New phenomena in the economic development of RussiaXVIIV.:
the first ones appeared manufactories - large production based on manual labor, but using division of labor;
specialization of regions in the production of certain goods (central regions and the Middle Volga region - bread, Pomorie - flax, hemp, Siberia - furs, Kaluga - wooden utensils, etc.);
folding a single all-Russian market – formation of close economic ties and trade exchange between individual parts of the country;
the government began to implement policies protectionism . IN 1653 accepted Trade charter , which imposed a single ruble duty on imported goods. IN 1667 accepted New Trade Charter , which increased the duty on foreign goods.
Alexey Mikhailovich(1645–1676) - nicknamed The quietest for his quiet disposition and piety. During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich related: church schism , Cathedral Code , final enslavement of peasants , insurrection led by Stepan Razin .
Central and local government in the 17th century underwent changes that indicated a gradual transition to absolutist form of government:
the tsar still ruled together with the Boyar Duma, whose importance was gradually declining. The Boyar Duma included representatives of 4 Duma ranks: boyars, okolnichy, Duma nobles and Duma clerks ;
Zemsky Sobors almost stopped meeting; the last of them was convened in 1653 on the issue of accepting Little Russia into Russian citizenship. In January 1654 took place Pereyaslav Rada , she decided to accept the citizenship of Ukrainians to the Russian Tsar (annexation Left Bank Ukraine To Russia );
have been further developed orders , their number has increased;
the main support of power was bureaucracy And army ;
positions strengthened central government on the ground: a special role in local government played governors , appointed from the center;
the main administrative-territorial unit of Russia in the 17th century. was county ;
V 1649 The Zemsky Sobor adopted a new set of state laws - Cathedral Code. It legally formalized serfdom, introducing an indefinite period of search for runaway peasants, a fine for harboring runaways, and hereditary attachment of peasants to the land;
the reorganization of the Russian army began: with 1630 g . appeared new shelves - soldiers, reitars, dragoons from Russian mercenary soldiers under the command of officers - foreign mercenaries; But noble militia continued to be the main military force;
the subordination of the church to the state increased: it was created Monastic order for the trial of the clergy and people dependent on them.
In the middle of the 17th century. patriarch Nikon spent church reform , the purpose of which is to strengthen the church. Nikon's innovations - a three-fingered (and not two-fingered) folding of the hand for the sign of the cross, a triple (and not a special) hallelujah, walking against the sun during the consecration of a church and during baptism (not a stripe), the exclusion of words that were not there from the Creed and some prayers in the Greek originals, the style of icon painting is too “carnal.” The reform led to church schism , church opposition appeared ( Old Believers ) led by Avvakum , which in the 17th century. took on a social connotation.
Rebellious Age – the name of the 17th century, in which major popular uprisings took place: 1648 – salt riot, 1662 –copper riot , 1667–1671 – uprising of Cossacks and peasants ( peasant war ) led by Stepan Razin .
1654 under the Pharmacy Order in Moscow The first secular special educational institution was opened - “ School of Russian doctors ».
His three sons Alexei Mikhailovich ( Fedor, Ivan, Peter ) became kings, and daughter Sophia became regent for her young brothers.
Fedor Alekseevich (1676–1682) – carried out the following socio-economic and political events:
reform of the tax system: in 1679 the transition to household taxation began;
abolition of localism (1682 ) – a system for distributing official positions among feudal lords, taking into account the origin and official position of their ancestors.
After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, a struggle between the aristocracy (Miloslavskys) and the common nobility (Naryshkins) began for a contender for the throne. The Miloslavskys advocated Ivana , Naryshkins – Petra .
May 1682 - Streltsy uprising in Moscow, as a result of which a joint reign was proclaimed Ivana V And Petra I at regency princesses Sophia . Sophia remained the de facto ruler until August 1689 when she was defeated in the fight against Peter and was imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent.
Thus, consequences of outgrowing estate-representative monarchy into absolute Russia at the end of the 17th century. steel mass repression in relation to the boyars.
Russia in the 17th century was in conditions of increasing importance of the labor of the serf population, the completion of the formation of a national single market, and the geographical specialization of territories. Zemsky cathedrals were no longer given such great value, as before. The prerequisites for development were formed absolute monarchy.
