What is politics in ancient Rus' definition. The political system and political life of ancient Rus'

Historical scholarship is divided on the character political system Ancient Rus'. It is generally accepted that Ancient Rus' (9th-11th centuries) was an early feudal state that preserved remnants of tribal relations.

The great princes gradually lost the features of military leaders (inherent in them in the 4th-7th centuries) and, becoming secular rulers, took part in the development of laws, the organization of courts, and trade. The prince's responsibilities included the functions of state defense, tax collection, legal proceedings, organizing military campaigns, and concluding international treaties.

The prince ruled with the help of a squad, the backbone of which was a guard of mercenaries (first the Varangians, and in the Kiev period - nomads). The relationship between the prince and the warriors was of a vassal nature. The prince was considered first among equals. The warriors were fully paid and lived in the princely court. They were divided into senior and junior. The senior warriors were called boyars, from among them representatives of the highest ranks of the princely administration were appointed. The boyars closest to the prince formed the princely council, which made the most important decisions.

By the 10th century. the fullness of legislative, executive, judicial and military power was concentrated in the hands of the Grand Duke. The Grand Duke was the representative Kyiv dynasty, which had the supreme right to power. He ruled in Kyiv, and his children and relatives were governors in the lands under his control. After the death of the Grand Duke, power was transferred by seniority from brother to brother. This led to, since often the Grand Duke tried to transfer power not to his brother, but to his son. In the second half of the 11th century. the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy were resolved at princely congresses.

Gradually, tribal gatherings turned into veche meetings. For a long time their role was insignificant, but in the 9th century. it has increased sharply.

Rus' 9-12th centuries. was a federation of city-states headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv.

A significant political role was played by city residents who resolved issues of war and peace, legislation, land structure, finance, etc. They were led by representatives of the nobility.

Veche meetings, which were an element of popular self-government, indicate the presence of democracy in the Old Russian state. 14 great Kyiv princes (out of 50) were elected at the veche. As the princely power strengthened, the role of the latter decreased. By the middle of the 12th century. During the evening, only the function of recruiting the people's militia was preserved.

In the Old Russian state there was no division between administrative, police, financial and other types of self-government. In the practice of governing the state, the princes relied on their own law.

The court was dominated by the accusatory process, applied in both civil and criminal cases. Each side proved its case. The testimony of witnesses played the main role. The princes and their posadniks served as intermediaries between the parties, charging a fee for this.

Old Russian legislation was formed as statehood strengthened. The first set of laws that has survived to this day is one compiled during the reign on the basis of an even more ancient set of laws.

The document included a set of criminal and civil laws. In civil cases, Russkaya Pravda established a court of twelve elected officials.

The law did not recognize corporal punishment and torture, and the death penalty was imposed in exceptional cases. The practice of monetary fines was used. “Russian Truth” was replenished with new articles during the reign of the Yaroslavichs (second half of the 11th century) and (1113-1125).

Rus' in the 9th-12th centuries.

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Anti-Norman theory - a direction in Russian historiography, whose supporters believe that the origins of the term “Rus” should be sought in ancient times. Against the Norman theory already in the 18th century. V. N. Tatishchev (1686-1750) and M. V. Lomonosov (1711-1765) spoke. They pointed out that there are places in the Tale of Bygone Years that contradict the legend about the calling of three brothers to reign.

BURNING- initially collecting honey from wild bees from natural hollows, then breeding bees in hollowed out hollows. In Ancient Rus' it was one of the important sectors of the economy.

Boyars- in Russia IX-XVII centuries. the upper class of feudal lords (descendants of tribal nobility, senior warriors, large landowners). They had their own vassals and the right to leave for other princes. In the Novgorod Republic they actually ruled the state. At the courts of the great princes they were in charge of individual branches of the palace economy and management state territories. In the 15th century Members of the Boyar Duma under the Grand Duke constituted an advisory body. The title was abolished by Peter I in the 18th century. In the 18th century finally merged with the nobles.

BOYARSKAYA DUMA A - 1. In the Old Russian state, a council under the prince of members of the senior squad.

2. During the period of feudal fragmentation, a council of noble vassals under the prince. 3. In the Russian state of the late 15th - early 18th centuries. permanent estate - a representative body of the aristocracy under the Grand Duke (Tsar) of a legislative nature, discussing issues of foreign and domestic policy.

