Strengthening the Russian state in the 16th century. Russia at the end of the 16th century

The Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary was built in 1158. Focused on "-2". The former floor of the church is one and a half meters lower than the current one (the clergy were very lazy in the past: they allowed the growth of the cultural layer) and is distinguished by charisma, style and stone.

Here, in Bogolyubovo, stands the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl. The building also dates back to the 12th century, oriented towards "-1". There is a legend about the artificial raising of the place under the church with an honest stone, but information about the excavation to study the foundation was not published, or was not carried out at all. We can assume that fundamental discoveries await us here too.

To the southwest, 10 km away, is the city of Vladimir - three temples are set to "-2":
Dmitrievsky Cathedral, 1194;
St. George's Church, 1192;
Assumption Cathedral, 1155 g.
The Cathedral of the Virgin Mary (I couldn’t find the date) and the Assumption are set to “-1”, 1644 the buildings.

For this area we have “-2” until the end of the 12th century, and “-1” back in the 16th century.

Temples and sacred geography. and Alexandrovskaya Sloboda.

Center of the oprichnina, all churches (Raspyatskaya, 1560; Epiphany, 16th century; Intercession, 1509 ; Troitsky, 1513; Dormition, 1570) are oriented towards "-1".

Here the position "-1" is obtained until the end of the 16th century.

Travel of Afanasy Nikitin India, it turns out, was in the 15th century in the Southern Hemisphere.
Addition

After changing the latitudes of the constellations, a new map with updated numbers is also required. Shift in 1595, map in 1600.

There is a lot of material on the tag that allows you to understand what soil layer is growing quickly. Much faster than in soil science textbooks.

In 1581, the eldest son Ivan Ivanovich died at the hands of Ivan 4, potential heirs to the throne 2: Fyodor Ivanovich and Dmitry - the son from his marriage with Maria Naga, born in 1579. In 1584 Ivan 4 dies. Fyodor Ivanovich 1584-1598 becomes the heir. The most influential are: Boris Godunov, Ivan Mstislavsky, Nikita Romanovich Zakharyin-Yuryev. The main political struggle is taking place between several factions:

1. Bogdan Belsky and Nagiye, led by Maria Naga. The goal is to enthronement Dmitry. After the death of Dmitry, they were exiled to monasteries for massacres of innocent people.

2. Shuiskys. The goal is maximum influence under Fedor Ivanovich.

3. Mstislavskys, led by Ivan Mstislavsky. The goal is maximum influence under Fedor Ivanovich. Later, Ivan Mstislavsky was exiled to the Belozersky Monastery.

4. Nikita Rom. Zakharyin-Yuryev and his family. After the death of N.R. In 1585 they lose significance.

5. Boris Godunov and his supporters. Reliance on the marriage of F.I. and Irina Godunova, B.G.’s sister. Since 1589, his protege Patriarch Job has become an important ally of Godunov. The goal is to maintain one’s influence and strengthen kinship with ruling dynasty. Under F.I. Boris Godunov was a stable boy and a close boyar, in fact the ruler of the country.

May 15, 1591 – murder/suicide of Dmitry under unclear circumstances. The naked people are accused of killing B.G.'s people, and massacres are carried out against them. An official commission consisting of Vasily Shuisky, Andrei Kleshnin (B.G.’s man) and Gelasius decided to commit suicide in an epileptic fit. Maria Naguya is exiled to a monastery. Later, the Nagiye accuse Godunov of starting the Moscow fire in order to “distract from Dmitry’s death.” On May 7, 1598, Fyodor Ivanovich dies childless -> dynastic crisis. Boris announces that power has been bequeathed to Irina, and Job, Boris Godunov, Fyodor Nikitich Romanov have been appointed regents. Irina refuses and goes to the monastery; Boris is called king from the crowd, probably under the influence of Job. On February 17, 1598, the Zemsky Sobor was convened (474 ​​people, 99 clergy and 272 servants, mostly Muscovites - Plat.). Godunov's opponents: You. Shuisky, Ivan Mstislavsky, Fed. Nikitich Romanov. Boris was elected to the kingdom under the influence of Job. On February 21, after much persuasion from Job, Irina and the council, Boris agrees to the kingdom. August 1, 1598 – letter of fidelity to Boris, his wife and children (an attempt to establish a new dynasty), September 1, 1598 – crowning of the kingdom 1598-1605.

8. Troubles. Beginning of the Romanov dynasty

After the death of Ivan the Terrible, the Zemsky Sobor, composed of service people, recognized Ivan IV's son Feodor as tsar. In 1589, the patriarchate was introduced, which meant the independence of the Russian Orthodox Church from Constantinople. In 1597, “scheduled summers” were introduced - a five-year period for searching for runaway peasants. In 1598, with the death of Fyodor Ivanovich and the suppression of the Rurik dynasty, the Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov to the throne by a majority vote.
Beginning of the 17th century - the period of the Time of Troubles. The causes of the Troubles were the aggravation of social, class, dynastic and international relations at the end of the reign of Ivan IV and under his successors.
1) In the 1570s–1580s. the most developed in economically center (Moscow) and north-west (Novgorod and Pskov) of the country. As a result of the oprichnina and the Livonian War, part of the population fled, while others died. The central government, in order to prevent the flight of peasants to the outskirts, took the path of attaching peasants to the land of feudal landowners. In fact, in national scale A system of serfdom was established. The introduction of serfdom led to an aggravation of social contradictions in the country and created conditions for mass popular uprisings.
2) After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible, there were no heirs capable of continuing his policies. During the reign of the mild-mannered Fyodor Ivanovich (1584–1598), the de facto ruler of the country was his guardian Boris Godunov. In 1591, in Uglich, under unclear circumstances, the last of the direct heirs to the throne died, younger son Ivan the Terrible Tsarevich Dmitry. Popular rumor attributed the organization of the murder to Boris Godunov. These events caused a dynastic crisis.
3) At the end of the 16th century. the neighbors of Muscovite Rus' are strengthening - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, the Crimean Khanate, and the Ottoman Empire. The aggravation of international contradictions will be another reason for the events that broke out during the Time of Troubles.
During the Time of Troubles, the country was actually in a state of civil war, accompanied by Polish and Swedish interventions. Rumors became widespread that Tsarevich Dmitry, who had “miraculously escaped” in Uglich, was alive. In 1602, a man appeared in Lithuania posing as Tsarevich Dmitry. According to official version Moscow government of Boris Godunov, the man posing as Dmitry was the fugitive monk Grigory Otrepiev. He went down in history under the name of False Dmitry I.
In June 1605, the protege Polish gentry False Dmitry I entered Moscow. However, his policies caused discontent among both the common people and the boyars. As a result of a conspiracy among the boyars and an uprising of Muscovites in May 1606, False Dmitry was killed. The boyars proclaim Vasily Shuisky (1606–1610) tsar.
In 1606–1607 is happening popular performance led by Ivan Bolotnikov. In the summer of 1606, Bolotnikov from Krom moved to Moscow. Along the way, a small detachment turned into a powerful army, which included peasants, townspeople and even detachments of nobles led by Prokopiy Lyapunov. The Bolotnikovites laid siege to Moscow for two months, but as a result of treason, some of the nobles were defeated by the troops of Vasily Shuisky. In March 1607, Shuisky issued the “Code on Peasants,” which introduced a 15-year period for searching for fugitive peasants. Bolotnikov was driven back to Kaluga and besieged royal troops, however, broke out of the siege and retreated to Tula. The three-month siege of Tula was led by Vasily Shuisky himself. The Upa River was blocked by a dam and the fortress was flooded. After V. Shuisky promised to save the lives of the rebels, they opened the gates of Tula. Having broken his word, the king brutally dealt with the rebels. Bolotnikov was blinded and then drowned in an ice hole in the city of Kargopol.
While Shuisky was besieging Bolotnikov in Tula, a new impostor appeared in the Bryansk region. Relying on the support of the Polish gentry and the Vatican, in 1608 False Dmitry II marched from Poland to Russia. However, attempts to take Moscow ended in vain. False Dmitry II stopped 17 km from the Kremlin in the village of Tushino, for which he received the nickname “Tushino thief”.
To fight the Tushins, Shuisky concluded an agreement with Sweden in February 1609. The Swedes provided troops to fight the Tushinsky Thief, and Russia renounced its claims to the Baltic coast.
The Polish king Sigismund III ordered the nobles to leave Tushino and go to Smolensk. The Tushino camp collapsed. False Dmitry II fled to Kaluga, where he was soon killed. The Tushino boyars invited the son of the Polish king, Tsarevich Vladislav, to the Moscow throne.
In the summer of 1610, a coup took place in Moscow. Shuisky was overthrown, the boyars led by F. I. Mstislavsky seized power. This government was called the “Seven Boyars”. Despite the protests of Patriarch Hermogenes, the “Seven Boyars” concluded an agreement to call Tsarevich Vladislav to the Russian throne and allowed Polish interventionists into the Kremlin.
The catastrophic situation stirred up the patriotic feelings of the Russian people. At the beginning of 1611, the First People's Militia, led by P. Lyapunov, formed and besieged Moscow, but due to internal disagreements between the participants, it disintegrated, and Prokopiy Lyapunov was killed.
Swedish troops, freed from treaty obligations after the overthrow of Shuisky, captured a significant part of the north of Russia, including Novgorod, besieged Pskov, and the Poles, after almost two years of siege, captured Smolensk. The Polish king Sigismund III announced that he himself would become the Russian Tsar, and Russia will enter to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
In the fall of 1611, the Second People's Militia was formed on the initiative of the Nizhny Novgorod posad elder Kuzma Minin and headed by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In 1612 Moscow was liberated from the Poles.
In February 1613, Mikhail Romanov was elected to the throne by the Zemsky Sobor.
9. “Rebellious Age”: Popular movements in the 17th century

