In December 1867, Colonel Abramov carried out a reconnaissance of the western part of the Jizzakh region, which was under the control of the Bukhara administration. During this expedition, the Russians burned the village of Ukhum, occupied by the Bukharians. In March 1868, a large detachment of Major O.K. Grippenberg again approached Ukhum and dispersed the detachment of the emir's soldiers stationed there.
In December 1867, Colonel Abramov carried out a reconnaissance of the western part of the Jizzakh region, which was under the control of the Bukhara administration. During this expedition, the Russians burned the village of Ukhum, occupied by the Bukharians. In March 1868, a large detachment of Major O.K. Grippenberg again approached Ukhum and dispersed the detachment of the emir's soldiers stationed there. The situation in the Bukhara Khanate itself had become very difficult by that time. In Bukhara and Samarkand, as before in Tashkent, two groups formed. The Muslim clergy and military elite demanded that Emir Muzaffar decisive action against Russia, they accused him of cowardice and relied on the eldest son of the emir Abdul-Malik, nicknamed Katta-tyura. The opposite position was taken by the Bukhara and Samarkand merchants, who were interested in economic ties with Russia and demanded a peaceful resolution of the conflict. Relying on numerous students from religious schools, the clergy issued a decree (fatwa) on a holy war against the Russians. In April 1868, an army of thousands led by the emir headed to the river. Zeravshan, leaving Samarkand in his rear. A Russian detachment under the command of Kaufman himself, consisting of 25 infantry companies and 7 hundred Cossacks with 16 guns (a total of 3,500 people), moved towards her from Dzhulek. On the eve of the clash, the Russians received an unexpected ally. A detachment of 280 Afghans led by Iskander Khan, the grandson of Dost Mohammed, arrived in Jizzakh. These Afghans were in the service of the Bukhara emir, forming a garrison for the Nur-Ata fortress. However, the local bek decided to withhold their salaries. The offended soldiers took two fortress guns “in compensation for losses” and went to the Russians, defeating along the way those Bukhara detachments that tried to detain them. Subsequently, Iskander Khan received from the Russian command the rank of lieutenant colonel and the Order of St. Stanislav 2nd Art. and the place of an officer in the famous Life Guards Hussar Regiment. His service in Russia was interrupted completely unexpectedly and even absurdly. In St. Petersburg, during training in the arena, the commander of the imperial convoy hit Iskander Khan's adjutant Raidil in the face. Iskander immediately challenged the offender to a duel, was arrested and put in a guardhouse. After this, the proud Afghan left for his homeland, where he accepted the patronage of the British. All this, however, happened later. At the time described, Iskander Khan voluntarily joined Kaufman’s army and together with him went into battle against the Bukharians. On May 1, 1868, the Russians reached the northern bank of Zeravshan and saw the enemy army across the river. The ambassador who arrived from the Bukharians asked Kaufman not to start hostilities, but the emir was also in no hurry to withdraw his troops. At about three o'clock in the afternoon the Bukharans opened fire from cannons. In response, the Russian batteries began to speak, under the cover of which the infantry began to cross. Having first passed through the river in chest-deep water, and then through muddy rice fields, Russian soldiers struck the Bukharans simultaneously in the front and from both flanks. “The enemy,” recalled a participant in the battle, “did not wait for our bayonets, and before we approached a hundred steps, he left 21 guns and fled, throwing along the road not only weapons and cartridge bags, but even clothes and boots, in which it is difficult to run.” . Of course, a Russian officer can be suspected of bias, but in this case he apparently did not exaggerate. The Bukhara writer and diplomat Ahmadi Donish wrote with caustic mockery: “The fighters found it necessary to flee: everyone ran as best they could, they ran wherever they could, throwing all their property and equipment. Some fled towards the Russians, and the latter, having learned their position, fed and watered them, released them. The emir, having soiled his pants, also ran away. Nobody wanted to fight." The victory of the Russian detachment was complete, and with minimal losses: two killed. The remnants of the emir's army retreated to Samarkand, but the townspeople closed the gates in front of them. When Russian troops approached the former capital of Tamerlane, the Samarkand residents surrendered.
K. Kaufman thanked the residents on behalf of the sovereign, and presented a silver medal to the chief judge and spiritual head of the city, Kazi-Kalyan. On May 6, a small detachment of Major von Stempel was sent from Samarkand and captured the small Bukhara fortress of Chelek at the foot of the Nurata Mountains. On May 11, Kaufman equipped another, larger expedition consisting of 6 companies of soldiers and 2 hundred Cossacks with 4 guns under the command of Colonel Abramov. This detachment went to the city of Urgut, located 34 km southeast of Samarkand.
On May 12, the detachment collided under the walls of the city with a large Bukhara army, which it inflicted a crushing defeat on. After this, Abramov’s soldiers stormed the city, partially scattering and partially exterminating its garrison. On May 14, the expedition returned to Samarkand. On May 17, the Russians occupied Kata-Kurgan, 66 km northwest of Samarkand. All these successes greatly frightened the rulers of the city of Shakhrisabz. This large craft and shopping mall, the birthplace of the great warrior Tamerlane, repeatedly tried to overthrow the power of the Bukhara emirs. Now the Shakhrisabz beks decided that the power of Bukhara was over, but it was necessary to get rid of the Russians. To do this, they supported the son of Emir Abdul-Malik.
On May 27, a 10 thousand army of Shakhrisabz residents attacked a detachment of Colonel Abramov (8 companies and 3 hundred Cossacks) near the village of Kara-Tyube, not far from Samarkand. But it was rejected. This clash encouraged Emir Muzaffar, who believed that the time had come for revenge. On June 2, 1868, on the Zirabulak Heights, between Katta-Kurgan and Bukhara, a decisive battle between the emir’s army and Kaufman’s detachment took place. The Bukharans, demoralized by previous failures, acted extremely indecisively and were again defeated. The road to Bukhara was open, and Muzaffar himself was going to flee to Khorezm.
However, Kaufman could not attack the emir's capital, because. in his rear, a center of resistance unexpectedly arose. Going to the Zirabulak Heights, the Governor General left a very small garrison in Samarkand, consisting of 4 companies of the 6th line battalion, 1 company of sappers and 2 artillery batteries under the overall command of Major Shtempel. In addition, in the city there were non-combatant and sick soldiers of the 5th and 9th line battalions, as well as Colonel N.N. Nazarov, who, due to frequent quarrels with his colleagues, submitted his resignation, but did not have time to leave. In total, the Russian detachment numbered 658 people, among whom was the prominent battle painter V.V. Vereshchagin with the rank of ensign.
On June 2, this handful of Russian soldiers was besieged by a 25 thousand army under the command of Baba Bey, who came from Shakhrisabz. In alliance with the Shakhrisabz people, a 15 thousand-strong detachment of Kyrgyz led by Adil-Dakhty, as well as the rebel residents of Samarkand, whose number also reached 15 thousand, acted. Thus, for every Russian warrior there were more than 80 opponents. Not having the strength to hold the entire city, the garrison immediately retreated to the citadel, located near its western wall.
“When we closed the gates behind us,” recalled Captain Cherkasov, a participant in the events, “the enemy burst into the city... To the sound of zurnas, the beating of drums, merging with wild screams, the enemy quickly spread through the streets of the city. Not even an hour had passed before all the streets were filled with it and the fluttering signs became clearly visible to us.”
The thickness of the walls of the citadel reached 12 meters in some places and the attackers clearly could not break through it. Weak point There were two defense gates: Bukhara in the southern wall and Samarkand in the eastern. The Russian detachment had enough ammunition and food for a long defense. The besiegers made their first attack on the Bukhara Gate, which was defended by 77 soldiers under the command of Major Albedil.
Shakhrisabz residents tried three times to break down the gate and get over the wall, but each time they were repulsed by well-aimed rifle fire. Albedil himself was seriously wounded. Finally, the attackers managed to set fire to the gate. At the same time, the enemy was pressing at the Samarkand Gate, where 30 soldiers of Ensign Mashin held the defense. Here the attackers also set fire to the gate and tried to get inside through it, but the soldiers knocked it down with bayonets. At the height of the battle, a platoon of the 3rd company under the command of Warrant Officer Sidorov, which formed a mobile reserve, arrived to help the defenders of the Samarkand Gate. He helped repel the enemy onslaught, and then quickly rushed to the Bukhara Gate and supported Albedil’s detachment.
In addition to the gate, the Shakhrisabz people tried to penetrate the citadel through breaks in the eastern wall. They also climbed directly onto the walls, for which they used iron hooks that were placed directly on their arms and legs. However, everywhere the attackers were met by well-aimed fire from soldiers. By evening the attacks stopped, but this temporary success cost the Russians dearly: 20 privates and 2 officers were killed.
On the morning of June 3, the assault resumed. Instead of Albedil, the defense of the Bukhara Gate was led by Lieutenant Colonel Nazarov, who officially did not hold any position. This officer had a reputation as a brave man, but very daring, arrogant, who did not recognize any authorities, in a word, “a true Turkestan.” To encourage the soldiers, he ordered his camp bed to be placed at the gate, emphasizing that he would not leave his position at night. Nazarov, however, did not have to sleep. At 8 a.m., the Shakhrisabz residents, having broken the burnt remains of the gate, dismantled the barricade erected by the Russians and captured one cannon. The soldiers rushed with hostility, with V. Vereshchagin leading the way. After a fierce hand-to-hand fight, the besiegers retreated, but soon resumed the assault in other directions.
The attacks continued over the next two days, and they were combined with constant shelling of the citadel. The garrison, thinned by enemy bullets, had to not only repel attacks, but also put out fires, fill the gates with bags of earth and make forays beyond the fortress walls.
Only on July 8 did Kaufman’s army return to Samarkand, putting the Shakhrisabz and Kyrgyz people to flight. During the 8-day defense, the Russians lost 49 people killed (including 3 officers), and 172 people (5 officers) wounded.
As punishment for the rebellion, Kaufman gave the city up for three days to be plundered. “Despite the appointment of numerous patrols,” recalled V. Vereshchagin, “many dark deeds were committed in these three days.” By the way, it was the defense of Samarkand that inspired the artist to create one of his most famous paintings - “Fatally Wounded” (1873). Vereshchagin himself described in his memoirs how, during a battle for the gate, a soldier, struck by a bullet, “let go of the gun, grabbed his chest and ran around the site in a circle, shouting:
Oh, brothers, they killed, oh, they killed! Oh, my death has come!
Then, the painter said, “the poor man no longer heard anything, he described another circle, staggered, fell backward, died, and his cartridges went into my supply.”
During the fighting in Samarkand, Emir Muzaffar, fearing that the victory of the Shakhrisabz people would shake not only Russian power, but also his own, sent out several false letters that the Bukhara army was preparing for a campaign against Shakhrisabz. This circumstance, along with the approach of Kaufman's forces, contributed to the withdrawal of the besiegers from Samarkand.
In June, the emir's ambassador, Mussa-bek, arrived at the Russian command and an agreement was concluded between Russia and Bukhara.
The Bukharians officially recognized the entry of Khujand, Ura-Tyube and Jizzakh into the Russian Empire. They also agreed to pay 500 thousand rubles. indemnity, and to ensure the implementation of this clause, Samarkand and Katta-Kurgan were subject to temporary occupation by the Russians. From the newly occupied territories, the Zeravshan district was organized, the head of which was Abramov, who had been promoted to major general.
The emir's son Abdul-Malik fled to Karshi, where he proclaimed himself khan. Muzaffar immediately moved his troops there and drove his son out of the city, but as soon as he returned to Bukhara, the rebellious son again settled in Karshi. Then Muzaffar turned to Abramov for help, and he sent his detachment to Karshi. Without waiting for the battle, Abdul-Malik fled again, this time to India, under the protection of the British. Russian troops entered Karshi, who then handed it over to representatives of the emir. Everything testified to the transformation of the Bukhara Khanate into a vassal of the Russian Empire.