VARYAGS(from other scand. “taking an oath”) - in Russian sources - Scandinavians, hired warriors of Russian princes in the 9th - 11th centuries. and merchants who traded on the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks.”

Rope, peace (from Slav. “rope” - rope; a piece of land measured with a rope) - a community in Ancient Rus'.

Veche - people's assembly. Participants in the meeting resolved issues based on customary law.

Vira - a fine, a court fee in favor of the prince for murder. Replaced the custom of blood feud.

HAM- 1. The oldest type of feudal property, a family estate, passed on by inheritance. It arose in the 10th – 11th centuries (princely, boyar, monastic).

MAGI- the name in Ancient Rus' of servants of pagan cults, healers, who were considered sorcerers and soothsayers.

Glagolitic - one of the ancient Slavic alphabets, located in the same way as the Cyrillic alphabet, but differing from it in the style of the letters. It comes, according to scientists, from Greek cursive writing of the 8th-9th centuries.
HRYVNA- a monetary and weight unit in Ancient Rus', a silver ingot of ½ pound (in the 12th century from 51 to 204 grams - in various cities). In the 15th century supplanted by the ruble, from the 16th century. – countable – currency unit, equal to 10 kopecks (kopecks).

GRIDY-in Ancient Rus', princely warriors, bodyguards of the prince, who lived in palace premises - gridnitsa.

Tribute - natural or monetary exaction from conquered tribes and peoples. Known in Rus' since the 9th century. In the XI-XVI centuries. the word "tribute" meant tax and feudal rent.

BABY- the name of the internal fortification in a Russian medieval city around the residence of a prince or bishop. From the 14th century replaced by the term “Kremlin”.

CHILDREN'S- junior members of the squad in Ancient Rus'. Only a free person could become “childish.” They accompanied the prince as bodyguards and did not take part in the prince's council.

Dynastic marriage - marriage between representatives of various monarchical dynasties in order to strengthen international relations.

Ancient Kievan Rus (IX - mid-XII centuries)- formed as a result of the unification of the lands of the Polyans, Ilmen Slavs, Radimichi, Krivichi, etc. The capital is Kyiv. Civil strife between princes, attacks by the Polovtsians and other reasons led to the middle. XII century to its fragmentation.

TEAM- armed detachments under the prince in Ancient Rus', participating in wars, managing the principality and the prince’s personal household. It was divided into “elder” (the persons closest to the prince - “princely men”) and “younger” (“gridi”, “youths”, “children”, “swordsmen”).

“LIVE PEOPLE” - a layer of average landowners in the Novgorod Republic.

Purchase - a feudally dependent person who becomes dependent on the feudal lord for a loan issued (“kupa”).

OUTGATE- in Ancient Rus' (11th – 12th centuries) persons who left their usual social category. (Peasants who left the community or ransomed slaves).

Cyrillic - one of two Slavic alphabets. Called by name Slavic enlightener mid-9th century Cyril (before accepting monasticism - Constantine), who in 863 created the first Slavic alphabet and, with the help of brother Methodius, translated Christian liturgical books from Greek into Slavic.

PRINCE-1. The leader of the tribe, with the development of feudalism, is the ruler of the state. 2. Honorary title of nobility, from the 18th century. complained to the king about special merits.

"Ladder" (regular) order of succession to the throne - the order of succession to the throne, according to which power should be transferred to the eldest in the family.

Chronicles - weather records of events.

Lyubech Congress - congress ancient Russian princes, held in 1097 in the city of Lyubech - the patrimony of Vladimir Monomakh, at which it was decided that “everyone owns his own fatherland,” which legally formalized political fragmentation in Rus'.
Mosaic (literally “made up of pieces”) - an image or pattern made of colored stones, smalt, ceramic tiles, etc. One of the oldest types of fine art.
MONASTICISM(Greek) - a social religious group, the members of which undertake obligations: “withdrawal from the world”, renunciation of property, abstinence (mandatory celibacy), breaking of old family and social ties, attachment to a monastery, submission to its charter.

Norman theory- a direction in Russian and foreign historiography, whose supporters consider the Normans (Varangians) to be the founders of the Old Russian state. It was formulated in the second quarter of the 18th century. German scientists G.Z. Bayer, G.F. Miller and others. From the point of view of this theory: 1) the Normans achieved dominance over the Eastern Slavs through external military capture or through peaceful conquest (an invitation to reign); 2) the word “Rus” is of Norman origin.