However, Russia in the 17th century still remains “rebellious.” Large-scale events often occur popular performances.
External political development Russia in the 17th century began with state intervention in Thirty Years' War.
Historians conventionally divide this century into two stages. At the first stage, Russia in the 17th century, first of all, overcame the Time of Troubles. At the second stage, the prerequisites for carrying out Peter’s reforms began to take shape.
The newly elected Tsar Mikhail Romanov suited all social strata. But it should be noted that real power was in the hands of his father, Metropolitan Philaret, for quite a long time. Russia in the 17th century had to overcome the consequences of the Time of Troubles. It was this task that was entrusted to the king.
To implement central control a system of orders was used, and locally elected elders were replaced by governors from the center. The army was based on nobles. For their service, they received land plots along with the peasants. But, due to the flight of the latter during the Time of Troubles, the estates were not particularly valuable. The government, having increased the period of search for fugitives, transfers investigation cases to the Robber Order. From that moment on, the peasant’s flight from the estate was equivalent to a criminal offense.
In the middle of the century, a need arose to systematize existing laws. A special commission was convened for this purpose. As a result, in 1649, the final system of serfdom was adopted. Thus, the search for fugitives became indefinite, and the status of a serf became hereditary. In addition, some articles strengthened royal power. Thus, the estate-representative monarchy became absolute. Absolutism relied on peasant community and nobility.
During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, the Zemsky Sobor ceased to meet and lost its significance. The Tsar makes special mention proxies(the nearby Duma), but makes decisions independently.
Industrial development characterized by the emergence of manufactures and the division of labor. Machines are used in production. Used and hired labor(the workers mostly came from black-sown and serf peasantry).
The government made attempts to modernize the country by the middle of the century. Modernization meant changes in various fields life aimed at strengthening absolutism and serfdom. The transformations were supposed to strengthen the tax and military-technical development of the state. These were the changes in the social, economic, spiritual and internal political spheres that characterized the 17th century.
Over the course of this century, Russia was able to expand its territories. Thus, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich annexed Ukraine (Little Russia) to the state. At that time, there was an uprising in Ukraine led by Khmelnitsky Zaporozhye Cossacks. The uprising turned into people's war. Fearing subsequent military battles with the Turks and Poles, the rebels asked for help from Russia. In 1653 it was annexed. This provoked a war with Fighting ended with the recognition of the annexation of Little Russia. In addition, Russia received back Smolensk, and in 1686 - Kyiv.
Failure has befallen Russian state V Russian-Swedish war, as well as in But, at the same time, the Eastern Siberian territories were annexed, access to Pacific Ocean, and also established a border with China.
The history of Russia in the 17th century is a time of change and rebellion. This era knew many rulers from Boris Godunov to Peter I. A time of bloody coups and palace conspiracies, betrayals, reforms and unrest.
The accession of Boris Godunov in 1598, although it happened at first glance by chance: with the accidental murder of his son by Ivan the Terrible, but, according to historians, is not such. A series of secret conspiracies at court between the boyars and the Godunov family, the secret death of Ivan IV himself, strong political situation Boris contributed to his ascension to the throne. He was a progressive and far-sighted politician, he advocated the renewal of all ties with Western Europe. His goal was comprehensive development powers, and for this he attracted to the state not only reformers in military affairs, but also scientists, doctors, industrialists and traders. Sent talented compatriots for training various sciences abroad, wanted to found a university in Rus'. But all these innovations were actively opposed by the Russian conservative clergy, which subsequently contributed to the overthrow of his son Fyodor Godunov from the throne after the death of Boris in 1605.
King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Sigismund III conceived cunning plan on the overthrow of Godunov from the throne. Taking advantage of strong rumors about Boris Godunov as a regicide, he decided to install a “true” tsar on the throne. For these purposes, a fugitive monk approached, posing as Dmitry, the heir of Ivan the Terrible. Sigismund endowed him with a detachment of four thousand, which was subsequently joined not only by the villagers and townspeople supporting False Dmitry, but also by government troops. With this powerful support, in June 1605, False Dmitry came to Moscow and installed himself on the throne. Having become a ruler, he pardoned the freedom of prisoners under Boris Godunov, increased the salaries of officials, fought against bribery, and opened borders for subjects to travel outside the state. Along with this, False Dmitry had to fulfill preliminary agreements with Sigismund, namely, he married Marina Mnishek to weaken his position Orthodox Church, confiscated many lands from them. He bestowed money and privileges on the nobles, to whom he owed his ascension to the throne. All this, as well as the threat of an upcoming war with the Turks, caused outrage among the boyars and clergy. The indignation grew into an uprising and False Dmitry I was killed in 1606, and the body was handed over to the people for desecration.