The 17th century was a time of uprisings, riots and popular movements that were very different in character, social composition, and demands.
Many of them were caused by specific circumstances, often by erroneous actions of the authorities.
After the Time of Troubles, the government, which was experiencing financial difficulties and needed funds to wage wars in order to return the lands lost during the Time of Troubles, in addition to the permanent tax, resorted to emergency monetary levies and indirect taxes. In a country devastated by the events of the Time of Troubles, payment of emergency taxes was often impossible due to poverty and the insolvency of the Russian population. Arrears to the treasury were growing.
In 1646, the government of Alexei Mikhailovich again increased indirect taxes, raising the price of salt fourfold. But instead of replenishing the treasury, there is a reduction in income again, because the people were unable to buy salt at the new price. In 1647, the government abolished the tax, but it was decided to collect arrears for three years by any means.
This decision resulted in an open uprising in Moscow in June 1648, called the “Salt Riot.” For several days Moscow was in revolt: they burned, killed, robbed everyone who was considered the culprit of the people's troubles. The townspeople were joined by archers and gunners, and some nobles. The uprising was suppressed only with the help of bribed archers, whose salaries were increased.
The uprising, which frightened the authorities, largely contributed to the convening of the Zemsky Sobor in 1649 and the adoption Cathedral Code- new code of laws.
« Salt riot“in Moscow was not the only one. In the 1630s - 1650s, uprisings took place in more than 30 Russian cities: Veliky Ustyug, Voronezh, Novgorod, Pskov, Kursk, Vladimir, Siberian cities.
These uprisings did not ease the situation of the people. IN mid-17th century century, tax burden increased even more. The wars that Russia waged with Sweden and Poland required money; funds were also needed to maintain the state apparatus.
In search of a way out of the difficult financial situation, the Russian government began minting copper coins instead of silver coins in 1654 at the same price. So much copper money was issued that it became worthless. The high cost of food led to famine. Driven to despair, the Moscow townspeople rebelled in the summer of 1662. It was brutally suppressed, but the government, to calm the people, was forced to stop minting copper money, which was again replaced by silver.
In a series of these and other speeches, the movement of Stepan Razin, which in the historiography of Soviet times was usually called the “peasant war,” stands out. But even if you move away from class approach Soviet times, it should still be noted that Razin's uprising was the largest uprising of the 17th century, with large actions of two armies, military plans and real threat to the Moscow government from the rebels.
The intensification of feudal exploitation, the formalization of serfdom, and the growth of tax oppression intensified the flight of peasants to the outskirts of the country, to areas inaccessible to the government.
One of the places where the fugitive peasants went was the Don, where they became free people. IN Cossack regions Since ancient times, there has been a custom not to extradite fugitives who come there.
By the mid-60s, the Don had accumulated a large number of fugitives.
Unlike the old Don Cossacks, these newly arrived people (they began to be called “golytba”, “golutvennye Cossacks”) did not receive a salary. Cossacks were forbidden to plow the land on the Don, fearing that agriculture would turn the Cossacks into peasants and lead to their enslavement by Moscow.
“Golytba” actively participated in campaigns against the Crimea and Turkey, which provided rich booty (“campaigns for zipuns”).
In 1658 - 1660 the Turks and Crimean Tatars blocked access to the Azov and Black Seas. The Caspian coast increasingly became the target of Cossack attacks.
In 1666, a detachment of 500 Cossacks led by Ataman Vasily Us undertook a campaign from the Don through Voronezh to Tula to offer the government their services in connection with the war between Russia and Poland, wanting to gain a livelihood from military service. On the way, the detachment was joined by many peasants and townspeople. The detachment grew to 3 thousand people.
A large, well-armed government army was assembled against the Usovites, forcing the rebels to retreat to the Don. Many of the participants in Vasily Us’s campaign subsequently joined Stepan Razin’s army.
In 1667, the “golutvennye Cossacks” went to the Caspian Sea on a “campaign for zipuns” led by S.T. Razin. They captured the Yaitsky town (now Uralsk), making it their stronghold. In 1668 - 1669, the Razins subjected devastating raids West Coast Caspian, having defeated the fleet of the Iranian Shah, and returned to the Don with rich booty. This campaign did not go beyond the usual Cossack campaign for booty.
In the spring of 1670 S. Razin began new trip to the Volga, in which the Cossacks, peasants, townspeople population, a large non-Russian population of the Volga region.
The main goal of the campaign was Moscow, the route was the Volga. Among the rebels there were strong sentiments of naive monarchism and faith in a good king. Their anger was directed against the governors, boyars, nobles, and all rich people. The rebels tortured, brutally executed, burned the houses of the rich, plundered their property, freeing the common people from taxes and serfdom.
The rebels captured Tsaritsyn, Astrakhan, Saratov and Samara. Only the capture of Simbirsk was delayed. Thus, the uprising covered a vast territory from the lower reaches of the Volga to Nizhny Novgorod, from Ukraine to the Trans-Volga region.
Only in the spring of 1671, with a great effort of the 30,000-strong army against the 20,000-strong army of S.T. Razin's government was able to lift the siege of Simbirsk and crush the uprising.
Razin himself was captured by wealthy, house-loving Cossacks, handed over to the government and executed in the summer of 1671. Individual units The rebels fought with the tsarist troops until the autumn of 1671.
Analyzing the reasons for the defeat of the uprising, researchers, first of all, note the low level military organization; disunity of the rebels; the diversity of goals and demands of various social and national strata of participants in the armed struggle.
Uprising S.T. Razin forced the government to look for ways to strengthen the existing system. The power of local governors is strengthening, reforms in the army have continued; The transition to a system of household taxation begins.
One of the forms of protest in the 17th century was the schismatic movement.
In 1653, on the initiative of Patriarch Nikon, a reform was carried out in the Russian Orthodox Church, designed to eliminate discrepancies in books and rituals that had accumulated over many centuries.
Correction of church books according to Greek models began. Instead of the Old Russian one, Greek rituals were introduced: two fingers were replaced by three fingers, and a four-pointed cross instead of an eight-pointed one was declared a symbol of faith.
The innovations were consolidated by the Council of the Russian Clergy in 1654, and in 1655 approved by the Patriarch of Constantinople on behalf of all Eastern Orthodox churches.
However, the reform, carried out hastily, without preparing Russian society for it, caused strong confrontation among the Russian clergy and believers. In 1656, the defenders of the old rites, whose recognized leader was Archpriest Avvakum, were excommunicated from the church. But this measure did not help. A movement of Old Believers arose, creating their own church organizations. Thus, a split occurred in the Russian Orthodox Church. Old Believers, fleeing persecution, went to distant forests and beyond the Volga, where they founded schismatic communities - monasteries. The response to the persecution was mass self-immolation and starvation.
The Old Believers movement also acquired a social character. The old faith became a sign in the struggle against the strengthening of serfdom.
The most powerful protest against church reform manifested itself in the Solovetsky uprising. The rich and famous Solovetsky Monastery openly refused to recognize all the innovations introduced by Nikon and to obey the decisions of the Council. An army was sent to Solovki, but the monks secluded themselves in the monastery and put up armed resistance. The siege of the monastery began, which lasted about eight years (1668 - 1676). The monks' stand for the old faith served as an example for many.
After the suppression of the Solovetsky uprising, the persecution of schismatics intensified. In 1682, Habakkuk and many of his supporters were burned. In 1684, a decree followed, according to which the Old Believers were to be tortured, and in case of disobedience, burned. However, these measures did not eliminate the movement of supporters of the old faith.
IN late XVII century, Russia was rocked by Streltsy riots. By this time, in connection with the creation of regiments of the new system, the role of the archers had decreased, they lost many privileges. Sagittarius not only carried out military service, but were also actively engaged in economic activities. The arbitrariness of the Streltsy colonels, frequent delays in salaries, the obligation to pay taxes and duties on trades, the growth of property inequality among them - all caused discontent among the Streltsy.
The boyars cleverly took advantage of this discontent in the struggle for power after the death of Fyodor Alekseevich, provoking the Streltsy revolts of 1682, 1689 and 1696.
The result of the rebellions and the active participation of the Streltsy in the political struggle around the throne was a radical reform of the army carried out by Peter I and which led to the disbandment of the Streltsy troops.
Urban and peasant uprisings, streltsy and schismatic riots reported, according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, “the alarming character of the 17th century.” The demands of the rebels attracted the government's attention to pressing, pressing problems and pushed it towards reforms.