Arable farming - traditional type agriculture of the Eastern Slavs. In the black soil south, lands were plowed mainly with a rawl or a plow with a pair of oxen, and in the north and in wooded areas - with a plow harnessed to one horse. They sowed rye, barley, wheat, oats, millet, flax, hemp, and planted turnips.

Slash-and-burn farming system- a farming system in which agricultural plants were grown on lands cleared of forest (cutting down, burning) for 2-3 years, using the natural fertility of the soil.

Tribal military militia- the military formation created during the war consisted of free community members - warriors. At the head of the militia was the governor.
Tribal Union- a type of ethnic community, which is characterized by common territory, some elements of the economy, self-awareness and self-name, customs and cults, as well as self-government, consisting of a tribal council, military and civil leaders.
"The Tale of Bygone Years"- an all-Russian chronicle compiled in Kyiv in the second decade of the 12th century. Nestor. The text includes chronicles from the 11th century. and other sources. The history of Rus' is given in the context of world history and the history of the Slavs. It forms the basis for most Russian chronicles.

POGOST- originally the center of a rural community in the north-west of Ancient Rus'. Later place of tribute collection.

Political fragmentation - the process of land fragmentation, characterized by the desire of feudal lords leading patrimonial farming to independence from the power of the Grand Duke. In Rus', political fragmentation began in the second quarter of the 12th century, after the final collapse of the Kievan state. Continued until the end of the 15th century. Is an indicator of maturity feudal society.

Cumans (Kipchaks) - a Turkic-speaking people who roamed in the 11th - early 13th centuries. in the southern Russian steppes. They raided Rus'. The most dangerous attacks were at the end of the 11th century. Defeated and conquered by the Mongol-Tatars in the 13th century.

POLYUDYA- in Kievan Rus, the prince and his squad traveled around the subject lands to collect tribute and examine court cases, and later - the tribute itself of a certain size.

POSADNIK- 1) Viceroy of the prince in the lands of the Old Russian state in the 10th – 11th centuries. 2). The highest government position in Novgorod in the 12th – 15th centuries. and Pskov in the 14th – early 16th centuries. Elected from noble boyars at the veche.

POSAD- 1). In the Russian principalities of the 10th – 16th centuries. commercial and industrial populations outside the city walls, which later became part of the city; sometimes posads were divided into settlements and hundreds. 2). In the Russian Empire there are small urban-type settlements.

POSAD PEOPLE- in the Russian state there is a commercial and industrial urban population. They bore state taxes (taxes, trade duties, natural and labor duties, etc.). In 1775 divided into merchants and burghers.

Orthodoxy- one of the main and oldest trends in Christianity. Originated in the 4th century. with the division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern. The Western (Roman) Church retained the name Catholic, and the Eastern - Orthodox.

Russian Truth - the first written set of laws of Ancient Rus'. Consisted of 5 sections, supplemented taking into account time:

1. “The Most Ancient Truth” or “The Truth of Yaroslav the Wise”, 1015-1016, written by Yaroslav himself.

2. Addition to "Yaroslav's Truth". "The bridge builder's charter." "Pokon is virny."

3. “The Truth of the Yaroslavichs” - Izyaslav, Svyatoslav, Vsevolod, c. 1072

4. Charter of Vladimir Monomakh, 1113

5. Extensive Russian truth, 1120-1130.

Rurikovich– descendants Prince of Kyiv Igor, who is considered the son of Rurik (Rorik). This is a Russian princely and royal dynasty(until 1598) The Rurikovichs stood at the head of the Old Russian state, large and small principalities. In the XII-XIII centuries. some of them were also called by the names of the ancestors of the branches of the clan: Monomakhovichs (Monomashichi), Olgovichi, Mstislavichs, etc. With the formation of the Moscow state, many Rurikovichs, having lost their appanage possessions, formed the highest stratum of service people (princesses). Princes Baryatinsky, Volkonsky, Gorchakov, Dolgorukov, Obolensky, Odoevsky, Repnin, Shcherbatov and other famous families are from the Rurikovichs.