Three days after the overthrow and murder of the liar, the people gathered on Red Square to decide the question of the future ruler of the state. Great support The Shuisky family used the church and nobles, and Vasily Shuisky’s people did not fail to take advantage of this. At a general meeting, they shouted the name of their prince, and the crowd supported him. After ascending the throne, Tsar Vasily provided comprehensive support to the Orthodox Church, and in particular to Metropolitan Hermogenes. Despite the wide support of the church and past military merits, Vasily’s reign was not calm. The Polish mercenary Ivan Bolotnikov (1606) and False Dmitry II and his wife Marina Mnishek (1607) tried to challenge the right to power. Shuisky was able to suppress all these uprisings, but still the pressure exerted by Procopius Lyapunov and the nobles forever shook the throne under Shuisky. He was dethroned and handed over to the Polish king Sigismund, and was later tonsured a monk (1610).
The period from 1610 to 1612 is known as the "Seven Boyars". The leadership of the state passed into the hands of seven boyars led by Fyodor Mstislavsky. Their main task was the restoration of peace and order in Rus' and the accession of a legitimate ruler, but the boyars did not have unity on the question of who should become this ruler. Some supported the idea of transferring power to his son Polish king Sigismund and the transition of Rus' to the Catholic Church. Others were not against the heir to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, but were ardent supporters of the Orthodox Church. The third was advocating for the accession of False Dmitry II. Against the backdrop of all these events, the discontent of the people and the desire to expel all the gentry from Russian soil are growing. So the merchant Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky gathered a militia and marched on Moscow, where their actions were successful, and in October 1612 the Poles were forced to flee the capital.
At the beginning next year A Zemsky Sobor took place, but in which it was decided to place the descendant of Ivan the Terrible, Mikhail Romanov, on the throne. This was a formal coronation, since all power remained in the hands of Metropolitan Philaret, until the death of the metropolitan in 1633. After his death, Mikhail Romanov ruled for another 12 years before his death. In general, during this time, thanks to skillful leadership and the attraction of foreign capital, significant progress was achieved in the country's economy and industry.
After the death of his father in 1645, Alexei Romanov became the successor to the throne. For a long time he was secular and entrusted the rule of the state to his teacher, boyar Boris Morozov, which the latter did not fail to take advantage of in his own interests. Extortionate exactions from subjects, bribery, arbitrariness on the part of officials - all this characterizes the first time of Alexei's reign. That period faced two major riots"salt" and "copper". The discontent of the people grew so much that in 1648, during a religious procession, rebellious Muscovites carried out a pogrom of the houses of the boyars and clerks. The Streltsy refused to contain the rebellion and actually took the side of the angry people. Most of the boyars were torn to pieces, while the sovereign begged to spare at least his favorite Morozov. The people obeyed the tsar, and the guilty boyar was sent to a monastery. In order to calm the townspeople, the boyars invited Muscovites home for lunch, and the archers were given additional salaries. After some time, with these measures the boyars were able to calm the anger of the townspeople. The Tsar, for his part, began to distribute land to landowners and reduced taxes, agreed to convene a Zemsky Sobor to decide pressing problems. At the meeting, the council decided to develop a new set of laws, which was adopted literally in a matter of months and was in force for 200 years. The code of laws included 25 chapters and regulated most areas of civil legal activity, and provided for severe penalties for their violations, including the death penalty. All segments of the population came under the protection of the Code, except peasants and slaves, who remained completely defenseless. Tax privileges from settlements were also taken away. Death penalty I was waiting not only for the instigator of the riot, but also for the one who reported it. New law finally consolidated serfdom in Russia.
