has long been considered the true standard of state and political structure.

It is no coincidence that for a long time the great princes in Rus' were called, following the example of the powerful state formation of the Khazar Khaganate, - Khakans (khagans). It should also be noted that the existence of the Khazar Kaganate in the Lower Volga protected the Eastern Slavs from the raids of nomads, who in previous eras (Huns in the 4th - 5th centuries, Avars in the 7th century) slowed down their development, interfered with peaceful work and, ultimately , the emergence of the “embryo” of statehood.

Socio-economic prerequisites.

Development of agriculture. First of all, it should be noted the changes that took place in the economy of the Eastern Slavs in the 7th - 9th centuries. For example, the development of agriculture, especially arable farming in the steppe and forest-steppe region of the Middle Dnieper, led to the emergence of excess product, and this created conditions for the separation of the princely-retinue group from the community (there was a separation of military-administrative labor from productive labor).

In the north of Eastern Europe, where, due to harsh climatic conditions, agriculture could not become widespread, fisheries continued to play a large role, and the emergence of surplus products was the result of the development of exchange and foreign trade.

In the area where arable farming spread, the evolution of the clan community began, which, thanks to the fact that now a separate large family could ensure its existence, began to transform into an agricultural or neighboring (territorial) one. As before, such a community consisted mainly of relatives, but unlike the clan community, the arable land, which was divided into plots, and the products of labor were here in the use of individual small families who owned tools, livestock and labor. This created some conditions for property differentiation. Social stratification did not occur in the community itself, since the productivity of agricultural labor remained too low. Archaeological excavations of East Slavic settlements of that period discovered almost identical semi-dugout family dwellings with the same set of objects and tools.

In addition, in the vast forest territory of the East Slavic world, clearing was preserved, and because of its labor intensity, it required the efforts of the entire clan collective. Thus, unevenness emerged in the development of individual tribal unions.

Socio-political preconditions.

Intertribal clashes, as well as the complication of intra-tribal relations, accelerated the formation of princely power and increased the role of princes and squads, both defending the tribe from external enemies and acting as arbiters in various kinds of disputes.

In addition, the struggle between tribes led to the formation of inter-tribal alliances led by the most powerful tribe and its prince. These unions took the form of tribal kingdoms. In the end, the power of the prince, who sought to turn it into hereditary power, depended less and less on the will of the veche meetings, became stronger, and his interests became increasingly alienated from the interests of his fellow tribesmen.

In Soviet historical science, for a long time, priority in the formation of the state was given to internal socio-economic processes. Some modern historians believe that external factors played a decisive role. However, it is worth noting that only the interaction of both internal and external, with insufficient socio-economic maturity of the East Slavic society, could lead to the historical breakthrough that occurred in the Slavic world in the 9th-10th centuries.

2. The main stages of the formation of the Old Russian state

At the first stage of the formation of the ancient Russian state (8th - mid-9th centuries), the maturation of prerequisites took place, as well as the formation of intertribal unions and their centers, mentioned by eastern authors. By the 9th century the emergence of the system of polyudya, that is, the collection of tribute from community members in favor of the prince, which in that era was still perceived as compensation for military and administrative services and was of a voluntary nature, began to emerge.

At the second stage (2nd half of the 9th - mid-10th century), the process of the formation of the state accelerated, largely due to the active intervention of external forces - the Khazars and Normans (Varangians).

The chronicler notes (862) that the Slavs managed to drive the Varangians overseas. But soon a discord broke out between them, “and generation after generation went and fought each other.” (Most likely, the chronicle reflected the rivalry between the tribal unions of the North and their nobility, between whom there was a “struggle of prestige”). In these conditions, not wanting to give primacy to any of their own, the Slavs and Finno-Ugric peoples, with the words: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order (order) in it. Let you come to reign and rule over us,” they decided to turn to their neighbors - to the Varangians, who were called Russia, and their prince, Rurik, with his brothers Sineus and Truvor. The invitation was accepted, Rurik sat in Novgorod (according to other sources - in Staraya Ladoga), Sineus - in Beloozero, Truvor - in Izborsk. Two years after the death of the brothers, Rurik began to rule alone. In 882, his successor, Prince Oleg, captured Kyiv by cunning, killing the rulers there, Askold and Dir, the Normans who had previously left Rurik. After this, he freed the Slavic tribes from the Khazar tribute and brought them under his rule. Thus, according to the chronicle legend, the formation of the Russian state took place.