Ryadovichi - people who entered into a “row” (agreement) with the feudal lord and found themselves in a position close to slavery. In terms of their status, they were close to procurement.

Smerda- free communal peasants in Ancient Rus'.

Elders- tribal nobility.

TIUN(Old Icelandic - servant) - a princely or boyar servant who manages a feudal household (11th-16th centuries). Some of the tiuns were not free. The “Russian Pravda” mentions a groom tiun (vira – 80 hryvnia), a fireman tiun (vira – 80 hryvnia) and a rural tiun (vira – 12 hryvnia).

THREE-FIELD- crop rotation with annual alternation of fields and crops. For example, two were allocated for cereal crops, one was for fallow (that is, it was not sown to restore soil fertility).

FRIZNA(Slavic) - part of the funeral rite among the Eastern Slavs of the pagan period (before the 11th century). The funeral feast was accompanied by war games, dances, songs, and a feast. After Christianization, it was preserved in the form of funeral songs and feasts.

TYSYATSKY- military leader of the city militia (thousands) in Rus' until the mid-15th century. In Novgorod, he was elected from among the boyars at the veche and was the mayor's closest assistant. In cities without a veche, he was appointed by princes, the position being hereditary.

DEDICATED PRINCIPALITIES) - component large grand duchies were ruled by members of the grand ducal family (12-16 centuries). In V.O. Klyuchevsky’s interpretation, the destiny is the private property of the prince, which presupposes the choice of an heir. The origins of the appanage system date back to 1097, when at the congress of princes in the city of Lyubech it was established new principle inheritance: “let each one own his father’s estate.”

Lessons - the size of the tribute. Introduced by Princess Olga.

Fresco - a form of wall painting where paints are applied to wet plaster.
SLAVES(old - glorified - slave) - in the 10th - early 18th centuries. a category of the population whose legal status is close to slaves. Initially, they did not have their own farm and performed various jobs for their masters. “Russkaya Pravda” identifies three sources of whitewashed (complete) servitude: self-selling for debts in front of witnesses, becoming a slave without a contract, marriage with a slave or a slave without a contract. In addition, common sources of servility were captivity, disgrace of the prince, commercial failure, crime committed etc. Until the beginning XVIII century slaves did not pay taxes to the state. With the introduction of the poll tax in 1722, slaves turned into serfs, and from 1705 they became suppliers of recruits to regular army

Servants - house slaves.

Paganism (from the Church Slavic “pagans” - foreign peoples) - a designation for non-Christian, in a broad sense - polytheistic religions. In modern science, the term “polytheism” (“polytheism”) is more often used to refer to paganism.

(Old Russian state), the oldest state in the east. Slavs, which developed in the 9th-10th centuries. and stretching from the Baltic coast in the north to the Black Sea steppes in the south, from the Carpathians in the west to Sr. Volga region in the east. Its formation and development were accompanied by intensive processes of interethnic interaction, which led either to the assimilation of the Baltic, Baltic and Volga-Finnish, and Iranian Slavs. tribes inhabiting these territories, or to their sustainable inclusion in the tributary sphere of Rus'. As a result, a single nationality arose within the framework of the D.R., which served later. common basis for Great Russian, Ukrainian. and Belarusian. peoples The beginning of the formation of the latest linguistic features dates back to the XIV-XV centuries. In the 14th century there is also an intensive disintegration of the former ancient Russian. unity is not so much after. the general weakening of the principalities under the rule of the Mongols, as follows. loss of dynastic community as a result of the inclusion of Western and south lands of Rus' into the Lithuanian and Polish states. Thus, 2nd half. XIII century should be considered the upper chronological boundary of D.R. In this sense, the often encountered application of the definition “Old Russian” to later historical phenomena and cultural phenomena cannot be considered completely justified - sometimes up to the 17th century. (Old Russian literature, etc.). As a synonym for the name D.R. (Old Russian State), the term “Kievan Rus” (less often “Kievan State”) is traditionally used in science, but it seems less successful, since the period of political unity of the D.R. with the center in Kyiv or the political dominance of Kyiv extends to the middle. XII century and later, the Old Russian state existed in the form of a set of dynastically united and politically closely interacting, but independent principality lands.