At the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality was completed. As a result of complex ethnic and linguistic processes, the Russian language emerged, which differed significantly not only from Ukrainian and Belarusian, but also from Church Slavonic, which was preserved in book writing. In colloquial and close to it, the so-called official, business language, the dominant influence was exerted by the Rostov-Suzdal dialect, in it - the Moscow dialect. Many words that originally appeared in Moscow writing have become widespread throughout Russia, and among them are such as “khrestyanin” (peasant), “money,” “village,” etc. The ancient forms of past tenses have been lost, and the form of the verb has received a new development. Began to get closer to modern system declensions and conjugations. In the colloquial language, the old “vocalistic” (Ivane, father, wife, etc.) form of nouns has died out.

Dwellings and settlements

The formation of the Great Russian nationality was also reflected in the features of life and everyday life characteristic of the 16th and subsequent centuries. material culture. At this time, a type of residential building emerged, consisting of three rooms - a hut, a cage (or upper room) and a vestibule connecting them. The house was covered with a gable roof. This “three-chamber” building became dominant in Russian villages for a long time. In addition to the hut, the peasant courtyard had a granary for storing grain, one or two sheds (“palaces”) for livestock, a hay barn, a soaphouse (bathhouse), sometimes barns, barns, sheds, although the latter were most often placed outside the courtyards, in the field. In cities since the end of the 15th century. Stone dwellings of boyars, high clergy, and large merchants began to appear.
Villages of the 16th century usually consisted of 10 - 15 households; the larger settlements were villages. Cities developed according to a traditional radial-ring system: radii were formed along roads leading to other cities, rings were formed along the lines of wood-earth and stone fortifications that covered the growing parts of the cities. By the end of the 16th century. Moscow had three rings of stone fortifications - the Kremlin, which adjoined it from the east and enclosed the shopping center of the city of Kitay-Gorod, the White City (along the line of the modern boulevard ring) and one ring of wood-earth fortifications - Zemlyanoy Gorod, the fortifications of which were located along the modern Garden Ring. City estates usually opened onto the streets with fences, while residential buildings and utility rooms were hidden inside. In rare cases, streets were paved with wood; In the summer, when it rained, the streets were practically impassable. Each street had one or more churches.
Since many townspeople had their own livestock, the city had grazing areas, runs to water and pastures, as well as vegetable gardens, gardens, and sometimes even plots of arable land. In the 15th century City streets began to be locked with bars at night. “Running heads” of petty nobles appeared in the cities - the embryo of the city police service. The “blind heads” had to monitor not only the appearance of “thieves”, but also security in the city. For these purposes, it was prohibited to fire stoves in houses in the summer. Cooking took place in the courtyards. Blacksmiths and other artisans whose work involved the use of fire set up their workshops away from residential buildings, closer to the water. Despite all these precautions, cities were often destroyed by fires that brought great damage and often claimed a lot of human victims. But the cities were also restored quickly: ready-made, disassembled log houses were brought from the surrounding area, sold at auction, and city streets were rebuilt.

Clothing and food

In the 16th century A peculiar costume of peasants and townspeople developed - poneva, sundress, kokoshnik for women, blouse with a slit on the left side and felt boots (headdress) for men. The social elite began to stand out even more significantly in their appearance - rich fur coats, gorlat hats in winter, smart caftans - in the summer people saw boyars and rich merchants.
Common foods were cabbage soup, buckwheat, oatmeal, pea porridge, baked and steamed turnips, onions, garlic, fish, oatmeal jelly; on holidays they ate pies with filling, pancakes, eggs, caviar, imported fish, drank beer and honey. In the 50s of the 16th century. The Tsar's taverns opened, selling vodka. Rich people had a different table - here and on weekdays there was always caviar and sturgeon, meat (except for fasting days), and expensive overseas wines.

Religion

Despite the active actions of the church and the secular authorities that supported it in promoting Christian doctrine, the latter in the 16th century. penetrated deeply only into the environment ruling class. Sources indicate that the mass of the working population in the city and countryside was far from carefully and reluctantly performing church rituals, that pagan folk festivals and rituals like those associated with the celebration of Kupala and which the churchmen could not manage were still very strong and widespread reinterpret into the Orthodox rite of memory of John the Baptist.
The Church tried to attract the people with magnificent rituals and ceremonies, especially on the days of major religious holidays, when solemn prayer services, religious processions, etc. were organized. The clergy did their best to spread rumors about all kinds of “miracles” at icons, relics of “saints,” and prophetic “visions.” In search of healing from illnesses or deliverance from troubles, many people flocked to venerate the “miraculous” icons and relics, crowding large monasteries on holidays.