Norman theory of the origin of the ancient Russian state. These chronicle data formed the basis of the so-called. "Norman theory", developed in the 17th century. German scientists in Russian service.

Chronology of events

• 9th century Formation of the Old Russian State
• 862 Mention in the chronicle of Rurik’s calling to reign in Novgorod
• 882 Unification of Novgorod and Kyiv under the rule of Prince Oleg
• 980 - 1015 Reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich

The emergence of statehood among the Slavs

The formation of the Old Russian state is a long process. Most historians date the beginning of the formation of the state to the 9th century. In the VI - VII centuries. Eastern Slavs settled most of Russian (East European) Plain. The borders of their habitat were the Carpathian Mountains in the west, the upper reaches of the Don in the east, the Neva and Lake Ladoga in the north, and the Middle Dnieper region in the south.

The literary and documentary chronicle, “The Tale of Bygone Years,” which historians date back to the mid-12th century, describes in detail the settlement of the East Slavic tribes. According to her on west bank Middle Dnieper (Kyiv) located clearing, to the north-west of them, along the southern tributaries of the Pripyat, - Drevlyans, to the west of them, along the Western Bug, - Volynians, or dulebs; lived on the eastern bank of the Dnieper northerners; along the Dnieper tributary Sozha - Radimichi, and to the east of them, along the Upper Oka, - Vyatichi; on the upper reaches of three rivers - the Dnieper, the Western Dvina and the Volga - they lived Krivichi, southwest of them - Dregovichi; to the north of them, along the Western Dvina, a branch of the Krivichi settled Polotsk residents, and to the north of Krivichi, near Lake Ilmen and further along the Volkhva River lived Ilmensky Slavs.

Having settled across the East European Plain, the Slavs lived tribal communities. “Everyone lives with his family and in his own places, owning each of his family,” writes the chronicle. In the VI century. family relationships gradually disintegrate. With the advent of metal tools and the transition to arable farming, the clan community was replaced by a neighboring (territorial) one, which was called “mir” (in the south) and “rope” (in the north). In the neighboring community, communal ownership of forest and hay lands, pastures, reservoirs, and arable land is retained, but the family is already allocated plots for use.

In the 7th - 8th centuries. the Slavs actively The process of decomposition of the primitive system is underway.

The number of cities increases, power is gradually concentrated in the hands of the tribal and military warrior nobility, and private property, the division of society begins on social and property principles. By the 9th - 10th centuries. the main ethnic territory of the Old Russian nationality was formed, the process of maturation of feudal relations.

IN national historiography For a long time there was a struggle between Normanists and their opponents on the issue of the origin of the Russian state. The founder of the Norman theory in the 18th century. was a member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences A.L. Schlözer. He and his supporters G.Z. Bayer, G.F. Miller adhered to the point of view that before the advent of the Varangians, “the vast expanse of our plain was wild, people lived without government.”

A refutation of the Varangian theory was made by, who considered one of the main tasks of historical science to be the fight against this theory. M.V. Lomonosov wrote in “Ancient Russian History” that “the Slavic people were within the current Russian borders even before the birth of Christ, this can be proven beyond doubt.”

Russian historian of the 19th century. I.E. Zabelin wrote that the Eastern Slavs lived on the Russian plain even BC. and went through a complex process from tribal unions to tribal political unions and created their own statehood.

The Soviet historical school actively supported and developed this point of view. The largest domestic specialist of the 20th century. on Slavic-Russian archeology B.A. Rybakov connected the formation of the state of Rus' with the founding of the city of Kyiv in the land of glades and the unification of 15 large regions inhabited by the Eastern Slavs.

Modern Russian historians There is no doubt that the unification of the East Slavic lands into the Old Russian state was prepared by internal socio-economic reasons, but this happened in 882 with the active participation of the Varangian squad led by Prince Oleg. According to the famous Russian historian of the 19th century. V. O. Klyuchevsky, it turned out to be a “not bad combined legal structure of the beginning of the Russian state,” when principalities with Varangian rule (Novgorod, Kyiv) and principalities with Slavic rule (Chernigov, Polotsk, Pereslavl) united.

1. first - 9th century - mid-10th century - the formation of an early feudal state, the establishment of the Rurik dynasty on the throne and the reign of the first Kyiv princes in Kyiv: Oleg, Igor (912 - 945), Olga (945 - 964), Svyatoslav (964 - 972);
2. second - second half of the X - first half of the XI centuries. - the heyday of Kievan Rus (the time of Vladimir I (980 - 1015) and Yaroslav the Wise (1036 - 1054);
3. third - second half of XI - beginning of XII centuries - gradual transition to feudal fragmentation.