Ethnic landscape East. Europe on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state

The formation of the Old Russian state was preceded by a period of active settlement of the Slavs. tribes in the East Europe, restored almost exclusively by archaeological means. The earliest are reliably famous. archaeological cultures are considered to be the Prague-Korchak and Penkovo ​​cultures of the 5th-7th centuries: the 1st occupied the area south of Pripyat, from the upper reaches of the Dniester and Western. Bug until Wed. The Dnieper region in the Kyiv region, the 2nd was located south of the first, from the N. Danube region to the Dnieper, several. entering the Dnieper left bank in the space from Sula to Aurelie. Both correlate with those known from written sources of the 6th century. glory groups, which were called Slavs (Slavs; Σκλαβηνοί, Sklaveni) and Ants (῎Ανται, Antae). At the same time, in the V-VII centuries, in the northwest of the East. Europe, from Lake Peipus. and R. Great in the west to the Msta basin in the east, the culture of the Pskov long mounds took shape, the carriers of which may also have been the Slavs. Between these 2 zones of original glory. settlement there was a belt of foreign-ethnic archaeological cultures: Tushemlinsk-Bantserovskaya, Moshchinskaya and Kolochinskaya (upper reaches of the Neman, Western Dvina, Dnieper, Oka, Desna, Posemye), which with more or less justification can be considered Baltic in ethnicity. In vast areas to the north and east of the described region, from the south. shores of the Gulf of Finland. and the Ladoga region to the Eastern Volga region, inhabited by Finns. tribes: Esta, Vod, Karelians, Ves (Vepsians), Merya, Meshchera, Murom, Mordovians. In the VIII-IX centuries. glory zone settlement expanded: the tribes of the Baltic “belt” were assimilated, as a result of which the Slavs arose. tribal groups of the Krivichi, who left the culture of the Smolensk-Polotsk long mounds, as well as the Radimichi and Dregovichi; the Dnieper left bank was actively developed up to the upper reaches of the Don, where, in interaction with the Volyntsevo culture, possibly stemming from the Penkovo ​​antiquities, the Romny-Borshev culture of a tribal group of northerners was formed; The Slavs penetrated into V. Poochie - a tribal group of Vyatichi formed here. In the 8th century northerners, Radimichi and Vyatichi found themselves in tributary dependence on the Khazar Kaganate - an ethnically mixed state that included not only Turks. (Khazars, Bulgars, etc.), but also Iran. (Alans) and other peoples and stretching from the North. Caspian region and N. Volga to the Don region and Crimea.

The culture of the Pskov long mounds evolved into the culture of the Novgorod hills, correlated with the tribal group of the Ilmen Slovenes. Based on the Slavs of the Prague-Korchak area, tribal groups of Volynians (in the interfluve of the Western Bug and Goryn), Drevlyans (between the Sluch and Teterev rivers), Polyans (Kiev Dnieper region), and East Slavs developed. Croats (in Eastern Dniester). Thus, by the 9th century. in general, the tribal structure of the east has developed. Slavs, the region acquired complete features in ancient Russia. period and is outlined in the story about the settlement of the Slavs in the introductory part to the one compiled in the beginning. XII century Old Russian chronicles - “Tales of Bygone Years”. The tribes of the Ulichs and Tiverts mentioned by the chronicler, in addition, cannot be localized; Probably, the latter settled in the Dniester region south of the Croats, and the former settled in the Dniester region south of the glades, in the 10th century. moving west. Development of Finnish by the Slavs. lands - Belozerye (all), Rostov-Yaroslavl Volga region (merya), Ryazan region (Murom, Meshchera), etc. - already went in parallel with the state formation processes of the 9th-10th centuries, continuing subsequently.

"The Norman Problem". Northern and southern centers of ancient Russian statehood

Formation of the Old Russian state in the 9th-10th centuries. represented difficult process, in which they interacted, conditioning each other, both internal (the social evolution of local tribes, primarily the East Slavs) and external factors (the active penetration into Eastern Europe of military-trading squads of immigrants from Scandinavia - the Varangians, or, as they call them called in Western Europe, Normans). The role of the latter in the construction of ancient Russian. statehood, which has been hotly debated in science for the 2.5th century, constitutes the “Norman problem.” Closely related to it, although in no way predetermines its solution, is the question of the origin of the ethnic (initially, perhaps, socio-ethnic) name “Rus”. It is a common belief that the name “Rus” is a scand. root, faces historical and linguistic difficulties; Other hypotheses are even less convincing, so the question should be considered open. At the same time, there are quite numerous Byzantine, Western European, Arab-Persian. sources leave no doubt that in the IX - 1st half. X century the name “Rus” was applied specifically to ethnic Scandinavians and that Rus' at that time was distinguished from the Slavs. Mobile, united and well-armed groups of Varangians were the most active element in organizing international trade along the Vostochny river highways. Europe, the trade development of which certainly prepared the political unification of the lands of D.R.