The obvious successes of the Russian army in Central Asia caused a new attack of irritation among the British government. Foreign Minister Lord Clarendon turned to the Russian envoy I.F. Brunnov with a proposal to urgently develop the border of the “neutral Central Asian belt.” At the beginning of 1869, negotiations began on this issue, which immediately revealed serious disagreements between the countries. Clarendon insisted on drawing the border “along the Amu Darya in its middle course, so that on the meridian of Bukhara it follows strictly west through the whole of Turkmenistan. The Russians objected in response that such a line would be only 230 miles from Samarkand, while the distance from it to “the advanced English post is more than twice as much.” Moreover, in the English version, the border would have crossed the caravan routes from Bukhara to Khorasan and other provinces of Northern Persia, which did not suit the Russian merchants. Finally, disputes flared up about the rights of Afghanistan, which had an agreement with England, to the principalities between the Hindu Kush ridge and the Amu Darya. Russian diplomats, not without reason, believed that the Afghan Emir Sher Ali was preparing to start a big war against Bukhara. There was a growing conviction in British government circles that Russian advances in Central Asia were beginning to truly threaten their positions in Iran, even in India. The matter ended with the conclusion of some general declarations, with Russia promising not to push the border of the Bukhara Khanate south towards Afghanistan.
Meanwhile, Russian traders and industrialists more and more insistently expressed their desire for “firm mastery” of the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea. In April 1869, at a meeting of the Committee of the Society to Promote Russian Industry and Trade, they even remembered the idea of Peter I to turn the Amu Darya to the Caspian Sea. In June 1869, the Turkestan Governor-General addressed the Minister of War D. A. Milyutin with a letter in which he noted that relations with Bukhara had taken on a character desirable for Russia and the opportunity had arisen to once again address the solution to the “Krasnovodsk issue.” The Minister of War, agreeing with Kaufman’s arguments, in August of the same year suggested that the Caucasian governor begin preparations for military expedition. In November 1869, a Russian military detachment under the command of Colonel N. G. Stoletov landed on the coast of Muravyovskaya Bay of the Krasnovodsk Bay.
This measure caused the strong displeasure of the Iranian Shah Nasreddin, who believed that the Yomud Turkmens who roamed along the Atrek and Gurgan rivers were his subjects. Russia, however, rejected the Persian claims. On the Caspian coast, the Krasnovodsk fortification was rebuilt, and the territories occupied by the Russians under the name of the Mangishlak police station were subordinated to the Caucasian administration. All this sparked unrest among the local population.
In mid-March 1870, Colonel Rukin, who headed the police department, went on a reconnaissance trip, during which he was attacked by a “horde” of Kazakhs and was killed along with the entire convoy (40 Cossacks). Following this, the Kazakhs besieged the Alexander Fort, but were defeated by Caucasian troops arriving from Petrovsk. The armed forces in Mangishlak were headed by Colonel Count Kutaisov. At the end of April, he inflicted a number of defeats on the Kazakhs, and the soldiers of the Dagestan Cavalry Irregular Regiment especially distinguished themselves in battles.
For further development of the territory, under the leadership of Stoletov, the Krasnovodsk detachment was formed, subordinate to the Caucasian military authorities and including 5 infantry companies (mainly the 82nd Dagestan infantry regiment), 1.5 hundred Terek Cossacks, a team of sappers and 16 guns with servants. The main stronghold for him was the Mikhailovskoye fortification, founded on the shore of the now shallow Mikhailovsky Bay. Another fortress was built 75 km away. from the coast to the Mallakari tract. The measures turned out to be more than timely. On October 20, 1870, the Tekin Turkmen, incited by Khiva, attacked the Mikhailovskoe fortification, but were repulsed. As a response, N.G. Stoletov gathered a detachment of 490 soldiers and Cossacks from Mallakari, with 3 cannons, with which he moved east. Having traveled more than 200 km, he reached Kizyl-Arvat on December 10, but did not find the enemy and returned back. In May 1871, Stoletov sent an expedition led by captain captain M.D. Skobelev (future hero of the Russian-Turkish war) deep into the mainland. The purpose of all these events was not only to “pacify” the Turkmens, but also to scout routes and prepare for a decisive attack on the Khanate of Khiva.
During the war between Russia and the Bukhara and Kokand khanates, Khiva continued to provide shelter to robbers who robbed trade caravans and intrigued against Russia in every possible way. In 1870, N.A. Kryzhanovsky received a message that a Turkish ambassador had arrived at the Khan of Khiva and offered assistance to Muhammad-Rakhim in the event of the creation of a union of Central Asian states. Many military leaders called for an immediate end to Khiva, but diplomats were more cautious. The director of the Asian Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Stremoukhov, in his letter to Kryzhanovsky directly stated that the “military demonstration” was premature. Under these conditions, the commander of the Krasnovodsk detachment N. G. Stoletov and his assistant M. D. Skobelev decided to begin hostilities at their own peril and risk. Having learned about their plans, the chief of staff of the Caucasian Military District, General Svistunov, arrived in Krasnovodsk to clarify the situation. Fearing that he would be banned from fighting, Stoletov tried to hide his intentions from his superiors and did not allow Svistunov to go to the front posts.
The matter ended in scandal. In June 1871, Stoletov was removed from his post and almost went to trial, and Lieutenant Colonel V.I. Markozov became the commander of the detachment. The disgrace of the willful Stoletov did not mean that the government abandoned its intention to assert its power over Khiva. In the autumn of the same year, Markozov carried out a deep reconnaissance of the territories along Atrek and Sarykamysh. At the beginning of September, his detachment of 625 soldiers and Cossacks with 16 guns gathered in Mallakari. When the Turkmens refused to provide Markozov with the camels necessary for the campaign, he took them away by force and, forming a large caravan, moved towards Sarykamysh, establishing fortified points along the way.
The main difficulty for the expedition was the lack of water. However, the Russians managed to reach the distant well of Dekcha and return to Mallakari by early November. After this, Markozov ordered the transfer of the garrison of the Mikhailovsky fortification to the village of Chikishlyar on the shore of the Gassankuli Bay, at the confluence of the river. Atrek. The reason for this movement was that along the Atrek there was a convenient route to the main center of the Turkmen-Teke Kizyl-Arvat. In the summer of 1872, another, very large expedition began. Its base was located in the village of Bilek, 76 km east of Krasnovodsk. To support the campaign, camels were massively requisitioned from the Turkmens. One company of soldiers was specially sent to the Bugdaili tract, famous for its ponds, to receive camels collected by another company on the coast. This event almost ended tragically. The name “Bugdayli” itself comes from the Turkmen word “bugday” - wheat. In rainy springs, real lakes actually appear there, which can be used for watering livestock. However, by July the water partially evaporates and partially goes into the soil, and then it is necessary to dig deep wells. Russian soldiers reached Bugdail in August, and the spring that year was dry. No water could be found. It got to the point where the soldiers drank their own urine. With heavy losses, without completing the assigned task, the company returned to Chekishlyar.
The detachment of Major Madchavariani, who obtained more than 500 camels on Uzboy, was much more successful. Markozov himself set out from Chekishlyar at the head of two companies of the 80th Kabardian Infantry Regiment. After a 12-day march, he reached Lake Topiatan in the dry bed of Uzboy, where he captured a caravan traveling from Khiva to Atrek. Gradually, other units of the Krasnovodsk detachment pulled up to Topiatan. By the beginning of October, 9 infantry companies and a hundred Cossacks were concentrated there. Markozov ordered to leave 200 soldiers (7th company of the Kabardian regiment) at the Jamal well to build a fortification, and he himself led the main forces up the Uzboy and then to Kizyl-Arvat. On October 25, the Russians reached Kizyl-Arvat, but it turned out that it had been abandoned by the Turkmens.
Markozov decided to continue moving to the southeast, but even here all the villages were empty. The detachment passed Koj, Kizil-Cheshme, Bami and finally, in the village of Baurma, discovered a small group of Tekins, who immediately entered into a firefight with the Russians. In response, Markozov ordered “to set fire to all the Turkmen carts that are encountered” and, at the same time, sent 5 companies under the command of Colonel Klugen to the Gyaur well and then to Jamal to “raise the remaining troops.” When Klugen’s detachment reached the Jamal fortification, it turned out that it was besieged by about 2 thousand Turkmens and Khiva warriors. In the battle that took place, the Turkmen-Khiva army was defeated. Klugen with reinforcements and supplies moved back to Kiziol-Arvat, but along the way many camels fell, and 46 packs of bread had to be burned.
Having united, the detachments of Markozov and Klugen headed across the foothill plain of Kyurendag along the Adzhi gorge and further along the Atrek back to Chekishlyar, where they arrived on December 18. The transition was very difficult. The camels were weakened to such an extent that the Russians had to constantly throw loads, and this led to a decrease in food. Towards the end of the campaign, rains also began, and the eroded clay soil made it even more difficult for the troops to follow. It should be noted that all of Markozov’s previous combat experience was associated with the Caucasus and he did not know, and could not know, many of the specific features of the campaign through the desert. The expeditionary force he assembled was quite large: about 1,700 people. To provide it with water, food and ammunition, such large number camels, which was impossible to find. Therefore, Markozov’s soldiers loaded the camels with twice as much cargo as permissible. It is not surprising that of the 1,600 animals available at the beginning of the campaign, only 635 remained by the time they returned to Chekishlyar. The detachment made difficult transitions from well to well, expecting a clash with the enemy, but the Turkmens retreated without giving a fight. Of course, Markozov managed to carry out a detailed reconnaissance of the area, but many of his colleagues doubted whether such a large army should have been moved across the desert for this purpose.
However, the Khiva government regarded the campaign of the Krasnovodsk detachment as the beginning great war and began to gather troops. The situation in the Bukhara lands also remained difficult. After the emir signed peace with the Russians, the Shakhrisabz beks refused to submit to his authority. Small bekstvos in the upper reaches of Zeravshan also “fell away” from Bukhara: Matcha, Falgar, Fan, etc. In the spring of 1870, expeditions were sent there under the command of Major General Abramov (550 soldiers with 2 mountain cannons) and Colonel Dennett (203 people) .
The first detachment set out on April 25 from Samarkand, walked more than 200 km up the Zeravshan and reached the village of Oburdan. Dennett’s detachment also arrived there, but it came from Ura-Tyube, through the mountainous Auchin Pass. Having united, the expeditions of Abramov and Dennett reached the village of Paldorak, the residence of the Matcha bek, who, upon learning of their approach, fled. At the end of May, Abramov went further east, to the glaciers of Zeravshan, and Dennett went north, to the Yangi-Sabakh pass. Having passed the pass, Dennett’s detachment encountered a large army of Tajiks-Matchin and Kyrgyz, after which they returned to join Abramov’s forces. Then the Russians again moved north, overtook the enemy and on July 9, 1870 defeated them at the northern exit from Yangi-Sabah. After that, they explored the territories along the Yagnob and Fan-Darya rivers, near Lake Iskander-Kul, after which the entire expedition began to be called Iskander-Kul. In the same 1870, new lands were included in the Zeravshan district under the name “Upland Tyumen”.