Folk art

Folk songs, glorifying the heroes of the capture of Kazan, also reflected the contradictory personality of Ivan the Terrible, who appears either as a “fair” tsar, taking good fellows from the people under his protection and dealing with the hated boyars, or as the patron of the “Malyuta villain Skuratovich.” The theme of the fight against external enemies gave rise to a peculiar reworking of the ancient Kyiv cycle of epics and new legends. Stories about the struggle with the Polovtsians and Tatars merged together, Ilya Muromets turns out to be the winner of the Tatar hero, and Ermak Timofeevich helps in the capture of Kazan. Moreover, the Polish king Stefan Batory appears as a servant of the Tatar “king”. Thus, folk art concentrated its heroes - positive and negative - around the capture of Kazan, thereby emphasizing the enormous significance of this event for contemporaries. In this regard, let us recall the words of Academician B.D. Grekov that “epic stories are a story told by the people themselves. There may be inaccuracies in chronology, in terms, there may be factual errors..., but the assessment of events here is always correct and cannot be different, since the people were not a simple witness to events, but a subject of history who directly created these events.”

Literacy and writing

The formation of a single state increased the need for literate people needed for the developing apparatus of power. At the Council of the Stoglavy in 1551, it was decided “in the reigning city of Moscow and in all cities... priests, deacons and sextons should establish schools in the houses of the school, so that priests and deacons in each city would entrust their children to them for teaching.” In addition to clergy, there were also secular “masters” of literacy, who taught literacy for two years, and for this they were supposed to “bring porridge and a hryvnia of money to the master.” First, the students completely memorized the texts of church books, then analyzed them by syllables and letters. Then they taught writing, as well as addition and subtraction, and they memorized numbers up to a thousand with their letter designation. In the second half of the century, manuals appeared on grammar (“A conversation about teaching literacy, what literacy is and what its structure is, and why such a teaching was compiled, and what is gained from it, and what is appropriate to learn first”) and arithmetic (“Book , recoma in Greek is arithmetic, and in German is algorizma, and in Russian is digital counting wisdom").
Handwritten books were distributed, which remained of great value. In 1600, one small book of 135 pages was exchanged “for a self-propelled gun, a saber, black cloth, and a simple curtain.” Along with parchment, which began to be in short supply, imported paper appeared - from Italy, France, and the German states, with specific watermarks indicating the time and place of paper production. In government agencies, huge long ribbons were glued from paper sheets - the so-called “pillars” (the bottom sheet of each sheet was fastened to the top of the next sheet in the case, and so on until the end of the entire case).

Typography

In the middle of the 16th century. A major event took place in the history of Russian education - the founding of book printing in Moscow. The initiative in this matter belonged to Ivan I V and Metropolitan Macarius, and the initial purpose of printing was to distribute uniform church books in order to strengthen the authority of religion and church organization in general. Book printing began in 1553, and in 1563 the former deacon of one of the Kremlin churches, Ivan Fedorov, and his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets became the head of the state printing house. In 1564 there was
The Apostle was published - an outstanding work of medieval printing in terms of its technical and artistic qualities. In 1568, printers were already working in Lithuania, where, according to some scientists, they moved on the orders of the tsar in order to promote the success of Russia's active actions in the Baltic states by distributing church books among the Orthodox population of Lithuania. However, after the Union of Lublin in 1569, the activities of Russian printers in Lithuania ceased. Ivan Fedorov moved to Lviv, where he worked until the end of his life (1583). In Lvov in 1574, he published the first Russian primer, which, along with the alphabet, contained elements of grammar and some reading materials.
In Moscow, after the departure of Fedorov and Mstislavets, book printing continued in other printing houses.

Socio-political thought

The complexity of the socio-political conditions for the formation of a unified Russian state gave rise in the spiritual life of society to an intense search for solutions to big problems - about the nature of state power, about law and “truth”, about the place of the church in the state, about land ownership, about the situation of peasants. To this we must add the further spread of heretical teachings, doubts about the validity of religious dogmas, and the first glimpses of scientific knowledge.
As elsewhere in European countries during the period of their unification, Russian social thought pinned hopes on establishing an ideal government and eliminating strife and civil strife with a unified government. However, specific ideas about the ideal state were far from the same among publicists who expressed the sentiments of different groups - Peresvet’s ideal of a strong sovereign relying on the nobility was not at all like Maxim the Greek’s dreams of a wise ruler deciding state affairs together with his advisers, and the ascetic refusal of “non-possessors” "from wealth caused furious indignation among the ideologists of a strong church - the “Osifites.” The acute political sound of social thought was characteristic of all its forms and manifestations. From their very origins, chronicles had the character of political documents, but now their purpose has increased even more. Going on a campaign against Novgorod, Ivan III specially took with him the clerk Stepan the Bearded, who “knew how to say” according to the “Russian chroniclers” “the wines of Novgorod.” In the 16th century A tremendous amount of work was undertaken to compile new chronicles, which included appropriately selected and interpreted news from the local chronicles. This is how the huge Nikon and Resurrection chronicles appeared. A notable feature was the widespread use of government materials in chronicling - discharge records, ambassadorial books, treaty and spiritual letters, article lists of embassies, etc. At the same time, there was an increase in church influence on chronicling. This is especially noticeable in the so-called Chronograph of 1512 - a work dedicated to history Orthodox countries, where the idea of ​​a leading position was substantiated Orthodox Russia V Christendom.
One of the lists of the Nikon Chronicle was made in the form of a luxuriously illustrated Facial vault, containing up to 16 thousand illustrations. This copy, apparently intended for the training and education of young members of the royal family, was subsequently subjected to repeated corrections; According to scientists, it was done by Ivan the Terrible, who retroactively introduced into history the denunciations of past “betrayals” of his opponents, executed during the years of the oprichnina.