In 1676, Tsar Alexei died, and power passed to his son Fedor. Because special health he was no different, his reign was not long. During the years of his reign, the military system. Positions began to be occupied not only by boyars and nobles, but by people with merit and dignity. A census was taken in 1678, and a year later the taxation system was changed. As a result of the war with the Ottoman Empire, the lands of Left Bank Ukraine and Kyiv were recognized as Russia. In 1681, Fyodor Alekseevich stood at the origins of the creation of the Typographic School.
In 1682, Fyodor Alekseevich died and the question arose about the next successor. Both his brothers Peter and Ivan were young and in poor health, there were palace conspiracies and Streltsy revolt. In order to avoid further pogroms and riots, a hasty decision was made to recognize Ivan as the first tsar, and Peter as the second. The Sagittarius demanded that his elder sister Sophia become regent under Ivan, and Peter and his mother retired to a palace near Moscow. Sophia was an ambitious and prudent ruler who successfully strengthened Russia's foreign policy ties. In the meantime, the heirs to the throne grew up, but if the first successor, Ivan Alekseevich, had no claims to the throne, then Peter, on the contrary, tried in every possible way to overthrow Sophia, which he subsequently succeeded in. So in 1689, as a result of the Streletsky conspiracy and the betrayal of her inner circle, Sophia was forced to cut her hair as a nun.
After the overthrow of Sophia, the actual rule of the country was taken over by Petra's mother Natalya Kirillovna. All reforms and innovations of Sophia were stopped, while the heir's mother and her minions indulged their whims and wasted the treasury. Peter I was absorbed in the study of military affairs and shipbuilding. In 1694, Natalya Kirillovna died, and the reins of power passed to her son Peter. The century has ended, and the era of a new ruler has begun and new Russia.
17th century in Russia: a century of great unrest and great changes.
Troubled times. The 17th century brought numerous trials to Russia and its statehood. After the death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584, the weak and sickly Fyodor Ivanovich (1584-1598) became his heir and tsar.
A struggle for power within the country began. This situation not only caused internal contradictions, but also intensified attempts external forces to eliminate the state independence of Russia. For almost the entire century, she had to fight off the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, and raids Crimean Tatars– vassals Ottoman Empire, to resist the Catholic Church, which sought to turn Russia away from Orthodoxy.
At the beginning of the 17th century. Russia went through a period called Time of Troubles. XVII century marked the beginning of the peasant wars; This century saw the revolts of cities, the famous case of Patriarch Nikon and the schism of the Orthodox Church. Therefore, this century V.O. Klyuchevsky called it rebellious.
The Time of Troubles covers 1598-1613. Over the years, the Tsar's brother-in-law Boris Godunov (1598-1605), Fyodor Godunov (from April to June 1605), False Dmitry I (June 1605 - May 1606), Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), False Dmitry II ( 1607-1610), Seven Boyars (1610-1613).
Boris Godunov won the difficult struggle for the throne between representatives of the highest nobility and was the first Russian Tsar to receive the throne not by inheritance, but by election. Zemsky Sobor. For my short reign he pursued a peaceful foreign policy, deciding for 20 years controversial issues with Poland and Sweden; encouraged economic and cultural ties with Western Europe.
Under him, Russia advanced into Siberia, finally defeating Kuchum. In 1601-1603 Russia was hit by a “great famine” caused by crop failures. Godunov took certain measures to organize public works, allowed slaves to leave their masters, distributed bread from state storehouses to the hungry.
However, the situation could not be improved. The relationship between the authorities and the peasants was aggravated by the annulment in 1603 of the law on the temporary restoration of St. George's Day, which meant the strengthening of serfdom. The discontent of the masses resulted in an uprising of serfs, which was led by Cotton Crookedfoot. Many historians consider this uprising to be the beginning Peasant War.
The highest stage of the Peasant War early XVII V. (1606-1607) there was an uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov, in which serfs, peasants, townspeople, archers, Cossacks, and the nobles who joined them took part. The war engulfed the South-West and South of Russia (about 70 cities), the Lower and Middle Volga regions. The rebels defeated the troops of Vasily Shuisky (the new Russian Tsar) near Kromy, Yelets, on the Ugra and Lopasnya rivers, etc.
In October-December 1606, the rebels besieged Moscow, but due to disagreements and betrayal of the nobles, they were defeated and retreated to Kaluga, and then to Tula. In the summer and autumn of 1607, together with the detachments of the slave Ilya Gorchakov (Ileika Muromets, ?–ca. 1608), the rebels fought near Tula. The siege of Tula lasted four months, after which the city was surrendered and the uprising was suppressed. Bolotnikov was exiled to Kargopol, blinded and drowned.