Meanwhile, new news was arriving in St. Petersburg that Emir Muzaffar, despite the assistance provided to him at Karshi, was trying to put together an alliance against Russia, establishing contacts with the Afghan Emir Sher-Ali, negotiating with Khiva and even with his recent enemies, the Shakhrisabz beks. The situation was complicated by the fact that due to the cold and little snowy winter of 1869–1870. There was a crop failure in a number of areas of the Bukhara Khanate. Due to lack of food, livestock began to die. “Gangs of hungry poor people,” Kaufman reported, “began to wander around the Khanate, causing serious unrest. The fanatical clergy incited the emir against us by all means, pointing out to him with one voice the importance of the granary lost in 1868 (i.e. the Samarkand oasis - A.M.).”
To prevent possible protests, Kaufman in the summer of 1870 decided to strike at the Shakhrisabz beks. The reason for the outbreak of hostilities was that a certain Aidar Khoja found refuge in Shakhrisabz, who with his supporters raided the borders of the Zeravshan district. General Abramov demanded the extradition of the culprit, but was refused. Soon an expeditionary force of 9 infantry companies, 2.5 hundred Cossacks with 12 guns and 8 rocket launchers was formed in Samarkand. It was divided into two columns, which set out on a campaign with an interval of 2 days (August 7 and 9) and on August 11 approached the walls of the city of Kitab in the Shakhrisabz oasis. On August 12, the Russians, having laid down batteries, began a siege of this point. The Kitab garrison numbered 8 thousand people, and its fortifications were quite powerful.
On August 14, when Russian cannons made a hole in the city wall, General Abramov, who led the siege, decided to storm. The soldiers of the assault column under the command of Colonel Mikhailovsky simultaneously burst into the breach and climbed the ladders to the walls. They were followed by Major Poltoratsky's reserve column, whose soldiers set fire to the city's hay warehouse. After fierce street fighting, the city was taken. 600 defenders of Kitab and 20 Russians (1 officer and 19 soldiers) died in the battle. Wanting to emphasize that this campaign was directed only against the rebels, Abramov handed over control of the Shakhrisabz oasis to the emir’s envoys.
Meanwhile, the Shakhrisabz military leaders Jura-bek and Baba-bek gathered a 3,000-strong army in Magian Bekstvo. Three companies of infantry came out against them and the beks, not daring to fight, retreated. The Shakhrisabz expedition was not only crowned with victory, but, under the guise of assistance, demonstrated to the emir the strength and power of the Russian army.
Another major success was achieved on the border of the Kyrgyz tribes and Western China. In the summer of 1871, a detachment led by the governor of Semirechye G. A. Kolpakovsky occupied the lands of the Kulja Khanate, which arose during the uprising of Dungan Muslims against Chinese power. The transfer of Ghulja into Russian hands contributed to a major diplomatic success: the conclusion of an agreement with the ruler of Kashgar, Yakub Beg, who fought with the Russians as a Kokand commander. Understanding very well what a strong power he was dealing with, Yakub Beg generally avoided conflicts with the Russians in every possible way.
Thus, in 1868–1872. Russian armed forces suppressed pockets of resistance in the Bukhara Khanate, made long campaigns into mountainous Tajikistan and deep into the Turkmen lands. The next stage, according to the plan of the Turkestan command, was to be decisive offensive to the Khanate of Khiva, which still tried to act independently and even defiantly towards Russia.
A.A. Mikhailov, "Battle with the Desert"
In the 16th - 1st half of the 18th centuries. In the Khanate of Khiva there was a constant internecine struggle, continuous wars were waged with Bukhara, Iran, and with the nomadic Turkmens, and there was acute national discord between the Uzbeks and Turkmens within the country. In 1700, 1703, 1714 Ambassadors of Khan Shah Niyaz negotiated with Peter I about accepting the Khanate of Khiva into Russian citizenship. However, the expedition to Khiva by A. Bekovich-Cherkassky in 1717 was destroyed by the Khivans. In 1740, the Khanate of Khiva was conquered by the ruler of Iran, Nadir Shah, but after his death in 1747 it again became independent.
During the internecine struggle in 1763, Muhammad Amin, the head of the Kungrat tribe, emerged, laying the foundation for a new Khiva dynasty - the Kungrat dynasty. The most significant representative of this dynasty was Khan Muhammad Rahim (1806-1825), who completed the unification of the Khiva Khanate and established supreme council, carried out a tax reform, subjugated neighboring small estates (Aral, Karakalpak, etc.). This was a period of strengthening of central power and internal stabilization.
As a result of the Khiva campaign of 1873, according to the Gendemian Peace Treaty of 1873, the Khiva Khanate renounced the lands on the right bank of the Amu Darya and became a vassal of Russia while maintaining internal autonomy. The population of the Khiva Khanate, consisting of Uzbeks, Turkmen, Karakalpaks and Kazakhs, was engaged in agriculture based on artificial irrigation and cattle breeding. Feudal orders were closely intertwined with patriarchal clan and slaveholding ones. With the exception of a few cotton gins, there was no industry. Exports included cotton, dried fruits, hides, and wool. Khan enjoyed unlimited power. Arbitrariness and violence reigned in the country. The reactionary Muslim clergy played a major role.
After the October Revolution of 1917, an intense political struggle began in the Khiva Khanate. On February 2, 1920, a popular uprising, supported by units of the Red Army, overthrew khan's power. On April 26, 1920, the 1st All-Khorezm People's Kurultai proclaimed the formation of the Khorezm People's Soviet Republic.
Formation of the Khiva Khanate
On the eve of Sheybani Khan's invasion, Khorezm was ruled by the Chin Sufi from the dynasty of Sufis, who came from the Kungrat dynasty. Officially, he was considered the governor of Hussein Baykara. In 1505, Khorezm was captured by Sheybani Khan, and in 1510 by the Iranian Shah Ismail. But his reign did not last long. In 1511, Khorezm again gained independence.
About 20 Uzbek tribes lived on the territory of Khorezm. Among them, the tribes of the Kungrats, Mangyts, Naimans, Kipchaks and Kiyats were considered the most numerous and powerful.
The freedom-loving Khorezm tribes and their leaders led the people's struggle against the Iranian invaders. When the Iranian troops were expelled from Khorezm, influential persons of the country placed Elbarskhan (1511-1516), the son of Berki Sultan, a descendant of Sheybani Khan, on the throne, despite family relations, they were in hostile relationship. The reason for this was the murder of Berki Sultan (1431-1436) by Abulkhairkhan, when the latter was fighting for the creation of a unified state. Elbarskhan managed to drive the Iranian invaders out of the country. So in 1511 Khorezm regained independence. The state began to be called the Khiva Khanate, the founders of which were representatives of the Sheibanid dynasty. The Khiva sheybanids ruled the country until 1770.
Under Elbarskhan, the capital of the country was moved from Vazir to the city of Urgench. After the liberation of Wazir from the Iranians, Elbarskhan and his sons received the nickname Ghazis. The word "ghazi" means "fighter for the faith."
The Sheibanid dynasty died out by the end of the 17th century, by this time the power of the tribal leaders had grown greatly and they began to invite the Genghisids from the Kazakh steppes to the khan’s throne. Real power was concentrated in the hands of Uzbek tribal leaders with the titles Atalik and Inak. The two main Uzbek tribes, Kongrat and Mangit, fought for power in the Khanate and their struggle was accompanied by the separation of the northern part of Khorezm, the Aral (Amu Darya delta). The Uzbeks of the Aral, mostly nomads, proclaimed their Genghisids, who were also puppets.
For most of the 18th century, chaos reigned in Khorezm, and in 1740 the country was captured by Nadir Shah from Iran, but Iranian power was nominal and ended with the death of Nadir Shah in 1747. In the subsequent struggle between the Kongrats and the Mangits, the Kongrats won. However long wars between Khiva and the Aral and between various Uzbek tribes, in which the Turkmens took an active part, brought Khorezm to the brink of total anarchy, especially after the capture of Khiva in 1767 by the Turkmen tribe of Yomuds. In 1770, Muhammad Amin Inak, the leader of the Kongrats, defeated the Yomuds and established his power in the khanate. He became the founder of the new Kongrat dynasty in Khiva.
However, even after this, it took the Kongrat Inaki tens of years to suppress the resistance of the tribal leaders and the Genghisids puppets were still on the throne.
In 1804, the grandson of Muhammad Amin, Iltuzer Inak was proclaimed khan and Genghisids' puppets were no longer needed. His younger brother, Muhammad Rahim Khan (ruled 1806-1825), unified the country by defeating the Aral people in 1811, conquered the Kara Kolpakov (in the northwest of the Amu Darya delta) and tried, with some success, to subjugate the Turkmens in the south and the Kazakhs in the north. His heirs followed the same policy. Iltuzar and Muhammad Rahim finally broke the opposition of the tribal nobility with the help of the Sarts and curbed the military power of the Turkmens, whom they either convinced to live in Khorezm by distributing irrigated lands for military service, or forced them to do so by force. They created a relatively centralized state in which provincial governors had limited power.
In the first half of the 19th century, the Congrats significantly expanded the irrigation system; Thus, the Uzbeks became a settled nation, as a result of which new cities began to appear. Under Muhammad Rahim Khan, the khanate began producing its own coins. But despite all this, the Khanate lacked both human and financial resources, and Khiva raids into the Bukhara Khanate and Khorasan, as well as against the Kazakhs and independent Turkmen tribes, became annual.
At the same time, the Kongrat period was also marked by cultural achievements; It was at this time that Khorezm became the main center for the development of Turkic literature in Central Asia. In 1855, the army of the Khanate suffered a crushing defeat from the Turkmen Teke pad Serakhsom, in Khorasan, and Khan Muhammad Amin was killed in the battle. This caused an uprising of the Turkmens in Khorezm, which lasted intermittently until 1867. The Khanate weakened politically and economically, and most of the lands developed in the first half of the century were abandoned; the Khanate also lost control over the southern Turkmens. On top of that, it was heading towards a fatal confrontation with Russia. The first attempt to penetrate Khorezm was made by Peter I, who sent a small expedition under the command of Bekovich-Cherkassky in 1717. The expedition was unsuccessful and almost all of its members died.
In the 19th century, tensions grew between the Russian Empire and Khiva as a result of Russian expansion in Central Asia, their rivalry for influence in the Kazakh steppes, and the plunder of Russian trade caravans by the Khivans. Military offensive to Khiva began in the spring of 1873 from several directions under the leadership of the Governor-General of Turkestan von Kaufmann. Khiva was taken on May 29 and Khan Said Muhammad Rahim II surrendered. The peace treaty signed on August 12, 1873 determined the status of the Khanate as a Russian protectorate. The Khan declared himself a “humble servant” of the Russian Emperor and all the lands of the Khanate on the right bank of the Amu Darya went to Russia.
The loss of independence had almost no effect on inner life Khanate, in which Russia intervened only to suppress several Turkmen revolts. An attempt at liberal reforms after the February Revolution of 1917 failed, mainly due to Uzbek-Turkmen enmity. In the spring of 1918, the leader of the Turkmens, Yomudov, Junaid Khan seized power in Khiva and only in January 1920 was overthrown by the invading Red Army with the support of the Uzbeks and Turkmens opposed to Junaid Khan. On February 2, 1920, the last Kongrat Khan, Said Abd Allah, abdicated and on April 27, 1920, instead of the Khanate, the People's Republic of Khorezm was proclaimed.
Socio-economic and political life in the Khiva Khanate
In the 16th century, the Khiva Khanate was not yet a centralized state; the influence of the tribal system was still strong; the head of the dominant tribe was declared khan.
Like the Sheibanids in Transoxiana, the Khiva Khanate was divided into small possessions. The vilayets were ruled by members of the khan's family. They did not want to submit to the central government. This circumstance was the cause of internal strife.
The population of the Khanate was divided into three groups, differing in their ethnic, cultural and linguistic characteristics:
Direct descendants of ancient Khorezmians who assimilated with various ethnic groups;
Turkmen tribes;
tribes that migrated from Dashti-Kipchak to Khorezm.