Historical stories appeared dedicated to the events of the recent past - the Kazan “capture”, the defense of Pskov, also in the spirit of militant church ideology and glorifying Ivan the Terrible.
The “Book of Degrees” became a new historical work in the form of presentation, where the material is distributed not by years, but by seventeen “degrees” - according to the periods of the reign of the great princes and metropolitans from the “beginning of Rus',” which was considered the reign of the first Christian princes Olga and Vladimir, to Ivan the Terrible. The compiler, Metropolitan Afanasy, through the selection and arrangement of material, emphasized the exceptional importance of the church in the history of the country, the close union between secular and spiritual rulers in the past.
The question of the position of the church in a single state occupied a central place in the conflicts that continued in the first half of the 16th century. disputes between the “non-possessors” and the “Osiphites.” The ideas of Nil Sorsky were developed in his works by Vassian Patrikeev, who in 1499, together with his father, Prince Yu.
he was forcibly tonsured a monk and exiled to the distant Kirillovo-Belozersky monastery, but already in 1508 he was returned from exile and even approached at one time by Vasily III. Vassian criticized contemporary monasticism, the inconsistency of his life with Christian ideals, and saw this inconsistency primarily in the fact that monks tenaciously cling to earthly goods.
The views of Vassian Patrikeev were largely shared by the well-educated translator and publicist Maxim the Greek (Mikhail Trivolis), who was invited to Russia in 1518 to translate and correct liturgical books. In his works (there are more than a hundred of them), Maxim the Greek proved the illegality of the churchmen’s references to the writings of the “holy fathers” regarding the right to own lands (heroic texts dealt with vineyards), and exposed the difficult situation of the peasants living on monastery lands. From the pages of the works of Maxim the Greek an unsightly picture of the Russian church appears. The monks quarrel, conduct long-term litigation over villages and lands, get drunk, indulge in a luxurious life, have a completely un-Christian attitude towards the peasants living on their lands, entangle them in heavy usurious debts, spend the wealth of the church for their own pleasure, and sanctimoniously with magnificent rituals. cover up their deeply unrighteous lives.
A like-minded boyar of Maxim the Greek, F.I. Karpov, also very concerned about the state of the Russian Church, even put forward the idea of ​​​​the need to unite the Orthodox Church with the Catholic Church as a means of overcoming existing vices.
Metropolitan Daniel of Osif led an energetic struggle against all “freethinkers.” Not only heretics and non-possessors were subjected to Daniel's severe condemnation, but also all those who indulged in secular entertainment. Playing the harp and domra, singing “demonic songs” and even playing chess and checkers were declared as vicious as foul language and drunkenness; beautiful clothes and barber shaving were condemned in the same way. At the insistence of Daniel, in 1531 another Church Council was held against Maxim the Greek and Vassian Patrikeev. The latter died in the monastery, and Maxim the Greek was released only after the death of Vasily II.
Daniel's successor, Metropolitan Macarius, organized a large literary work aimed at strengthening religious influence on the spiritual culture of the country. The largest enterprise in this regard was the creation of a grandiose set of “Lives of the Saints” - “Great Cheti-Menya” for daily reading. With the creation of this book, the churchmen wanted to practically absorb all the books “in Rus'” and to give all bookishness a strictly consistent religious character. The Church, with the support of the state, continued its offensive against dissidents. In 1553, the former abbot of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Artemy, a follower of the teachings of Nil Sorsky, was put on trial for his statements condemning the official church, its money-grubbing and intolerance towards the erring. The following year, 1554, another church trial took place over the nobleman Matvey Bashkin, who rejected icon veneration, was critical of the writings of the “holy fathers,” and was indignant at the fact that the transformation of people into slaves had become widespread among Christians. In the same year, the Belozersk monk Theodosius Kosoy was arrested and brought to Moscow for a church trial. A former slave, Theodosius Kosoy was one of the most radical heretics of the 16th century. He did not recognize the trinity of the deity (a similar trend of so-called anti-Trinitarians was also widespread in Western Europe in connection with the then developing reform movement), saw in Christ not God, but an ordinary human preacher, rejected a significant part of dogmatic literature, considered it contrary to common sense meaning, did not recognize rituals, icon veneration, or the priesthood. Theodosius did not believe in “miracles” and “prophecies”, condemned the persecution of dissenters, and opposed the acquisitiveness of the church. In a positive sense, Theodosius’s dreams did not go further than the vague ideals of early Christianity, from the standpoint of which Theodosius spoke about the equality of all people before God, the inadmissibility, therefore, of the dependence of some people on others, and even the necessity equal treatment to all peoples and faiths. Theodosius' opponents called his preaching "slave teaching." There is some information that allows us to judge the presence of communities of followers of Theodosius the Oblique. The trial of Theodosius Kosy did not take place because he managed to escape to Lithuania, but the persecution of heretics continued.

The beginnings of scientific knowledge and the church’s struggle with them

With the activities of heretics at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries. were associated, albeit in a very narrow circle, with the first attempts to go beyond the canonical ideas about the world around us. Contrary to the widespread idea, included even in church “Easters” (indicators of Easter days in future years), that in 7000 (according to the then calendar “from the creation of the world”, according to modern - 1492) the “end of the world” will come ", heretics did not believe in the coming of the "end of the world." They did a lot of astronomy and had conversion tables to calculate lunar phases and eclipses.
The clergy were hostile to all these activities, considering them “witchcraft” and “witchcraft.” The monk Philotheus, who wrote to Vasily III about Moscow - the “third Rome,” admitted that it is possible, of course, to calculate the time of a future eclipse, but this is of no use, “the effort is much, but the feat is small,” “It is not appropriate for the Orthodox to experience this.” Hostility towards secular, non-religious knowledge and towards ancient culture was especially openly manifested in the arrogant confession of Philotheus that he is “a rural man and ignorant in wisdom, was not born in Athens, studied neither with wise philosophers, nor in conversation with wise philosophers I haven’t been.” This is how Russian churchmen treated ancient culture precisely at the time when the rise of Western European culture took place during the Renaissance, marked by living and strong interest To ancient heritage. It was these clergymen who developed political theory Russian state, they prepared for it a path of isolation from advanced culture, ossification in ancient orders and customs - for the glory of “true” Orthodox Christianity. The bold thought of Russian heretics and other “freethinkers” of the late 15th-16th centuries looks all the brighter. Heretics of the late 15th century. were familiar with the works of medieval and ancient philosophy, they knew the basic concepts of logic and some issues of theoretical mathematics (the concepts of a plane, a line, indivisible numbers, infinity). The head of the Moscow heretics, Fyodor Kuritsyn, thought about the question: is man’s will free or are his actions predetermined by God? He came to the conclusion that free will (“autonomy of the soul”) exists, and that the more literate and educated a person is, the greater it is.
Rudiments scientific knowledge existed in the 16th century. in the form of pure practical information according to various everyday affairs. The centuries-old practice of peasant farmers long ago developed criteria for assessing soils - now they were applied to assess the solvency of lands of “good”, “average”, “bad”. Government needs necessitated the measurement of land areas. In 1556, a manual was compiled for scribes who described the allocated lands, with the appendix of land surveyors. In the second half of the century, a manual “On laying out the earth, how to lay out the earth” appeared, which explained how to calculate the area of ​​a square, rectangle, trapezoid, parallelogram, and the corresponding drawings were attached.
The development of trade and money circulation led to the development of practical knowledge in the field of arithmetic. It is no coincidence that the terminology connects arithmetic operations with trading operations: the term was called in the 16th century. “list”, reduced - “business list”. In the 16th century knew how to perform operations on numbers with fractions, used the signs + and -. However, mathematical and other specific knowledge in the Middle Ages was very often clothed in a mystical-religious shell. The triangular figure, for example, was interpreted as a symbolic embodiment of the movement of the “holy spirit”, following within the “holy trinity” from the “god the father” located at the apex of the triangle.
Fantastic ideas about the Earth were quite widespread. In the popular translated book “Christian Topography” by an Alexandrian merchant of the 6th century. Kosma Indikoplov said that the sky is round, the Earth is quadrangular, stands on endless water, beyond the ocean there is an earth with paradise, in the ocean there is a pillar reaching to heaven and the devil himself is tied to this pillar, who is angry, and from this all sorts of disasters occur.
The mystical interpretation of natural phenomena was very widespread, there were special books - “astrologies”, “lunars”, “lightnings”, “tremblers”, “spatulas”, which contained countless signs and fortune-telling. Although the church formally condemned everything that went beyond the framework of religious worldviews, nevertheless, it was rare that a secular feudal lord did not maintain household “soothsayers” and “healers” at his court. Ivan the Terrible was not without superstitious feelings, who often feverishly sought reassurance for his anxieties in various fortune-telling.
But along with this, specific practical knowledge.
In 1534, “Vertograd” was translated from German, containing a lot of medical information. During the translation, “Vertograd” was supplemented with some Russian information. In this, very common in the 16th century. The handwritten book contained rules for personal hygiene, caring for the sick (particular attention was paid to avoiding drafts, as well as “so as not to get sick, and the brain would not dry out”), numerous information about medicinal plants, their properties and places of distribution. There are special instructions for treatment beaten man“from the whip,” and precisely “from the Moscow whip, and not the rural one,” feudal reality was reflected here in all its cruelty. In 1581, the first pharmacy in Moscow was established to serve the royal family, in which the Englishman James French, invited by Ivan the Terrible, worked.
The expansion of the territory of the Russian state and the growth of its connections with foreign countries advanced the development of geographical knowledge. Along with naive ideas about the “quadrangular Earth”, specific information about the location of various parts Earth.
Moscow ambassador Grigory Istomin in 1496 traveled on sailing ships from the mouth of the Northern Dvina to Bergen and Copenhagen, opening up the possibility of relations between Russia and Western Europe via the Northern Sea Route. In 1525, one of the most educated people of that time, diplomat Dmitry Gerasimov, went abroad. He expressed the idea that India, which attracted Europeans with its riches, as well as China could be reached through the Arctic Ocean. In accordance with this assumption, the English expedition of Willoughby and Chancellor was later equipped, which in the 50s of the 16th century. arrived in Kholmogory and opened the Northern route of sea communication with England.
The Trade Book, compiled in the second half of the 16th century, contained information about other countries necessary for foreign trade. In the 16th century Pomors made voyages to Novaya Zemlya and Grumant (Spitsbergen).