Socio-political and economic system of Kievan Rus

The Old Russian state (Kievan Rus) was early feudal monarchy. Supreme power belonged to to the Grand Duke of Kyiv, who was the formal owner of all the land and the military leader of the state.

Upper class of society amounted to princely squad, which was divided into higher and lower. The first consisted of princely husbands or boyars, the second - of children or youths. The oldest collective name for the junior squad is grid (Scandinavian courtyard servant), which was later replaced by the word “yard”.

Government was built on the principle of military organization in the lands and cities subject to the Grand Duke. It was carried out by princely governors - posadniks and their closest assistants - tysyatskys, who led the people's militia during military operations in the 11th - 12th centuries. - through the princely court and numerous administration, which was in charge of collecting tribute and taxes, court cases, and collection of fines.

Taxes — main goal princely administration. Both Oleg and Olga traveled around their subject lands. Tribute was collected in kind - “fast” (with bellows). It could be a cart, when subject tribes brought tribute to Kyiv, or polyudye, when the princes themselves traveled around the tribes. It is well known from the “Tale of Bygone Years” how Princess Olga took revenge on the Drevlyans not only for the death of her husband, Prince Igor, who was killed in 945, but also for disobedience and refusal to pay taxes. Princess Olga went down in Russian history as the “organizer of the Russian land,” who established graveyards (strong points) and tributes everywhere.

The entire free population of Kievan Rus was called “people”. Hence the term meaning collection of tribute - "polyudye". Bulk rural population , dependent on the prince, was called stinkers. They could live both in peasant communities, which bore duties in favor of the feudal lord, and in estates.

Closed social system, designed to organize all types of human activity - labor, cultural ritual. Free community members had a subsistence economy, paid tribute to the princes and boyars, and at the same time were a source of replenishment for the category of dependent people for the feudal lords.

In the early feudal society of Kievan Rus there were two main classes - peasants (smerds) and feudal lords. Both classes were not homogeneous in their composition. Smerdas were divided into free community members and dependents. Free stinkers had a subsistence economy, paid tribute to the princes and boyars, and at the same time served as a source for the feudal lords to replenish the category of dependent people. Dependent the population consisted of purchases, ordinary people, outcasts, free spirits and slaves. Those who became dependent by taking on a kupa (debt) were called purchasers. Those who became dependent after concluding a series (agreement) became ordinary people. Outcasts are impoverished people from the communities, and freedmen are freed slaves. The slaves were completely powerless and were actually in the position of slaves.

The class of feudal lords consisted of representatives of the grand ducal house with the Grand Duke at its head, princes of tribes and lands, boyars, as well as senior warriors.

An important element of feudal society was the city, which was a fortified center craft production and trade. At the same time, cities were important administrative centers, in which wealth and large volumes of large food supplies were concentrated, which were imported by the feudal lords. According to ancient chronicles, in the 13th century. There were about 225 cities of different sizes in Rus'. The largest were Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Chernigov and others. Kievan Rus was famous for its carpentry, pottery, blacksmithing, and jewelry. At that time, there were up to 60 types of crafts in Rus'.

History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century Nikolaev Igor Mikhailovich

Formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs

The emergence of a state is a natural stage in the development of society. This is a very long process, so any event that marks the transition to state forms of people’s lives is very conditional.

A primitive society could exist guided by two basic principles that regulated social life: custom (tradition) and the rule of the strong. These principles were sufficient as long as relatives did not differ too much from each other in their interests and aspirations. Centuries-old traditions were rarely challenged, so there was no need for any special mechanism designed to ensure their observance, i.e., the state.

However, primitive society gradually changed, relationships between relatives became more and more diverse, and the life of the clan became less and less closed. We have already mentioned the decomposition of the clan community and the transition to a neighboring community among the Eastern Slavs. The interests of an individual family no longer always coincided with general interests, which destroyed the clan from the inside. There was a need to create new, more complex rules(gradually taking the form of legal norms and laws) and achieve their implementation. Property inequality and inequality of opportunity appeared, as not only the economic basis of people’s lives improved, but also the sources from which people drew their livelihood became more diverse. For example, military spoils began to play an increasingly important role in the life of the clan. These factors influenced the emergence of property inequality between people, which was enshrined in private property rights.

Of course, it would be wrong to deny the economic factor in the emergence of the state (growth in labor productivity, the emergence of surpluses, inequality, etc.), but it would also be wrong to reduce everything only to economic activity people are not allowed.