Before the establishment of the dynasty from the Kungrat tribe, the heads of large Uzbek tribes became independent rulers of their domains and began to exert a decisive influence on the socio-political situation in the Khanate.
In the second half of the 16th century. an economic crisis broke out in the Khiva Khanate, one of the main reasons for which was a change in the course of the Amu Darya; starting in 1573, it stopped flowing into the Caspian Sea and for 15 years rushed towards Aral Sea The lands along the old riverbed turned into a waterless steppe, and the population was forced to move to other, irrigated regions.
In addition, in the 16th century. The Khanate of Khiva was conquered twice by the Khanate of Bukhara. Internal strife, heavy taxes and duties caused the ruin of the country's population, which, in turn, negatively affected trade.
In the 17th century In the political life of the Khiva Khanate, two features were observed: a decrease in the authority of the ruling dynasty and an increase in the influence of tribal heads. True, officially the beks and biys still submitted to the central government. In fact, within the limits of their bekstvos they had absolute power. It got to the point that they began to dictate their will to the supreme ruler. Khan could not decide state affairs on his own, without their participation, on the contrary, they would decide the fate of the khan in the elections. Political fragmentation in the state was especially pronounced under Arab Mukhammadkhan (1602-1621). Due to changes in the course of the Amu Darya, he moved his capital from Urgench to Khiva.
The economic crisis greatly affected the political situation in the state. Under Arab-Muhammadkhan, the Yaik Cossacks, led by Ataman Nechai, guarding the Russian border, carried out a robbery attack on Urgench, capturing 1000 young men and women. But on the way back they were overtaken by the khan and his army. The Cossacks were defeated. Some time later, Ataman Shamai and his detachment attacked Urgench, but they also did not achieve success and were captured by the khan.
Discord became more frequent in the Khanate. In 1616, the sons of Arab Muhamadkhan Habash Sultan and Elbars Sultan, with the support of the heads of the Naiman and Uighur tribes, rebelled against their father. Khan gave in to his sons. He added the city of Wazir to the lands that belonged to them. But in 1621 they rebelled again. This time, his other sons, Asfakdiyarkhan and Abulgazi Sultan, acted on the side of Arab Muhammadkhan. The troops of Habash Sultan and Elbars Sultan won the battle. By order of his sons, the father, who was captured by them, was blinded with a red-hot rod and thrown into the zindan. Some time later, the khan was killed. Abulgazi Sultan found refuge in the palace of the Bukhara Khan Imamkuli. Asfandiyarkhan: hid in Khazarasp. Later, his victorious brothers allowed him to go on Hajj. But Asfandiyarkhan went to the Iranian Shah Abbas I and, with his help, took the Khiva throne in 1623. Having learned about this, Abulgazi Sultan hurried to Khiva. Asfandiyarkhan (1623-1642) appointed him ruler of Urgench. But soon their relationship deteriorated, and Abulgazi fled to the ruler of Turkestan, Eshimkhan. After the death of the latter in 1629, Abulgazi moved to Tashkent to its ruler Tursunkhan, then to the Bukhara Khan Imamkuli. The Turkmens, dissatisfied with Asfandiyarkhan's policies, asked Abulgazi to come to Khiva. His brother was forced to give up the Khiva throne to him. But six months later, Abulgazi was accused of attacking Iranian-owned Niso and Darun (settlements between Ashgabat and Kiyl-Arvat), captured and, accompanied by his detachment, sent to the Iranian Shah Safi 1 (1629-1642). Abulgazi Sultan had to live in captivity for 10 years (1630-1639). In 1639 he managed to escape, and in 1642 he arrived among the Uzbeks of the Aral Sea region. After the death of Asfandiyarkhan at the same time, Abulgazi (1643-1663) took the Khiva throne. The 20-year period of his reign was spent in military campaigns. He had to fight with the Bukhara Khanate several times. Abulgazi, having raised the authority of the heads of the tribes, intended to get rid of their attacks on central government. He divided all the tribes living on the territory of the Khanate into four groups: Kiyat-Kungrat, Uighur-Naiman, Kanki-Kipchak, Nukuz-Mangyt. At the same time, their customs, way of life, and family relationships between tribes were taken into account. 14 more small tribes and clans were added to these groups. Elders - inaki - were appointed in each gpynne. Through them, the khan solved the problems of the tribes. The Inaki, as close advisers to the khan, lived in the palace. Abudgazi Bakhadyrkhan already had 32 heads of tribes - inaki - among his entourage.
Abulgazi intervened in the discord between the brothers Abdulaziz and Subkhankulikhan, the latter was married to Abulgazi's niece. An agreement was concluded with Abdulazizkhan. Despite this, in 1663 Abulgazi carried out predatory raids on the Bukhara Khanate seven times, plundering the tumens of Karakul, Charlzhuy, and Vardanyan.
At the same time, Abulgazikhan was an enlightened ruler. He wrote historical works on Uzbek language“Shazharai Turk” (Family tree of the Turks) and “Shazhara-i tarokima” (Genealogy of the Turkmen)
After the death of Abulgazikhan, the throne was taken by his son Anushakhan (1663-I687). Under him, relations with the Bukhara Khanate worsened even more. He undertook military campaigns against him several times, reached Bukhara, and captured Samarkand. In the end, the Bukhara Khan Subkhankuli organized a conspiracy against him, and Anushahap was blinded.
Subkhankulikhan formed a conspiracy in Khiva from his supporters. In 1688, they sent a representative to Bukhara with a request to accept the Khiva Khanate as citizenship. Taking advantage of this circumstance, Subkhankulikhan appointed Inak Shakhniyaz Khan of Khiva. But Shazniyaz did not have the ability to govern the state. Feeling helpless, he betrayed Subhankulikan and began looking for a stronger trustee. Russia could become this. With the help of the Russian Tsar Peter 1, he wanted to maintain his position. In secret from Subkhankulikhan, in 1710 he sent his ambassador to Peter 1 and asked to accept the Khanate of Khiva into Russian citizenship. Having long dreamed of taking possession of the gold and raw materials reserves of Central Asia, Peter 1 considered this an opportunity and on June 30, 1710, issued a decree satisfying Shakhniyaz’s request. The Khiva ruler’s appeal to Russia was assessed by his contemporaries as a betrayal of the interests of the Turkic-speaking peoples. This appeal opened the way for Russian colonialists. After these events, political life in the Khiva Khanate became even more complicated.
The social situation in the Khanate of Khiva, as in other states of Central Asia, was characterized by stagnation, which was associated with the lag of the khanate from the process of world development. Political fragmentation, dominance subsistence farming, ongoing internal strife, attacks by foreigners led to the fact that the country's economy was in decline, and social life proceeded monotonously. The rulers thought more about their well-being than about the benefit for the state and the people.
KHANATE OF KHIVA
The Khanate of Khiva arose in the 16th century. the arrival of semi-nomadic Uzbek tribes here. The settled Uzbek population was 65%, 26% were Turkmens, and the rest were Kazakhs and Karakalpaks. The Uzbeks settled in a continuous mass in the northern half of the oasis, settling mainly in the Amu Darya delta according to tribes and clans. In total, there were up to 20 Uzbek tribes within the Khanate, but the strongest and most numerous of them were the Kungrad, Mangyt, Naiman, Kipchak and Kiyat tribes. Total number the population was 800 thousand people.
Turkmens
The Turkmens, who have long inhabited the territory of the oasis and its outskirts, played a major role in the formation of modern Uzbek. They were direct descendants of the ancient Oguzes, mixed with local Iranian-speaking peoples, who then mixed with the newcomer Uzbek population. It is significant that the modern southern Khorezm dialect is close to the Turkmen language.
Economic and cultural development of Khorezm great damage caused by the internecine wars of the Timurid princes and the attempts of the Shaybanids to conquer. The decline of crafts and trade caused economic stagnation, and cities developed poorly. Considerable damage was also caused by the change in the course of the Amu Darya in early XVII c., as a result of which one of the sleeves dried out. This led to significant displacements of the cities of Khorezm. The capital had to be moved. This happened during the reign Arab-Muhammad (1603-1623) . Under him, a canal was built near the Tuk fortress. The unification of Khorezm into a strong state began with Abulgazi Khan (1643-1663) . Relying on the Uzbek tribes, Abulgazi undertook a series of successful campaigns, which constantly kept Khorezm under threat of invasion.
The Khiva khans entered into a long struggle with the Turkmen, a significant ethnic group of Khorezm, who made up a large contingent in the khanate’s troops and caused a lot of trouble. Settled on the end canals, they were completely dependent on the khan and his dignitaries and often rebelled against injustice in the distribution of water, against fratricidal campaigns against Southern Turkmenistan. Abulgazi pushed the Turkmen back to the borders of Southern Turkmenistan. He wanted to block Turkmen access to the capital and for this purpose built the Ghaziabad fortress, which later played an important role in the defense of the Khanate.
In order to neutralize the opposition-minded feudal lords of the outlying regions of Khorezm, Abulgazi Khan resettled the population of Vazir and Urgench - the base for dissatisfied feudal lords and pretenders to the khan's throne - to Southern Khorezm, where New Urgench was created and the Vazir fortress was built. New Urgench in the southern part of the Khanate inherited its name and trade significance from the old one. It retained its importance as a wholesale trade center for the Khanate and the seat of wealthy merchants.
The tsarist government established extremely strict control over the Khiva Khanate in the form of a protectorate. Even minor changes in external and domestic policy the Khiva Khan had to coordinate with the Governor-General of Turkestan. In order to supervise the khan, a Council (divan) of 7 people was established, four of whom are representatives of the royal government.
The right bank of the Amu Darya, which previously belonged to the Khanate, and then, according to the Gandimyan Treaty, went to Russia, was included in the Turkestan General Government as the Amu Darya department. His boss, at the same time, as a representative of the Russian Empire in the Khanate of Khiva, exercised control over all the actions of the khan. The history of the Khanate dates back a thousand years. The political system was a monarchy; representatives of the Kungrat dynasty were in power, who played an important role in the cultural development of the Uzbek people. The Kungrat clan in all spheres, political, social or military, was the support of the khan. The khan had unlimited administrative, judicial and military power. He relied on the aristocratic layer of the Kungrat family, a group of court nobility and high clergy.
Khan's power was exercised more in the interests of a narrow circle of officials and did not take into account the interests of the people. The Khan's army served as a means of suppression popular uprisings and ensuring the integrity of the state. It was disorganized, military discipline was clearly lame, and the weapons were primitive. The khan's regular army consisted of 1.5 thousand people under the command of Yasaulbashi. During military operations, people gathered under the banner of the Khanate militia from the city, villages and auls, as well as cavalry units from the Turkmens.
Administratively, the Khanate was divided into 18 bekstvos and 2 governorships, the largest of which were considered Khazarasp, Urgench, Kyat, Kunya-Urgench, Khojeyli and Kungrad. At the head of each of them was a bek appointed by the khan. There were also two small beks in the khanate, which were ruled by the khan's governors. Khiva and nearby suburbs were directly subordinate to the khan. Officials of the administrative apparatus existed at the expense of taxes levied on farmers and artisans.
Divanbegi and mekhtar were senior officials and close advisers to the khan. The judicial system of the Khanate provided for the most severe measures, even the death penalty, for the most seemingly harmless offenses against the authorities.