Architecture

The rise of Russian culture manifested itself in many ways. Significant changes have occurred in construction technology and the art of architecture closely related to it.
Strengthening Russian statehood already at the end of the 15th century. stimulated the restoration of ancient and construction of new buildings of the Moscow Kremlin, cathedral beginning of XIII V. in Yuryev Polsky and some others. Stone construction, although still to a small extent, began to be used for the construction of residential buildings. The use of brick opened up new technical and artistic opportunities for architects: During the unification of Russian lands, a pan-Russian architectural style began to take shape. The leading role in it belonged to Moscow, but with the active influence of local schools and traditions. Thus, the Spiritual Church of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, built in 1476, combined techniques of Moscow and Pskov architecture.
The reconstruction of the Moscow Kremlin was of great importance for the development of Russian architecture. In 1471, after the victory over Novgorod, Ivan III and Metropolitan Philip decided to build a new Assumption Cathedral, which was supposed to surpass the ancient Novgorod Sophia in its grandeur and reflect the power of the Russian state united by Moscow. At first, the cathedral was built by Russian craftsmen, but the building collapsed. The craftsmen had no construction experience for a long time large buildings. Then Ivan I I I ordered to find a master in Italy. In 1475 he came to Moscow famous engineer and the architect Aristotle Fioravanti. The Italian master became acquainted with the traditions and techniques of Russian architecture and by 1479 he built the new Assumption Cathedral - an outstanding work of Russian architecture, enriched with elements of Italian construction technology and Renaissance architecture. Solemnly majestic, embodying in its forms the power of the young Russian state, the cathedral building became the main religious and political building of Grand Ducal Moscow, a classic example of monumental church architecture of the 15th century.
To rebuild the Kremlin, masters Pietro Antonio Sola-ri, Marco Rufsro, Aleviz Milanets and others were invited from Italy. In 1485-1516. under their leadership, new walls and towers (preserved to this day) of the Kremlin were erected, expanding its territory to 26.5 hectares. At the same time, its internal layout took shape. In the center was Cathedral Square with the monumental building of the Assumption Cathedral and the high bell tower of Ivan the Great (architect Bon Fryazin, 1505 - 1508), completed at the beginning of the 17th century. On the southwestern side of the square, the Annunciation Cathedral appeared, which was part of the grand-ducal palace ensemble. This cathedral was built by Pskov masters in 1484-1489. The techniques of its external decoration were borrowed from Vladimir-Moscow traditions (arcature belts) and from Pskov (patterns of the upper part of the domes). In 1487 - 1491 Marco Ruffo and Pietro Antonio Solari built the Chamber of Facets to receive foreign ambassadors. It was the largest hall of that time. The vaults of the hall rest on a massive pillar in the middle - no other methods of constructing large interiors were known at that time. The chamber received its name from the “edges” of the external treatment of the facade. In 1505-1509. Aleviz built the tomb of the great princes and members of their families - the Cathedral of the Archangel Michael, which combines the traditions of Moscow architecture (a cube topped with a five-domed dome) with elegant Italian decor. The zakomar (“shells”) finishing technique used by the architect later became a favorite in Moscow architecture.
The ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin was a unique work of architecture at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, embodying the greatness, beauty, and strength of a people liberated from the foreign yoke, who had embarked on a common path of political and cultural progress with the advanced countries of Europe.
In the 16th century Stone churches with a hipped roof were already being built - “for wooden work,” as one of the chronicles says, i.e., following the example of numerous wooden hipped-roofed buildings. The material itself - wood - dictated this form of completion of the buildings in the form of a tent extending upward with even edges. In contrast to the Byzantine examples of cross-domed churches with domes, not only wooden, but also stone tented churches appeared in Russia without domes, without pillars inside, with a single, albeit small, internal space.
In 1532, in the palace village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, to commemorate the birth of the long-awaited heir Vasily III- Ivan Vasilyevich, the future Grozny, erected the tented Church of the Ascension, which is a true masterpiece of Russian and European medieval architecture. Soaring up into the sky on a coastal hill near the Moscow River, the temple with amazing power embodied the idea of ​​moving upward.
The crown of Russian architectural culture of the 16th century. became the famous Intercession Cathedral - St. Basil's Cathedral - on Red Square in Moscow, erected in memory of the capture of Kazan in 1555 - 1560. The nine-domed cathedral is crowned with a large tent, around which are crowded the bright, uniquely shaped domes of the chapels, connected by a gallery and located on one platform. The diversity and individuality of the cathedral's forms gave it a fabulous look and made it a real pearl of Moscow architecture. This great monument Russian architecture of the 16th century. reflected the wealth of national talent, the great spiritual upsurge that the country was then experiencing, freed from the threat of attacks the most dangerous enemy and was experiencing a period of significant reforms that strengthened the state.
Things were more complicated in the second half of the 16th century. Strict regulation of architecture by the Osiflan churchmen and Ivan the Terrible, who was under their influence in this regard, led partly to a reduction in new construction, partly to the construction of heavy imitations of the Moscow Assumption Cathedral, such as, for example, the cathedrals built in the late 60s - 80s in Trinity-Sergius Monastery and Vologda. Only at the very end of the century did the festive decorative principle in Russian architecture revive and begin to develop, which found its manifestation in the church in Vyazemy near Moscow, the Nativity Cathedral of the Pafnutiev Borovsky Monastery, and the so-called “small” cathedral of the Donskoy Monastery in Moscow.