At such a critical moment, an attempt was made at Polish intervention. The ruling circles of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Catholic Church intended to dismember Russia and eliminate its state independence. In a hidden form, the intervention was expressed in support of False Dmitry I and False Dmitry II.
Open intervention under the leadership of Sigismund III began under Vasily Shuisky, when in September 1609 Smolensk was besieged and in 1610 a campaign against Moscow and its capture took place. By this time, Vasily Shuisky was overthrown by the nobles from the throne, and an interregnum began in Russia - the Seven Boyars.
The Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish interventionists and was inclined to call the young Polish king Vladislav, a Catholic, to the Russian throne, which was a direct betrayal of the national interests of Russia. In addition, in the summer of 1610 it began Swedish intervention with the aim of separating Pskov, Novgorod, the northwestern and northern Russian regions from Russia.
- End of the intervention. The fight for Smolensk
- Cathedral Code 1649 and the strengthening of autocracy
- Foreign policy
- Domestic political situation
- Economy of Russia in the 17th century.
17th century Russian history- this is, first of all, the beginning of the three-hundred-year reign of the Romanov dynasty, which replaced the Moscow Rurik dynasty.
This period began in the midst of a severe political, social and economic crisis. Ivan IV left behind a weakened and impoverished country, and the direct heir Fyodor and Tsarevich Dmitry could not accept the burden of rule, so the boyars took over the actual management of the country. Boris Godunov especially stood out among them, who, through intrigue and manipulation, got rid of all candidates for the throne, and after the tragic death of Tsarevich Dmitry, he reigned alone. This is how the history of the Rurik dynasty ended.
The reign of Boris Godunov was characterized by both positive and negative points. Positive ones include reform activities, bringing a certain calm to the public environment, attempts to end the boyar-noble wars and achieve relative external peace. At the same time, his reign saw some of the most difficult times in the entire history of Russia: a severe economic crisis, numerous natural disasters and drought, leading to widespread famine. The exhausted people begin to blame the “damned” king for the disasters.
Against this background, the Polish monarch Sigismund III, in exchange for a promise to bring the country under the protection of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, helps the self-proclaimed “miracle survivor” Tsarevich Dmitry ascend the throne. But later a rebellion breaks out and False Dmitry is killed, and the Polish subject, Marina Mniszech, who, according to the agreement, was married to the impostor, remains the “royal widow.” Soon another impostor appears in Moscow, posing as Dmitry. The Polish woman also recognizes him, but soon he is also killed. Marina herself, according to some sources, was killed along with her son by the “warren”, and according to others, she was imprisoned in prison by the boyars, who saw her as a political threat.
Then the influential boyar Vasily Shuisky took power into his hands - but he was overthrown and forcibly sent to a monastery.
Then power for some time belonged to the council of boyars, which was popularly remembered as the “seven boyars.”
Finally, the boyars decide to seek help from Polish kingdom. However Polish army invades Moscow by deceit, which leads to the formation of " people's militia", organized by Kuzma Minin and headed by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. Polish intervention was repulsed, and Mikhail Romanov was elected to the throne.
After Michael's accession, peace reigned in the country. Taxes were reduced, production appeared, and the country gradually developed.
Mikhail’s son, Alexey, was nicknamed “The Quietest.” His reign, in particular, is remembered church reforms, thanks to which the church was actually subordinated to the autocratic king. However, at the same time, the so-called Church schism, headed by Patriarch Nikon, who introduced a number of reforms to the existing spiritual practice, which caused a serious split in the clergy and contributed to the emergence of “Old Believers” (baptized with two fingers) who did not accept these reforms.
Subsequently, throughout the seventeenth century in Russia, the Old Believers were subjected to serious persecution, and Nikon was deprived of his rank and imprisoned.
After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, a new wave of political unrest began, which led to the accession of the daughter of Alexei the Quiet - Sophia, who managed to prove herself to be a fairly successful queen, however, in the meantime, Alexei's direct heir - Tsarevich Peter, had already grown up enough and was ready to take the reins of government myself.