The clergy had a significant influence on the socio-political life of the state. Khiva was considered the second center of the Islamic faith after Bukhara. There were over 160 mosques and more than 60 mausoleums of saints in the city, which became places of worship for believers. There were more than 1.5 thousand madrassas in the state, some of whose graduates continued their studies in higher or secondary educational institutions (madrassas), receiving education for 10 years. The main subjects taught were Arabic grammar, Islamic law and philosophy, and additionally elementary arithmetic and geometry. After successfully passing the exams, madrasah graduates could count on available positions as kaziy, imam, or other high-ranking positions.
Remember!
The Khiva Khan relied on the aristocratic layer of the Kungrat family, a group of palace nobility and the highest ranks of the clergy.
Forms of land tenure
Land is the primary factor of state property, which is formed through peasant labor. The labor of a farmer is aimed at increasing the fertility of the land and developing production. In this regard, the farmers of the Khiva Khanate were unsurpassed masters. Grain production was the most important component of the Khanate's agriculture; rice, corn and oats were mainly grown here. Since the 90s of the XIX century. As a result of the development of trade relations with Russia, specialization in cotton production also accelerated.
The bulk of the lands in the khanate belonged to the khan himself and his officials. As a reward, the Khiva khans presented officials and nobles with land at the expense of state possessions. In addition, the khan and his relatives, as well as officials, were exempt from taxes.
A significant part of the land area was concentrated in the hands of the clergy (about 40% of all irrigated lands of the Khanate). So, in particular, 64 mosques and madrassas by the last quarter of the 19th century. owned land areas of more than 205 thousand tanabs. This was also an expression of the khans’ respect and respect for the clergy. By the end of the 19th century. waqf lands, as well as about 4 thousand families of religious officials, were exempt from all taxes.
Taxes and duties
After 1873, as a result of the annexation of most of the fertile lands to Russia, the needs of the khan’s administration began to be covered by new taxes or an increase in existing ones. In the Khanate of Khiva there were many duties, about 25 types of permanent and emergency taxes. Farmers paid a land tax - salgut; for the use of pastures - zakat and chuppuli; for housing - the ut tax.
In addition to the mentioned taxes, farmers performed a huge number of duties, among which one of the most difficult was the work of ensuring the functioning of the irrigation system and creating a new one. Every year, Khiva farmers went out to clean canals, build and restore dams, and repair dams and bridges. To carry out these works, they arrived with their own tools and food. Anyone who did not go to work was obliged to contribute a certain amount of money to the treasury. If the herald of the khan’s decrees collected funds for his benefit in the form of “afstakpuli,” then the supervisors and those responsible for the work also tried to take possession of their share.
Although farmers made up about 90% of the population, they controlled only 5% of the irrigated land. Landless farmers with small plots of land worked for hire on the lands of large landowners and in waqf areas. Dehkans worked on piecework or at the expense of half the harvest. After completion of the work, the owner of the land usually took 40-50% of the total harvest. Those who worked for half the harvest were called “yarimchi” (half workers). Dekhkans without land, tools and livestock were forced to work for landowners under enslaving conditions. To pay off their debt, farmers certain time should have worked for free.
This trend led to a gradual increase in the number of landless farmers in the Khanate. They became more dependent on khans, beks and officials. These processes have had negative impact on the general economic and social situation of the Khiva Khanate.
Industrial development
IN late XIX- early 20th century In the Khanate of Khiva, forms of home craftsmanship were preserved until recently. Hand spinning and weaving, and the making of shoes, carpets and felts flourished on dekhkan farms. Each farmer was engaged in a craft as a additional source earnings. In almost every village there were tanners, shoemakers, weavers, dyers, oil presses and many other craftsmen. Some artisans worked at the request of fellow villagers and took payment in kind - products or money - for the products they produced. Some worked directly in workshops located in markets.
The development of trade relations between the Khiva Khanate and Russia, the Kazakh juzes, the Caucasus and Iran revived internal trade. The penetration of market relations into the Khanate created optimal conditions for the rapid development of commodity-money relations. The faster development of cities, compared to villages, accelerated the process of the emergence of new cities and the consolidation of existing ones, which led to an increase in the role of cities in economic life states. By the 20th century cities such as Khiva, Yangi Urgench, Kungrad, Tashauz, Gurlen began to turn into socio-economic and cultural centers of the Khanate. In addition to them, new cities arose - Bagat, Muynak and Takhta.
These cities housed warehouses and offices of joint ventures with Russia, as well as industrial enterprises. For example, in Yangi Urgench there were 11 cotton gins (six of which belonged to local entrepreneurs), 2 oil mills, a soap factory, a tannery, and a mill. In addition, branches of the Russian-Asian and Siberian Trade Banks, a postal and telegraph center, and representative offices of commission and insurance companies functioned in the city. The capital of Russians and local businessmen was also concentrated in Gurlen. There were 10 offices of Russian merchants here, specialized mainly in the export of cotton, as well as 9 cotton gin plants owned by the Rizaev brothers, P.A. Manuilov, S. Maksum, S. Tadzhiniyazov, T. Salidzhanov and others. By 1909, 81 industrial enterprises operated in the Khiva Khanate. During the period 1910-1915. the formation of the industrial sector accelerated: 40 industrial oil refineries were created.
Remember!
Russian goods and products quickly penetrated the markets of the region, which ultimately led to the ruin of local artisans, whose products could not withstand competition.
Trade ties with Russia
In the process of turning the Turkestan region into a colony, cooperation between Russian and local capital was formed. The activities of local entrepreneurs and the income of the main holders of national capital directly depended on the Russian market and Russian products. Both sides, in order to develop trade relations between the two states, sought to create joint banking unions. In 1909, the A-Meta syndicate was created, combining the capitals of the Russian-Asian Bank and Madiyarov-Bakkalov. Every year, the syndicate exported about 3 thousand tons of raw cotton to Russia, and also established a sole monopoly on the purchase of clover (alfalfa) seeds on the Khiva market. Russian capital created an extremely necessary raw material base in the protectorate - the Khiva Khanate. Cheap labor and favorable terms of the Gandhian Treaty of 1873 guaranteed fabulous incomes in the local market due to its monopoly status.
Thanks to operations with the participation of Russian capital, the possibilities of the domestic market of Khiva have expanded significantly. Commodity-money relations developed rapidly, and new commercial and industrial centers were formed on their basis. Small traders began to sell such scarce goods as tea, textiles, sugar and samovars even in remote villages. The one-sided development of industry contributed to the preservation specific gravity leading handicraft production in the state economy. Products produced in the Khiva Khanate were in demand outside the Khanate; they were made using ancient methods of ancient craft.
Crafts and domestic trade
At the end of the 19th century. - early 20th century in some areas processes of specialization of one or another branch of craft were observed. The main metal processing workshops were concentrated in Bukhara, Khiva, Yangi Urgench, Chimbay and Khazarasp, where ketmen, openers, shovels, axes, horseshoes, dishes and other metal products were made. Leatherworking was developed in Bukhara, Khiva, Khanka, Yangi Urgench, Khodjeyli. Bags and ropes were produced mainly in Yangi Urgench. Cities such as Parsu, Aliyeli, Kunya-Urgench and Ghazavat were considered centers of carpet weaving and felt production. Weaving, pottery and jewelry making were also developed.
The construction of the Trans-Caspian Railway in 1885 and the creation of the Amu Darya Flotilla at the end of 1887 increased Khiva’s dependence on Russia. If earlier trade was mainly carried out along caravan routes, now most of the goods were transported by railways and steamships along the lower reaches of the Amu Darya. All this served the interests of the Russian Empire and led to the backwardness of the vassal state and to the crisis of a number of handicraft industries.
State economic policy also had a negative impact on the development of crafts. The owners of all workshops were obliged to present gifts to officials and pay taxes, which in no way corresponded to their income. As a result, artisans were unable to develop and expand their business through the introduction of new technologies.
In the craft business, guild associations, characteristic of the Middle Ages, continued to function. Craftsmen were assigned to guild associations according to their professional specialization. This association included usta (master), halfa (apprentice) and shagird (apprentice). A wealthy resident of the Khanate, the bai, who provided credit for the business, was at the same time the head of the workshop. A significant part of the money earned by artisans went to alms and charity in favor of saints and spiritual mentors, as well as to pay numerous taxes to the treasury. The life and situation of journeymen and apprentices remained difficult, the working day was not standardized. The apprentices had to work off the money taken as an advance payment, and until they fully worked off this debt, they had no right to leave the workshop.
The increasing flow of cheap products from Russia has reduced the need for products from local enterprises. The production of some types of fabrics, threads, pottery, cast iron and copper products fell sharply.
Interpretation of terms
Syndicate is an association of enterprises specializing in the production of specific products.
Monopoly is the exclusive right to something in any field of activity.
Homeworking is a craft based on manual labor.
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Khiva Khanate at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. State structure and the socio-economic situation of the Khanate. Updated: February 8, 2017 By: admin
Kokand Khanate in the first half of the 19th century. reached its greatest political power and territorial expansion. The Khanate included Tashkent, Khojent, Kulyab, Karategin, Darvaz, Alai, and there was a struggle for Ura-Tyube and Turkestan. Fortresses were built on the lands conquered by the Kokands. The Kokand Khanate included part of the lands of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan - from the Tien Shan range to lake. Balkhash and the Aral Sea, bordered on Khiva, Bukhara and the regions of Kazakhstan that became part of Russia.
Khiva, Bukhara and Kokand were feudal states, undermined from within by feudal strife and wars with neighbors. In the Central Asian khanates, the feudal mode of production with routine technology dominated. Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Kirghiz, Turkmens, Tajiks, Karakalpaks were subjected to severe exploitation by the feudal lords, bore the burden of numerous khan taxes, levies and duties, suffered from feudal civil strife, wars that hampered the development of the productive forces of the region.
IN early XIX V. The Khiva and Kokand khans limited themselves to predatory campaigns on Kyrgyz and Kazakh lands beyond their control. In the 30s–40s years XIX V. Khiva and Kokand sought to prevent Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan from joining Russia, laying claim to their lands, through which important trade routes for the Central Asian khanates ran.
The Kazakhs and Kyrgyz fought a long liberation struggle against the oppression of the Khiva and Kokand feudal lords. This struggle coincided with a period of strengthening of the Russian orientation among the southern Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, which was facilitated by a number of factors: the double oppression of Kokand, Khiva and their own feudal lords, taxes, duties, extortions, service in the Khan’s troops, civil strife, wars, instability of the foreign policy situation, fragmentation of individual peoples between several states, interest in developing trade and economic ties with Russia.
In the first half of the 19th century. The joint struggle of the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz against the Khiva and Kokand rule intensified. In the 20–30s of the XIX century. unrest engulfed the areas adjacent to the fortresses: Turkestan, Chimkent, Sairam, Aulie-Ata and Pishpek. In the 40s–70s of the 19th century. this struggle continued and shook the foundations of the dominance of Kokand and Khiva over the Kazakhs, Kirghiz, Turkmens, Karakalpaks, weakened the khanates, which resulted in the strengthening of Russian influence in the area and contributed to the transition of the peoples of the region to Russian citizenship.
In 1818, the Kazakhs of the Senior Zhuz turned to the tsarist government with a letter asking for their citizenship. On January 18, 1819, Sultan S. Ablaykhanov with 55,462 of his subjects took the oath of allegiance to Russia. In 1823, they asked to accept into Russian citizenship 14 sultans of the Senior Zhuz with 165 thousand men wandering in Semirechye. On May 13, 1824, Emperor Alexander I signed a document accepting them as Russian citizenship.
In 1830, the population of a number of volosts of the Middle Zhuz took an oath (25,400 tents, 80,481 men).
In 1845, the clans Uysyn, Zhalaiyr, then Abdan, Suan, Shaprashty, Ysty, Oshakty, Kanly took citizenship from the Senior Zhuz. In 1847, the populous Dulat clan became part of Russia.