Painting

The process of development of painting in Russia at the end of the 15th-16th centuries was approximately similar. The beginning of this period was marked by the flourishing of painting, associated primarily with the activities of the famous master Dionysius. With his assistants, he painted the walls and vaults of the cathedrals of the Pafnutev and Ferapontov monasteries. Fulfilling the orders of the Metropolitan and the Grand Duke, Dionysius managed to make his painting very elegant, beautiful, and festive, despite the static nature of the figures, the repetition of compositional techniques, complete absence prospects.
Dionysius’s workshop produced so-called “hagiography” icons, which, in addition to the image of the “saint,” also contained small “stamps” on the sides with images of individual episodes strictly according to the text of the “life” of this saint. The icons were dedicated to Moscow “saints” who played a significant role in the rise of Moscow.
The more the dominance of the Osiphlian church strengthened in the spiritual life of the country in the first half and middle of the 16th century, the more constrained the creativity of painters was. They began to be subject to increasingly stringent demands regarding exact and unconditional adherence to the texts of the “Holy Scriptures,” “lives,” and other church literature. Although the cathedral of 1551 indicated Andrei Rublev's icon writing as a model, the simple repetition of even brilliant works doomed the art of painting to the impoverishment of creativity.
Painting increasingly turned into a simple illustration of one text or another. By means of painting on the walls of the temple, they tried to “retell” the content of the “Holy Scripture” and “lives” as accurately as possible. Therefore, the images became overloaded with details, the compositions became fractional, and laconicism was lost. artistic means, so characteristic of artists of previous times and creating a tremendous effect on the viewer. Special elders appointed by the church ensured that the painters did not deviate from the models and rules. The slightest independence in the artistic design of images caused severe persecution.
The frescoes of the Annunciation Cathedral reflected the official idea of ​​​​the origin and continuity of power of the Moscow Grand Dukes from Byzantium. On the walls and pillars of the cathedral they are depicted in magnificent clothes Byzantine emperors and Moscow princes. There are also images of ancient thinkers - Aristotle, Homer, Virgil, Plutarch and others, but, firstly, they are drawn not in ancient, but in Byzantine and even Russian attire, and secondly, scrolls with sayings are placed in their hands, as if they predicted the appearance of Christ. Thus, the church tried to counteract its influence by falsifying ancient culture and even use it in its own interests.
Official church ideas were embodied in the large beautiful icon “Church Militant,” painted in the middle of the 16th century. to commemorate the capture of Kazan. The success of the Russian state was shown here as the victory of “true Christianity” over the “infidels,” “infidels.” The warriors are led by “saints” and are overshadowed by the Mother of God and angels. Among those depicted on the icon is the young Tsar Ivan the Terrible. There is an allegorical image - the river symbolizes the source of life, which is Christianity, and the empty reservoir represents other religions and deviations from Christianity.
In conditions of strict regulation of the art of painting, by the end of the century, a special direction had developed among artists, concentrating efforts on the painting technique itself. This was the so-called “Stroganov school” - named after the wealthy merchants and industrialists Stroganovs, who patronized this direction with their orders. The Stroganov school valued writing technique, the ability to convey details in a very limited area, external picturesqueness, beauty, and careful execution. It is not for nothing that artists’ works began to be signed for the first time, so we know the names of major masters of the Stroganov school - Procopius Chirin, Nikifor, Istoma, Nazarius, Fyodor Savina. The Stroganov school satisfied the aesthetic needs of a relatively narrow circle of fine art connoisseurs. The works of the Stroganov school distracted viewers from the religious theme itself and focused their attention on the purely aesthetic side of the work of art. And in Nikifor Savin, the viewer also encountered a subtly poeticized Russian landscape.
Democratic tendencies were evident among painters associated with the townspeople circles of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, and Nizhny Novgorod. On the icons they painted, sometimes instead of “biblical” ones, objects and characters appeared that were well known to the viewer and the artist from the life around them. Here you can find an image of the Mother of God, similar to a Russian peasant woman, a rather real image of the log walls and towers of Russian monasteries.
The accuracy in conveying the details of the texts of the chronicles and the various stories and legends included in them determined the development of the art of book miniatures. The chronicle vaults, containing thousands of miniatures on their pages, conveyed real pictures of historical events in great detail. The art of book design, inherited from ancient Russian scribes, continued to develop successfully in the 16th century. Artistic sewing achieved great development, especially in the workshop of the Staritsky princes. Skillfully created compositions, color selection, and delicate workmanship made the works of these masters outstanding monuments of artistic creativity of the 16th century. At the end of the century, sewing began to be decorated with precious stones.

Music and theater

Church singing of the 16th century. was characterized by the approval of “znamenny” - single-voice choral singing. But at the same time, the church could not ignore folk musical culture. Therefore, in the 16th century. and polyphonic singing with its brightness and richness of shades began to spread in the church.
Polyphonic singing apparently came from Novgorod. Novgorod resident Ivan Shai-durov came up with special “banners” - signs for recording melody with “chants”, “divorces” and “translations”.
Due to the church's stubborn opposition to instrumental music, Western European organs, harpsichords and clavichords, which appeared at the end of the 15th century, did not become widespread. Only among the people, despite all the obstacles, they played wind instruments everywhere - bagpipes, nozzles, horns, pipes, pipes; strings - beeps, gusli, domra, balalaika; drums - tambourines and rattles. The army also used trumpets and surnas to transmit combat signals.
In the folk environment, rich traditions were widespread theatrical arts. The Church tried to contrast them with some elements of theatrical “action” in divine services, when individual scenes from the so-called “sacred history” were presented, such as the “cave action” - the martyrdom of three youths at the hands of the unrighteous “Chaldean king”.

B.A. Rybakov - “History of the USSR from ancient times to late XVIII century." - M., “Higher School”, 1975.

10th grade - PROFILE

1 - option.

1 - 1 b.

1) capture of Kazan

2) Ivan’s weddingIVto the kingdom

3) standing on the Ugra

2 - 2 b.

3. Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, are connected with the process of peasant conversion.

1) St. George’s Day, 2) regular summers, 3) residential summers, 4) official summers, 5) statutory gram-ta, 6) peace-building -medium-nick.

Find-di-those and za-pi-shi-those number-measures of ter-mi-news, from-but-sya-sya-to-another-is- ri-che-sko-mu pe-ri-o-du. -1 b.

4 ѐ t speech.- 1 b.

The order of the positions in the Moscow State in the 15th-17th centuries. according to the nobility of the clan and the importance of the duties, for-no-m-e-before, he was called _______.

5 .Which of the number of measures are related to the activities of the Iz-bra-no-Rada? Write down the numbers in the table under which they are indicated.-2 b .

1) establishment of a pat-ri-ar-she-stvo in Russia

2) convening the first Zemstvo council

3) establishment of a department for secret affairs

4) Pri-nya-tie Su-deb-ni-ka 1550

6) introduction of past years

6. Establishment of correspondence between the origins of persons and the origin of their actions: to each element of the first column under-be-ri-te with-from-the-ve-st element from the second column.

- 2 b.

7. Read the excerpt from the document.

Using the ripple, you are in the given list of true judgments. Write down the numbers in response, under which they are indicated. - 2 b.

1) Describe in the history of events from the fifth century to the twentieth century.

2) The Tsar mentioned in the passage is Ivan III.

3) In a snippet, reference is made to the events of the Lithuanian War.

5) Men-of-the-vet-not-entered the Chosen Council in a moment.

6) The consequence of the events described in the excerpt was the introduction of a description.

8. On-pi-shi-the name of the Russian pra-vi-te-lya, to the years of the ru-le-tion of someone from-the-event, indicating- important on the diagram.- 1 b.

9. The name of the city is indicated on the diagram by number 1.- 1 b.

10. On the name of the middle-of-the-state This is the elk khan, conquered in the course of the events indicated in the diagram.- 1 b.

11. 2 b.

1) As indicated on the diagram, it was won due to the recent or-ga-ni-zo-van-nyh on the euro -pei-sky mode “regiment in new order.”

2) The meaning of the movement, indicated in the diagram, is in particular in the connection of the plane to-the-native lands, not-about-ho-di-my for the distribution of the yard to us.

3) To the Finno-Ugric group from the people indicated in the diagram under the number “2”.

4) The city, indicated by the number “1” on the diagram, surrendered to the Russian army without opposition.

5) Under the rule of the Russian state, during which the events indicated in the diagram took place, the beginning of the C-Bi-ri.

6) The peoples indicated in the diagram under the numbers “4” and “5” belong to the Slavic language group -pe.

12. What conclusions about the production of Russian art, depicted in the photo-graphy, are true? mi? You take two judgments out of five propositions. Write down the numbers in the table under which they are indicated -2 b.

1) at the present time, this portrait is stored in Er-mi-same

2) in the photo-graphy there is an image of Tsar Ivan the Terrible

3) this image fulfills the role of an icon in one of the Kremlin churches

4) this form of living-in-pi-si is an active development in Russia in the 17th century.

5) portrait painting in the form of par-sun pro-su-s-stvo-va-la in Russia until the 19th century.

13. Which of the temples were built in the century when the tsar depicted on the port ruled in Russia? There are two numbers in the text, under which they are indicated.- 2 b.

From the book by A. A. Zi-mi-n and A. L. Kho-rosh-ke-vi-cha “Russia in the time of Ivan the Terrible”

“C-Bi-ri.”