The state arises when the majority of members of society have a need to limit tribal power (the patriarchal power of elders, based on traditions and their own moral authority). At first, the main functions of state power were court and war (protection of community members engaged in productive work, who took up arms only in case of a particularly serious threat; ensuring the security of trade relations; predatory raids on neighbors).

The emergence of Kievan Rus chronologically fits into the process of state formation that took place in the 9th–10th centuries. in Northern, Central and Eastern Europe. In the first half of the 9th century. The Great Moravian Principality was formed at the turn of the 9th–10th centuries. - Czech. In the middle of the 9th century. There was a unification of Polish tribes, and in the second half of the 10th century. The Old Polish state was created. In the 9th century. Statehood was established in Croatia and Serbian lands. 9th century - the time of the emergence of the united Anglo-Saxon kingdom, and the X century. - Danish.

In the VIII–IX centuries. Among the Eastern Slavs, the tribal way of life was thoroughly destroyed and was not a serious obstacle to the emergence of the state. Neighboring communities could no longer be governed on the basis of old tribal customs. All this required the creation of new rules, new standards of community life.

Neighboring communities and individual family households were too weak to ensure their own security. The prince, who had a squad and a fortified point (city), became a natural guarantor of security. Agricultural communities gradually came under the protection of the prince and his squad. In the 9th century. The gradual strengthening of princely power continued. This process was accelerated under the influence of external factors: in the north of the East European Plain, raids by the Varangians became a constant phenomenon, in the south the enmity of the Slavic and Turkic tribes intensified.

In historical science, a dispute has long arisen about the formation of statehood among the Slavs. For many years enjoyed great authority Norman theory, which exaggerated the role of Scandinavian warriors in the formation of East Slavic statehood. To downplay the role of the Varangians in political processes that took place in Slavic society is also wrong, since extreme anti-Normanism contradicts the facts known to us. We can say that the state of the Eastern Slavs arose not thanks to the Scandinavians, but with their participation.

In The Tale of Bygone Years, the chronicler reports that in 862 The Novgorod elder Gostomysl, being childless, before his death invited the Norman prince Rurik and his retinue to Novgorod. Rurik, having killed the noble Novgorodians, settled in the city and began to rule. After his death, the leader of one of the Varangian detachments, Oleg, seized power. IN 882 Oleg undertook a campaign against Kyiv. He managed by cunning to lure the Varangians Askold and Dir from Kyiv, which they had previously captured, and killed them. The capture of Kyiv made it possible to politically unify the territories located along the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” Oleg, who made Kyiv his capital city, continued to rule over the Novgorodians.

The unification of most East Slavic tribes around Kyiv was not very strong and not very burdensome. The power of the Kyiv prince was limited to collecting tribute (with the majority of people) and the resolution of intertribal disputes and litigation.

After Oleg’s death, Rurik’s son, Igor, began to reign in Kyiv. With this prince in 945 The first uprising of the Drevlyans took place. The gluttony of Prince Igor in collecting tribute outraged the Drevlyans - they killed the squad, and executed the prince. Igor's wife Olga, having taken revenge on the Drevlyans for the murder of her husband, was nevertheless forced to streamline the collection of tribute by establishing lessons(tribute size) and churchyards(gathering places).

Thus, gradually, under the rule of Kyiv (around the Polyan tribe), the formation of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus - took place. It was an early feudal state, since it retained vestiges tribal system: elements military democracy(the relationship between the prince and his squad, the militia), the existence of the veche in various cities and tribal associations, blood feud.

At the head of the state was the Grand Duke of Kiev, under whom there was a council of the most noble and powerful princes and boyars. The princely warriors were in charge of collecting tribute, taxes, carried out court proceedings, dealt with minor cases, etc. Special princely representatives (mayors) were appointed to the cities. IN vassalage From the prince were his relatives, princes of appanage lands, boyars who owned large estates and had their own squad.

A gradual strengthening of the power of the Kyiv princes over the tribal unions of the Slavs can be traced. The Kiev prince united Slavic and non-Slavic lands both by force and through various agreements. Oleg conquered the Drevlyans by force, Vladimir annexed the Radimichi in the same way. By the time of Svyatoslav's reign, the tribal princes were basically finished - they became simply posadniks of the Kyiv prince. Prince Vladimir planted his sons in various lands dependent on Kyiv. However, the prince did not reign supreme. Princely power was limited to elements of surviving popular self-government. It was active in the 9th–11th centuries. national assembly - veche.