At the same time, Kazakhs of the Baizhigit clan from the Middle Zhuz submit a petition for citizenship. In 1863, 4 thousand tents of Kazakhs of the Karatai clan and 5 thousand tents of the Bes-Tanbaly clan became part of Russia. By the end of the 60s of the XIX century. The annexation of the Kazakhs of the Middle and Senior Zhuzes to Russia is completed.
The territory of the Middle and Senior Zhuz was administratively organized. External districts and regions were created. Economic development of the land was underway. The fortifications of Aktau, Ulutau, Kapal, Sergiopol, and Lepsinsk were built. For administrative management In 1842, the senior Kazakh zhuz was assigned the Alatava police station and the post of bailiff of the Great Horde, subordinate to the West Siberian governor-general.
An important stage in the economic development of Semirechye was the development of the Trans-Ili region. Economically, it was important, being located at the junction of the main trade routes leading to Kashgaria, Tibet, and Central Asia. In 1854, in the Trans-Ili region, K. Gutkovsky founded the Vernoye fortification. The development of the Trans-Ili region made it possible to provide assistance to the Kazakhs of the southern regions of the Middle Zhuz and the northern Kyrgyz in the fight against Kokand. The detachment of Lieutenant Colonel I. Karbyshev occupied and destroyed the Kokand stronghold in Semirechye - the Tauchubek fortress. Favorable conditions have been created for the development of the region's economy. In intensive economic development The lands of the Trans-Ili region were attended by the Kazakh and Kyrgyz population, as well as Russian peasants - settlers from European and Siberian provinces, the Cossacks. In 1856, the administrative reorganization of the region was carried out. The Alatava police station, which was introduced here earlier, was transformed into the Alatava district with the center of Vernoye. With the founding of this settlement, the lands of the northern Kyrgyz began to be adjacent to the territory that became part of Russia. On September 26, 1854, the Issyk-Kul Kirghiz turned to the governor of Western Siberia with a request to join Russia. On January 17, 1855, in Omsk, the Issyk-Kul Kirghiz became subjects of Russia and were administratively included in the Alatava district.
During this period, the opposition of the Kokand feudal lords to the rapprochement of the southern Kazakhs and Kyrgyz with Russia intensified. They put military pressure on them and carried out reprisals against supporters of accepting Russian citizenship. In 1857, in the area of the Kokand fortresses of Aulie-Ata and Chimkent, a joint uprising of the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz against Kokand oppression took place. A favorable situation was developing to provide assistance to the Kazakh and to the Kyrgyz people in their struggle with Kokand to successfully complete the annexation of the southern regions of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan to Russia. In 1859, in the adjacent area where the Kazakhs of the Senior Zhuz and the northern Kyrgyz lived, the Kastek fortification was built. The first thing happened here major battle between the detachment of Colonel Zimmerman and the Kokand troops. On August 26, the same detachment captured the Kokand fortress of Tokmak in the Chui Valley, and on September 4, Pishpek. But soon the Kokands launched a large offensive from Aulie-Ata and restored their power over the Kirghiz of the Chu Valley. In October, near Uzun-Agach, a Russian detachment led by Lieutenant Colonel G. A. Kolpakovsky defeated significant forces of the Kokand people. In 1862, the Chui Kazakhs rebelled against Kokand rule. They killed the governor of the Kokand Khan in Pishpek and turned to the Russian authorities for help in strengthening Verny. In November 1862, a Russian detachment under the command of Lieutenant Colonel G. A. Kolpakovsky, with the support of the local Kyrgyz population, recaptured the Kokand fortresses of Tokmak and Pishpek, which were destroyed. On the site of the latter, the Pishpek fortification was built in 1864. With the occupation of Pishpek, Tokmak and the transition of the Solto tribe and a significant part of the Sarybagysh tribe to the citizenship of the Russian Empire, the population of the Chui Valley became part of Russia. In 1863, a detachment of Russian troops, with the assistance of Kyrgyz tribes, captured and destroyed the Kokand fortifications of Jumgal and Kurtka on the river. Narys. At the same time, the rebel Kyrgyz of the Sayak tribe destroyed the Kokand fortification of Toguz-Toro. This led to the fall of the power of the Kokand feudal lords over the population of the Central Tien Shan. The Kyrgyz of the Sayak and Chirik tribes, who inhabited the Central Tien Shan, voluntarily became part of Russia. In 1864 on the lake. Issyk-Kul, the Aksu fortification was erected, and in the same year 10 thousand tents of the Susamyr and Ketmen-Tyube valleys accepted Russian citizenship, which completed the process of peaceful annexation of Northern Kyrgyzstan, on the territory of which a large Kyrgyz population lived, to Russia. These are the Kirghiz of large tribes: Sary-Bagysh, Solto, Bugu, Cherik, Saruu, Kushchu, Chon-Bagysh and a few tribes: Azyk, Basyz, Teby, Zhetigen, Konurat, Monoldor, Suu-Murun, Zhediger, Kyty. Northern Kyrgyzstan included the Chui Valley, the Issyk-Kul Basin, and the Central Tien Shan.
The entry of Northern Kyrgyzstan into Russia had a decisive influence on the southern regions, a similar process in whose territory was closely connected with the uprising of 1873–1876. against Kokand rule, by the liquidation of the Kokand Khanate, on the territory of which the Fergana region was formed as part of Russia.
Let us consider the area of settlement of Kazakhs in Central Asia in the 18th – early 20th centuries. Before the annexation of Kazakhstan to Russia in the Khiva, Kokand khanates and the Bukhara Emirate in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. Kazakhs lived together with Uzbeks, Tajiks, Kyrgyz, Turkmens, and Karakalpaks as one of the indigenous ethnic groups. WITH late XVI V. The Kazakh Khanate occupied Central Kazakhstan and the Turkestan vilayet up to and including Tashkent. About 1 million people lived here and from here the Kazakh khans carried out military campaigns against the states of Central Asia.
Invasion of the Dzungars on Kazakh and Kyrgyz lands in the 18th century. led to migrations of Kazakhs and Kyrgyz both to the north - towards Russia, and to the south - to the Central Asian khanates. About 150 thousand Kazakhs of the Senior, Middle and Junior Zhuzes migrated to the Khiva and Kokand khanates, where they traditionally roamed in the winter on pastures.
The seasonal nomadic routes of the Kazakhs in Central Asia were described in detail by Russian scientific travelers and military personnel in the 18th–19th centuries. , as well as modern ethnographers M. S. Mukanov, V. V. Vostrov, P. I. Kushner, V. M. Ploskikh. For the indicated time, we do not have sufficient materials about the settled Kazakhs and Kyrgyz - residents of Central Asia. Some Kazakhs and Kyrgyz could serve in the troops of the Khiva and Kokand khans for a salary, since the aggressive policy of the Central Asian rulers required the maintenance of large armies.
Dzungarian invasion in the 17th–18th centuries. changed the traditional routes of seasonal migrations of all three Kazakh zhuzes and temporarily forced the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz to remain in the Central Asian khanates, where there was no free land for year-round nomadism.
A certain opportunity arose for the Kazakhs of the Junior Zhuz to remain on the lands of the Khiva Khanate in the 18th century, when the khans of the Junior Zhuz, as descendants of the Genghisids, began to be invited to rule in the Khiva Khanate. But this was also a temporary factor; in the Khiva Khanate there was no free land for year-round nomadism.
The change in the boundaries of nomadism in Central Asia was associated with the struggle of Khiva, Kokand and Bukhara in the 18th – early 20th centuries. for the lands of southern Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, where caravan and trade routes ran from Central Asia to Russia and China. The position of the Bukhara emir, who needed the support of the Kazakh sultans against Kokand and Khiva, was difficult. It was the Kazakhs of the Senior Zhuz from the north who protected the emirate from Russian troops advancing southward from the middle of the 19th century. The Turkestan Governor-General was formed on the annexed lands of Khiva and Kokand. Kazakh zhuzes maintained winter nomadic routes in the territory of Khiva and Kokand in the second half of the 19th century. They paid taxes to the Central Asian administration. Data on the transition to mass sedentarization of Kazakhs in Central Asia Russian statistics does not provide, including the censuses of 1897, 1916, 1917.
Ploskikh V.M., Koblandin K.I. note the enclaves of Kazakhs on the territory of Karakalpakia, the participation of Kazakhs and Kyrgyz in the anti-Kokand and anti-Khiva uprisings of the second half of the 19th century V. The names of settlements corresponding to the names of Kazakh generic toponyms are highlighted.
In 1722, the Dzungars captured the cities of Tashkent, Sairam, and Turkestan, where Kazakhs and other peoples of Central Asia lived. Fleeing from the Duzhungars, the Kirghiz and Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz went to Bukhara and Khiva; Middle Zhuz - to Samarkand, Bukhara; Senior zhuz - to Samarkand, Khojent, Fergana, Karategin, Pamir. Some authors state the geography of the location, since they do not have statistical and chronological data on the settlement of nomads in Central Asia, as well as the time of their departure from Central Asia to Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan after the defeat of the Dzungar Khanate by the Qing Empire in the 18th century.
The Khiva Khanate led an attack on the Kazakh nomads in the area of the Zhanadarya, Kuvandarya rivers, the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, Ustyurt, and Mangyshlak during the reign of Muhammad Rahim Khan (1806–1825). He annexed 27,000 tents of the Younger Zhuz to the Khanate. 10 thousand Kazakhs wandered on the coast of the Aral Sea, in the lower reaches of the river. Syrdarya, at the mouth of the river. Amu Darya, on the Ustyurt plateau, near the Khiva fortresses of Kungrad, Mangyt, Kipchak, Dzhana-Kala. As a result of the conquest of the Khiva Khanate by Russian troops in 1873, the right bank part along the river. The Amu Darya went to the Russian Empire, and the left bank to the Khiva Khanate. 1920 square meters went to the Russian Empire. and 130 thousand people, and to the Khiva Khanate - 62225.8 sq.m. and 366,615 people.
The Khiva Khanate included 26 bekstvos and 2 possessions.
From the Khiva lands annexed to the Russian Empire, the Amudarya department was created, which consisted of two sections - Chimbay and Shurahan. In Chimbai, according to 1874, there were 20 thousand Kazakhs. In the lower reaches of the Amu Darya, 300 tents of Kazakhs from the Tortkara clan, 600 Shekty, 300 Karasakal, 100 Shumekei and 40 from the Bayuly tribe roamed the lower reaches of the Amu Darya. They led a semi-nomadic life, engaged in agriculture, while continuing to wander.
After the division of the territory of the Khiva Khanate, migrations of Kazakh clans began from the former Khiva territories to Russian ones and vice versa. This was due to increasing land pressure, the resumption of meridional (from north to south) seasonal migrations, and rising taxes.
In the 70–80s. XIX century Most of the Kazakhs moved to the Amudarya department. Here they concentrated in the Shurkhansky area - 32.8% and the Chimbaysky area - 22.8%. According to the All-Russian Population Census of 1897, Kazakhs made up 26.5% of the population of the Amudarya department, and according to current statistics of 1912–1913. – 24.6%.
17,000 people or 3.4% of the population lived on the lands of the Khiva Khanate.
By 1913, in the Russian Amudarya department, out of 33,509 registered farms, Uzbeks accounted for 21.6%, Turkmens - 6.4%, Karakalpaks - 45.5% and 649 farms - 1.9% were representatives of other peoples.
At the beginning of the 18th century. The Kokand Khanate occupied the lands around Fergana and Khojent. In 1808, the Kokand Khanate took possession of the Tashkent oasis, where the southern nomadic camps of the Kazakhs were located, by force of arms. This strained Kazakh-Uzbek relations. The capture of Tashkent opened the way for Kokand troops to the north deep into the Kazakh steppes. Most of the lands of the Senior Kazakh Zhuz were captured, except for the lower reaches and left bank of the Syrdarya and part of the Kyzyl-Kum desert. In 1810, 400 thousand Kazakhs were subordinate to the governor of Tashkent.