By the end of the Lithuanian War, economic devastation intensified sharply. In some of the districts of the Novgorod land, 80-90% of the villages and villages are beyond the control. The burden of growing forests, pestilence and famine led to the decline of the village and the flight of peasants to eastern and southern outskirts. The government of the Thunderstorm tried to worry, first of all, about the good of the “military rank” , i.e. military-serving people. Since 1581, a re-write of the village has begun in order to bring order in the region of its state. the gift of us according to you. In the paradise-o-ns, where the re-re-writing was carried out, the baptists were for a time, -I was about to leave the master. So the final approval of the peasant's right came from me . The flight of peasants and peasants continued. On southern ru-be-jah countries have accumulated that combustible element that in the early 17th century. will lead to a grand-di-oz-no-mu in the heat of the peasant war.

The introduction of “for-the-old-years”, these fore-tellings of the windows of the-cha-tel-no-th celebration of the ba-post-no-thing, society pa-lo with-with-eating-not-any Si-bi-ri. Its huge uninhabited or poorly developed spaces of ma-ni-wives from the fortress center of Russia these. The low tide in the village removed the sharpness of the class of rivers in the center, but created their foci in the outskirts.”

14 . Based on the text and knowledge of history, indicate at least two events (phenomena) that precede -whether and served for the purpose of economic development in Russia in the description of the pe- ri-od time-me-ni. What kind of “grand-di-oz-nom in the heat of the peasant war” are we talking about?- 2 b.

15. Based on the text and knowledge from the history of at least two measures, before pre-ado-le-tion of economic crisis. Tell me, in the in-te-re-sah of which layer of the village these measures were taken?2 b.

16. Based on the text and knowledge from the history of the name, there are at least two reasons for the strengthening of class pro-ti-vo-speech in given period of time. What factor at the end of the 16th century. from time to time filmed the sharp class of the pro-ti-vo-speech?3 b.

TOTAL - 27 points.

27 - 25 points - “5”

24 - 18 points - “4”

17 - 11 b. - "3"

less than 11 b - “2”

Test on the topic: “The Russian state in the 15th - late 16th centuries.”

PROFILE - 10th grade

Option 2.

1 . Place historical events in chronological order.- 1 b.

Write down the numbers that indicate historical events in the correct sequence in the table.

1) Stoglavy Cathedral

2) Ivan’s Code of LawIII

3) the first Zemsky Sobor

2 .Make a correspondence between events and years: for each position in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.- 2 b.

3. Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, date back to the era of the reign of Ivan IV.

1) Sagittarius; 2) oprich-ni-ki; 3) “newly built” shelves; 4) Elected Rada; 5) Table of ranks

6) Service regulations

Find-di-those and za-pi-shi-those number-measures of ter-mi-news, from-but-sya-sya-to-another-is- ri-che-sko-mu pe-ri-o-du.-1 b.

4 .Write down the term you are talking aboutѐ t speech.- 1 b.

The one-hundred-of-one of the representatives of the various layers of the population is an organ under the king, convened to decide the most -more important government affairs, called _______.

5 .You are from the list of co-beings from the reign of Ivan III, and for the number of measures, under which they are indicated, in response.- 2 b .

1) joining Smo-len-ska

2) introduction of the state emblem - two-headed eagle

3) joining the New Year

4) color-color under the-kaz-noy system

5) creation of a archer army

6) build a red-brick-pich-no-go Moscow Kremlin

6. Establishment of the correspondence between the fragments of the is-to-ri-che-s-sources and their short-ki-mi ha-rak-te -ri-sti-ka-mi: to each fragment, denoted by the letter, under-be-re-te-with-the-response -sha-rak-te-ri-sti-ki, designated numbers- 2 b.

7. Read about the rip from the middle of the middle av-to-ra.

Using the ripple, you will find the correct judgments in the list given above. Write back the numbers under which they are indicated.-2 b.

1) Description of my army in fragments was created during the reign of Ivan III.

2) The army that the author describes had firearms.

3) Describe-sy-va-e-mine in the excerpt the army played a large role in the expansion of the borders of the Russian state -gifts in the second half of the 16th century.

4) The army, which is described in a fragment, stings in the na-tu-ral and de-gentle form.

5) Describe-sy-va-e-my army for-mi-ro-va-elk on the basis of the re-cool-sko-go on-bo-ra.

6) Describe-sy-va-e-my in a fragment the army was dis-for-mi-ro-va-but in the beginning of the 17th century.

8. In the name of the prince, during the years of someone's reign, cities became part of the single Russian state , indicated on the diagram by the numbers “1” and “2”. -1b.

9. Indicate the century when the cities indicated in the numerical diagram were included in the composition of the single Russian state "3", "4" and "5".-1 b.

10. At the name of the prince, under whom the Russian state reached the borders indicated in the diagram by a bold line. -1 b .

11. Which judgments, based on this scheme, are true? You take three judgments out of six propositions. Write down the numbers in the table under which they are indicated.-2 b

1) In cities designated by the numbers “2” and “3”, before joining the single Russian state -su-dar-stva-va-la res-pub-li-kan-skaya form of government.

2) The consequence of the pro-va-la movement, indicated by black arrows, was the liberation of the Russian state -gifts from the Horde yoke.

3) The city, designated by the number “1”, became part of a single Russian state in 1478.

4) The Ordyn army in the march, marked by black arrows, was led by Mamai.

5) The city, designated by the number “2”, became part of a single Russian state in 1485.

6) Cities designated by the numbers “4” and “5” were recaptured by the Russian state from the Great Prince Li-tov-sko-go's family.

12. What judgments about this car-ti are not true? You take two judgments out of five propositions.- 2 b.

1) The map depicts the representatives of the royal di-nasty.

3) This car-ti is the only way her author relates to the topic of the history of Russia.

4) The action of the picture takes place in the 17th century.

5) Av-rom-kar-ti-ny appears V.I. Su-ri-kov.

13. Which of these monuments of ar-hi-tech-tu-ry were created during the lifetime of the per-so-na-zhes depicted on the map? In this case there are numbers under which they are indicated.- 2 b.

<...>I only remind you of one of many things, for I have already responded to the reproaches you wrote to me with all the truth: now I don’t remember many of the many. Remember what was said in the book of Job: “I walked around the earth and walked through the whole land”: so are you and priest Sil-ve-strom, and Alek-se-em Ada-she-v. and with all their families they want to see the whole Russian land under their feet, but God will give power to those who want - even.... You not only didn’t want to see me and listen to me, but you yourself controlled me, grabbed me you took my power and ruled as you wanted, but I was removed from power: in words I was a sovereign, but in reality I didn’t own anything. business... And why did you separate me from my wife? If you hadn’t given me my young wife, there wouldn’t have been blood sacrifices. And if you say that after that I didn’t erase and didn’t keep clean, then we’re all human... Why did you want Prince Vladi-mi- should you sit on the throne table and beat me and the children? Did I steal the throne or seize it through war and blood? According to God, from birth I was destined for the kingdom: and I no longer remember how my father blessed me to the state: he grew up on the royal throne. And why on earth should Prince Vla-di-mi-ru be go-su-da-rem? He is the son of the fourth prince. What advantages does he have, what hereditary rights does he have to be a government, besides yours and his stupidity? What is my fault before him?

14. Na-zo-vi-te av-to-ra is given by-sla-niya. Point out fa-mi-liyu ad-re-sa-ta. Indicate the period (with an accuracy of up to two decades) when the given message was written. - 2 b.

15. What does the author of the letter say about ad-re-sa-ta? When-we-di-those three ob-vi-no-nies.- 2 b.

16. Indicate the name of the government circle, which included ad-re-sat letters, as well as -what are the de-names named in the letter. There are several re-forms that have been carried out according to the ini-tsi-a-ti-ve of this circle.-3 b.

TOTAL - 27 points.

27 - 25 points - “5”

24 - 18 points - “4”

17 - 11 b. - "3"

less than 11 b - “2”

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