Under Kokand Alim Khan in the first quarter of the 19th century. The ancestral territories of the Kazakh clans Shanyshykly, Bestamgaly, Sihym, Zhanys in the Senior Zhuz and Tama in the Junior Zhuz were captured, and also became dependent on Tashkent and the cities of the Kazakhs - Chimkent, Sairam, Turkestan, Ak-Mosque.
The lands of the Kazakhs in the west along the middle reaches of the Syr Darya, the basin of the Ili and Chu rivers in Semirechye came under the authority of the Kokand Khanate. Kazakh clans of the Senior and Middle Zhuzs roamed here. Up to 150 thousand Kazakh families lived here.
In the second half of the 19th century. Kazakh-Kokand relations worsened, because some of the Kazakhs sided with the Bukhara Emirate against the Kokand khans. In 1842, 50 thousand Kazakhs were part of the Tashkent army and took part in the siege of the Kokand fortress.
In 1857–1858 Kazakhs, together with the Kirghiz and Karakalpaks, took part in the anti-Kokand uprising, which covered the territory from Chimkent to the fortresses of Pishpek and Merke. In addition to paying taxes to Kokand, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and Karakalpaks served in the Kokand troops and participated in military campaigns. The conquest of Southern Kazakhstan by the Kokand people was carried out by Tajik mountain riflemen from Badakhshan. The ruler of the Kokand Khanate, Lashkar Kushbegi, pursued a moderate tax policy in accordance with Sharia for the settled population and adat for the nomads. Conflicts between the Kazakhs and the Kyrgyz were stopped, and the economy and peaceful relations were established between the wars. Chinese troops also periodically appeared in Semirechye under the pretext of collecting tribute from the Kazakhs, in particular, such a case was described by Ch. Ch. Valikhanov in 1840 about the Kazakhs of the Chaprashty clan in the Tiren-Uzek tract.
The Kokand people, having created lines of military fortifications in the south of Kazakhstan, controlled the lands of the Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and Karakalpaks, and collected taxes from them. According to 1830 data, the Kazakhs numbered 400 thousand people, the Kirghiz, Karakalpaks, and Kuramins - the same number. The settled population of the Kokand Khanate included about 3 million people.
In the south of Kazakhstan, the Kokand Khanate paid a tax - zyaket from the Senior Zhuz, Kazakh clans - Ysty, Oshakty, Sirgeli, Shymyr, Shaprashty, Zhalair, Sykym, Suan; from the Middle Kazakh Zhuz the Konkrat clans, part of the Kipchaks, Argyns, Naimans; from the Junior Kazakh zhuz the Zhappas clan.
Kazakhs of the Senior Zhuz, Shaprashty and Dulat clans, roamed Semirechye. The Kokand Khanate led an offensive in the south and southwest of Kazakhstan. The Kazakhs of the Senior Zhuz in 1818 turned to Russia with a request to accept them as citizenship. Kazakhs of the Shaprashty, Ysty, Zhalair, Obdan, Suan, Oshakty, Kaily, Uysun clans were accepted into Russia.
Russia negotiated, trying to weaken the Kokand offensive in Semirechye. In 1828, the Kokand embassy headed by Tursun-Khoja Sudur arrived in St. Petersburg. There were negotiations on dividing the zones of Russian and Kokand influence by the Chu River, the left bank remained with Russia, the right bank with Kokad. The Kokand people were the first to violate the agreement, advancing to Semirechye and the Ulu-Tau mountains, where they built military fortifications Kastek, Uch-Almaty, and Toychubek.
In 1834, a 6 thousand Kokand detachment moved north to the river. Ishim, where he built a fortress and placed a garrison. The Khiva Khanate was located in the Khorezm oasis, Kazakhs roamed here winter time, part of them was constantly in the Khiva Khanate. Khorezm was part of the Jochi ulus in the 18th century. The Kazakh khans of the Younger Zhuz ruled on the Khiva throne. In the 19th century power passed to the Uzbeks of the Kungrat clan. Until 1811, they strengthened their power among the Turkmens, Uzbeks, and Karakalpaks.
The Khanate of Khiva was inferior in population to the Emirate of Bukhara. Here the administration was built on the basis of the Khan-Sultan rule of the Uzbeks, Kazakhs, and Karakalpaks.
The Kazakhs of the Khiva Khanate had complex land disputes with the Karakalpaks after their resettlement from Yongidarya, which was occupied by the Kazakhs. The Khiva ruler Mohammed Rahim considered these lands his possessions. He sent an embassy to Sultan Timur Khan demanding submission, the extradition of Khiva prisoners, and an end to attacks on trade caravans from Transoxiana, Khorezm, and Russia. Having not received a satisfactory response from the Kazakhs, the Khiva Khan with an armed detachment that included Uzbeks, Turkmen from the Chowdor and Yomud clans, the Karakalpaks headed in January 1812 against the Kazakhs of the Shomekey clan to the Syr Darya and Kuvandarya, where they had their winter quarters. They captured 500 Kazakhs and drove away 140 thousand heads of livestock. On February 15, 1812, Sultan Timur Khan sent envoys to the Khiva Khan with a letter of submission.
In 1815, the ruler of Khiva attacked the Kazakhs of the Shekty clan. There were 5 thousand soldiers in the Khiva detachment, they captured prisoners and drove away a lot of livestock.
In December 1816, 200 Kazakhs attacked the Karakalpaks. During the Khiva punitive operation, 2 thousand Kazakhs, 700 people, died. was captured. After this, the Kazakh sultans recognized power Khan of Khiva, who approved Zhan-Gazi-Tore as the khan of the Kazakhs.
The Khivans restored fortresses in the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, where the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz spent the winter.
The Bukhara Emirate was located in the center of Central Asia. This state did not conduct an active foreign policy in the south of Kazakhstan. But the emirs supported the Kazakh sultans. The Kazakhs helped the Bukhara Emirate in the fight against Khiva and Kokand.
In 1818, Abd al-Karim Bukhari, describing the area of seasonal migrations of the Kazakhs of the Senior Zhuz, showed that in the spring they approached the Russian borders, and in the winter they roamed in Khiva, Bukhara, and Turkestan. But in winter, the Kazakhs of the Shekty and Tortkar clans of the Younger Zhuz and the Turkmen of the Kyrk-Miltyk, Buzachi, Chowdar and Karakalpaks clans roamed around Urgench. Kazakhs of the clans Shomekey, Koyut, Zhappas, Dzhaghablayls from the Junior Zhuz, Kipchaks from the Middle Zhuz, Karakalpaks wintered near Tashkent, Samarkand, and Bukhara. Kazakhs of the Konrat, Uysun, and Tama clans roamed in winter to Tashkent, Kokand, Andijan, and Namangan. The Kirghiz roamed the Ili and Aksu region of China.
Bukhara rulers controlled the migrations of Kazakhs, Karakalpaks, Uzbeks from the Golden Eagle clan in the sands of Kyzyl-Kum, on the left bank of the Syr Darya, near the Chardara fortress and in Nur-Ata - the northern Bukhara vilayet.
The southern Kazakhs were dissatisfied with their participation in difficult military campaigns as part of the Kokand army of Alim Khan. It was decided to remove him from the throne. The latter, having learned about the conspiracy, moved with troops to Kokand. Before leaving, he executed the Chingizids Salimsak-tore and Adil-tore. During the campaign, part of the army abandoned him, and he himself was killed near Kokand in the spring of 1810. He failed to reduce the influence of the Fergana Uzbek nobility, who elevated his brother, Khan Umar, who ruled in 1810–1822, to the Kokand throne. He failed to gain a foothold in Ura-Tyube and Jizzakh, which delayed the expansion of the Kokand Khanate in Southern Kazakhstan.
An important event was the return of the Kazakhs from China led by Adil-tore in 1813–1814. He sent his son Nuraly Tore to the Kokadian ruler Umar Khan with a message informing him of the return of the Kazakhs and the submission of Kokand. Nuraly Tore received a safe conduct letter from the Kokand Khan.
Soon the Kokand troops managed to take the city of Turkestan. Its ruler, Tokai-tore, took refuge in Bukhara, where Emir Khaidar allowed him to gather Kazakhs fit for war in the lands under his control. But the Kazakhs failed to return Turkestan.
A major anti-Kokand protest of the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz was organized by Chingizid Tentek-tore. There were 12,000 people in the detachment. They were defeated at Sairam and Chimkent, where the Kazakh Rustam led the defense. After the defeat, Tentek-tore agreed to pay a toll to Kokand.
Kokand dominated southern Kazakhstan from 1810 to the early 1840s. Then came the years of political and economic decline of the Kokand Khanate, which ended with the capture of Tashkent by Russian troops in 1865.
During the period of Kokand domination in Southern Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, Kushbegi Gulam Shah ruled on behalf of Kokand Umar Khan. In the Syrdarya districts the following were built: Ak-Mosque, Chulak (Kazaly-Dzhulek), Suzak. According to Yu. V. Sokolov, in 1813 the former Bukhara fortress of Dzhangi, on the left bank of the Syrdarya, was moved to the right bank under the name Ak-Mosque; in 1814 - Chulak-Kurgan, on the northern slopes of Kara-Tau; in 1815–1820, fortresses were moved to the right bank of the Syrdarya - Kumys-Kurgan, Yany-Kurgan, Dzhulek, and to the lower reaches of the river. Sarysu – Yaman-Kurgan fortress; in 1821 - the Aulie-Ata fortress was built on the river. Talas; Ketmen-Tyube on the river. Naryn in Northern Kyrgyzstan; in 1822 - Kzyl-Kurgan on the river. Kurshabe, in southeast Kyrgyzstan; Darout-Kurgan - in the Alai Valley, in the south of Kyrgyzstan; in 1825 - the fortresses of Merke, Tokmak, It-Kechuk, Pishpek, Atbashi on the river. Chu, in Northern Kyrgyzstan; in 1830 - the Jumgal fortress on the Tien Shan, near Lake Son-Kul; in 1830–1832 - kr. Jacket - on the river Naryn and the fortresses of Kumys-Kurgan and Jena-Kurgan are in the west.
Yunus-Khoja in 1803, having gathered an army from the Kazakhs of Tashkent and Kurama, invaded the Fergana Valley and, through Asht along the Chadak road, approached the Gurumsaray crossing on the Syr Darya.
The Kokand ruler Alim-bek also approached along the left bank of the Syr Darya and stood opposite Gurumsary. His army included riflemen from mountain Tajiks. Yunus-Khoja began the battle with the Kazakh cavalry. They were opposed by the Kokand cavalry led by the Tajik Divanbegi Rajab from Badakhshan. They pushed back the Kazakh cavalry and forced the Tashkents to retreat, suffering defeat.
After the death of Yunus-Khoja in 1804, the throne was taken by his eldest son, Muhammad Khoja, and then by Sultan Khoja. The struggle of the opposing sides in Tashkent weakened the Tashkent possession. Kazakh sultans from 1806 to 1809 gained power over Turkestan. These were Ibrahim and Kasim - sultans, Kuvat and Togay - khans.
The conquest of Tashkent by the Kokand ruler Alim-bek took place in two stages. First, Kurama was taken - a region south of Tashkent, inhabited by Kazakhs and Uzbeks, numbering 10 thousand people. Among the Kazakhs, the majority came from the Senior Zhuz of the Shanyshkyly clan, as well as the Junior Zhuz of the Tama and Kereit clans.
In 1807, Alim-bek used the help to march on Kokand Jizzakh Sultan Khoja, the ruler of Tashkent. On the river Chirchik Tashkent troops were defeated, Sultan Khoja was captured.
An agreement was concluded with the new ruler of Tashkent, Hamid Khoja, recognizing him as a vassal of Kokand. A Kokand garrison of 500 people, led by Mumin-bek, was placed in the Niyazbek fortress.
In 1809, the Ura-Tube possession fell away from Kokand.
Resistance to the Kokand residents of Tashkent continued. After an 11-day siege, the Kokand people took Tashkent by storm. Kokand resident Sayid Ali-bek was appointed governor of the city.
The capture of Tashkent marked the beginning of Kokand's conquest of Southern Kazakhstan (Senior Zhuz). The rulers of the Kazakh clans did not have unity. The Turkestanis hoped for help from the Bukhara Emirate. The residents of Sairam were allies of Kokand. The Kazakh ruler of the Middle Zhuz, Adil-tore, the son of Ablai Khan, migrated to Chinese lands with 10 thousand tents. At the initial stage, the Kazakh Chingizids in Tashkent supported the policies of the rulers of the Kokand Khanate.
Kokand and Khiva Khanates in the first quarter of the 19th century. conquered the lands of the southern Kazakhs and Kyrgyz. The reason for the expansion was conflicts between the Uzbek tribal nobility and the army, the basis of which were mountain Tajiks (Chala-Bahadurs), as well as the desire to expand irrigated lands and their development.
The interests of the Kokand and Khiva khanates collided with the plans of the Bukhara emir. In 1806, he defeated the Kokand troops near Ura-Tyube and Jizzakh, which stopped their advance to the west and shifted the vector of movement to the south. This made it possible for Kokand to control the junction of trade routes connecting Central Asia with Russia and China. There was also a conflict between the nomads of Desht-i Kipchak and the settled population of Central Asia or Transoxiana, which was of a political and economic nature.
In 1810, the Tashkent governor Sayid Ali-bek received a message from the Kazakhs about their refusal to pay taxes: zyaket on livestock and kharaj on crops. The governor requested Kokand's help against the Kazakhs. The Kokand Khan sent 12 thousand troops to take Chimkent, Turkestan, and Sairam. Kazakhs who wintered in this area were robbed.
The siege of Sairam was led by the Tajik commander of the Kokand detachments, Zuhur Divanbegi. At the same time, he built a fortress in the village of Chimkent, where he left 200 foot and 200 horse riflemen with two cannons. He began the construction of a fortress in Aulie-Ata, where 1000 soldiers were left under the command of the Tajik Abdallah Dadhaha and Shah-bek Dadhaha. At the head of the campaign against Turkestan were the Kokand divanbegi Zukhur and the Tashkent Chingizid Salimsak-tore. The latter persuaded the Turkestanis to submit to the authority of the Kokand ruler Alim-bek and send him gifts.
But events developed further according to the scenario of divanbegi Zuhur. His brother, the Kokand khan Umar-bek, suddenly died. The military leaders, his relatives from the Ming clan, the old Kokand nobility, the Tashkent and Kazakh descendants of Ablai Khan, the Kazakh clans of the Sirgeli, Beshtamgals, Konrat, Shanyshkils, as well as the Karakalpaks supported Yunus-Khoja.
Yunus-Khoja, having conquered the Kazakhs who roamed near Tashkent and destroyed the khan’s title in the Senior Zhuz, giving control over them to the Kazakh clan biys and imposing a tax on them from livestock. They took hostages from famous Kazakh families. Kazakhs played a significant role in the trade of Tashkent.
The rulers of Kokand and Tashkent competed, which led to a conflict between Tashkent and the Khanate of Kokand. In 1799, the Kokand ruler Alim-bek sent the ruler of Khojent Khan-hoja to Tashkent. In the town of Karasu he was attacked by Yunus Khoja. The Kokand people were defeated. Khan Khoja was captured and executed with 70 soldiers. Yunus Khoja captured the Kurama fortress. The Kokand Khan lost Khojent. In the north of the Fergana Valley, the ruler of the city of Chusta, Buzruk-Khoja, opposed Alim-bek.
The ruler of Tashkent moved with his troops to Fergana and entered into an alliance with Khojent. He also entered into an alliance with the ruler of Ura-Tyube from the Uzbek clan Yuz.
The Kokand army also approached Khojent, but did not cross the Syr Darya. Alim-bek captured Chust and killed Buzruk-Khoja.
Southern Kazakhstan at the beginning of the 19th century. became the object of expansion of the Bukhara Emirate, Khiva and Kokand Khanates, which caused serious damage to the inhabitants and economy of this region, where the nomadic economy of the Kazakhs of the Elder and partly the Middle Zhuzes predominated.
At the same time, Central Asia was invaded by the Persian Shah Nadir. The state of the Ashtarkhanid dynasty collapsed. The struggle of Uzbek clans for the redistribution of land and power in Central Asia began. The Kazakh khans restored their rights to the lands of Southern Kazakhstan, returned Tashkent, and began to interfere in Fergana affairs through the Kipchak clan. Shigai Khan, the son of Sultan Barak, who ruled in Namangan and founded Tersakan, which later became the residence of the Kokand governors in Northern Fergana. Later, his successor Yazy Khan annexed South Fergana and was proclaimed its ruler by the Kipchaks. His reign was short-lived, he was defeated by the ruler of the Kokand Khanate, Abd al-Karim-biy.
In 1798, the Kokand ruler Alim-bek (1773–1810) created a new army of 10 thousand people. from the Tajiks of Kuhistan (mountainous region of Tajikistan and Pamir, to the Hindu Kush). This army required large funds for maintenance and as a result, the Kokand Khanate embarked on the path of predatory military campaigns and territorial wars. In 1805, Khojent, which defended the Fergana Valley, was captured, and in 1806, Ura-Tyube and Jizzakh were taken. At the same time, Alim Beg accepted the title of khan. At the same time, Eltuzer (1804–1806), from the Uzbek Kungrat family, became the ruler of Khiva. Both rulers relied on the legend of belonging to the Chingizid dynasty.
The next step in Kokand expansion was Tashkent and its districts.
Tashkent possessions after the expulsion of the Dzungars in the late 90s. XVIII century ruled by the Kazakh Chingizids. Shymkent Ablai Khan handed over Shymyr to the Kazakh family. Tashkent was divided into four parts: Beshagach - the Ysty family, Kokcha - the Konrat family and the Middle Zhuz, Sibzar - the Zhanys family, Sheikhantaur - the Sirgeli, Ysty, Oshakty families.
The village of Chinas was given to the Kulas and Naiman clans; the village of Parkent with its surroundings is the Shyktym family.
Tole biy's son, Niyaz bek from the Zhanys clan, founded the Niyazbek fortress near Tashkent.
The fortified estate of Baytek was built by the Sirgeli family; and Kibray is a clan of qiyat.
Yunus-Khoja expanded his possessions to the Kurama Mountains in the south (the valley of the Angren River) and the Biskam Mountains in the east, the Angren River. Syrdarya - in the west and Chimkent - in the north. In 1799, Yunus Khoja captured Turkestan, which had previously been under the protection of the Bukhara Emirate.
The album for V. L. Grombchevsky’s trip to the Pamirs in 1888 shows the settlements of Kanjut and Raskem from the Indian side, as well as the Chinese border sign Summa-Tash near the eastern shore of Lake Yashil-Kul on Alichur.
A.V. Postnikov provides data on the only battle between the Chinese with the Uyghurs and Dungans in Kashgaria. After the defeat, the Uighurs and Dungans left for Turkestan along the shores of Lake Rang-Kul and along the river. Murgab. This is confirmed by the records of traveler V.L. Grombchevsky in 1889, when Chinese troops penetrated the Pamirs. He also visited the Chinese monument Soma-Tash, erected to commemorate the victory of 1759.
V. L. Grombchevsky noted Bukhara buildings in the Pamirs, which confirmed the possession of the Bukhara Emirate in the Pamirs in the past, in particular the Rabat of Abdul Khan on Alichur and in the Pamirs, which served as a shelter and had tanks with water supplies.
In the 60s XIX century The Russian Empire began military operations against the Khanate of Kokand. In 1865, the city of Tashkent was besieged and taken, and then the entire territory of the Kokand Khanate was occupied by Russian troops. The Kazakh lands previously conquered by the Kokand rulers also came under military-administrative subordination to the Russian administration.
From the 16th century Kazakhs also roamed the lands of the Bukhara Emirate. Under Khan Tauk, the Kazakhs owned Tashkent, Andijan and Samarkand. In the latter, the ruler was Zhalantos batyr from the Alimul clan of the Younger Zhuz. IN mid-17th century V. In the region of Nurata and Kanimekh, the famous Kazakh biy Aiteke bi lived and participated in legal proceedings.
According to E.K. Meyendorff, at the beginning of the 19th century. in the Bukhara Emirate there were 2,478,000 people, of which Kazakhs and Karakalpaks made up 6 thousand, Uzbeks - 150 thousand, Tajiks - 650 thousand people. The Kazakhs roamed in the north-west of the emirate, and some were engaged in farming in the Kyzyl-Kum desert, on the Tamdy springs, in the Karaata tract, at the Arystan well and in the Bukhara mountains.
New ones were installed Russian borders Turkestan Governor-General, Bukhara Emirate and Khiva Khanate.
During the border demarcation, Kazakhs migrated to new areas of the Bukhara Emirate and to the territory of the Khiva Khanate.
After the suppression of the uprising of I. Taimanov and M. Utemisov, the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz migrated from Western Kazakhstan - 57 thousand people to the Bukhara Emirate and the Khanate of Khiva.
In 1867, the Turkestan General Government was formed and the “Temporary Regulations on Administration in the Semirechensk and Syrdarya Regions” were adopted. For the nomads, the “Regulation” of 1886 was developed. It was planned to place up to 2000 Kazakh tents in the volosts, and 200 Kazakh tents in the auls.
In the 1870s XIX century in the Syrdarya region there were 567,832 people. or 63.28% Kazakhs. 241,543 people lived in Tashkent district, of which 45.64% were Kazakhs; in the Amudarya department - 220,000 people, of which Kazakhs - 20.66%. By 1889, the Kazakhs in the Tashkent district numbered 42,170 people, in the Samarkand region - 38,059 people.
In the Amudarya department, in the Shuruhansky section there were households: 2829 - Uzbek, 2545 - Kazakh, 248 - Karakalpak, 1103 - Turkmen. In the Chimbay section there were 10,738 Karakalpak households, 4,237 Kazakh households, and 326 Uzbek households.
According to the First All-Russian Census of 1897, 2,352,421 people lived in the Turkestan General Government (excluding the population of the Khiva Khanate and the Bukhara Emirate), including 1,515,611 Uzbeks. (64.4%), Tajiks - 173,946 (7.4%), Russians - 44,691 (4.0%), Kazakhs - 153,569 (6.5%), Karakalpaks - 93,153 (1.9%), etc.
163.1 thousand people lived in Tashkent district, of which 36.37% were Kazakhs; in the Amudarya department there are 47.1 thousand people, of which 24.24% are Kazakhs; in Jizzakh district - 51.5 thousand people, of which Kazakhs - 23.13%; in Khojent - 11.3 thousand people, Kazakhs - 6.19%; in Samarkand - 1.3 thousand people, of which Kazakhs - 0.15%; in Margelanskoe - 38.3 thousand people, of which Kazakhs - 11.92%; in Kokand - 11.6 thousand, of which Kazakhs - 3.18%, in Namangan - 60.5 thousand people, Kazakhs 16.64%.
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