According to Old Russian the legend reflected in the “Tale of Bygone Years” and in the chronicle code of events that preceded it. XI century, the presence of the Varangians in Rus' was initially limited to collecting tribute from the Slavs. Krivichi and Slovenian tribes and Finnish tribes. Chudi tribes (probably Estonians, Vodi and other tribes of the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland), Meri and, perhaps, Vesi. As a result of the uprising, these tribes got rid of tributary dependence, but the outbreak of internal strife forced them to call upon the Varangians Rurik and his brothers as princes. The rule of these princes, however, was apparently determined by treaty. Part of Rurik’s Varangian squad, led by Askold and Dir, went south and settled in Kyiv. After the death of Rurik, his relative Prince. Oleg, with the young son of Rurik, Prince. Igor in his arms, captured Kyiv and united the Novgorod north and the Kiev south, thus creating a state. the basis of D.R. In general, there is no reason not to trust this legend, but a number of its details (Askold and Dir - warriors of Rurik, etc.) were most likely constructed by the chronicler. The fruit of the not always successful calculations of the chronicler based on the Greek. The chronology of events also became chronographic sources (852 - the expulsion of the Varangians, the calling of Rurik, the reign of Askold and Dir in Kyiv; 879 - the death of Rurik; 882 - the capture of Kyiv by Oleg). Agreement book Oleg and Byzantium, concluded in the fall of 911, forces Oleg’s appearance in Kyiv to be attributed to approximately the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries, and Rurik’s calling to the immediately preceding time, i.e., to the last. Thursday 9th century Earlier events are reconstructed according to foreign sources and archeology.

Archeology allows us to attribute the appearance of scand. ethnic component in Finnish. and (or) glory. surrounded in the north by East. Europe to the period from the middle - 2nd half. VIII century (St. Ladoga) to mid-2nd half. 9th century (Rurik settlement in the upper reaches of the Volkhov, Timerevo, Gnezdovo on the upper Dnieper, etc.), which in general (with the exception of Gnezdov) coincides with the original area of ​​the Varangian tribute outlined in the chronicle. At the same time, the first dated reliable information about Scand. According to the origin of Rus' (1st half - mid-9th century) they are connected not with the north, but with the south. East. Europe. Arab-Persian. geographers (al-Istakhri, Ibn Haukal) directly speak about 2 groups of Rus' in the 9th century: southern, Kyiv (“Kuyaba”), and northern, Novgorod-Slovenian (“Slaviya”), each of which has own ruler(the 3rd group, “Arsaniyya/Artaniya”, mentioned in these texts, cannot be precisely localized). Thus, independent data confirm the story of the Old Russian. chronicles about 2 centers of Varangian power in the East. Europe in the 9th century. (northern, with a center in Ladoga, then in Novgorod, and southern, with a center in Kyiv), but they force us to attribute the appearance of Varangian Rus' in the south to a time much earlier than the calling of Rurik. Since archaeologically scand. antiquity of the 9th century were not found in Kyiv, one has to think that the 1st wave of newcomer Varangians was quickly assimilated here. population.

Most written evidence about Rus' in the 9th century. refers specifically to southern, Kyiv, Rus', the history of which, unlike the northern one, can be outlined in general terms. Geographically, the chronicle connects the South. Rus' is primarily with the area of ​​​​tribal reign of the glades. Retrospective historical and geographical information, ch. arr. XII century, allow us to believe that, along with the Polyanskaya land itself, South. Rus' included part of the Dnieper left bank with the later cities of Chernigov and Pereyaslavl Russian (modern Pereyaslav-Khmelnitsky) and an undefined eastern. border, as well as, obviously, a narrow strip of the watershed between the Pripyat basins, on the one hand, and the Dniester and South. Buga - on the other. Back in the XI-XIII centuries. the delineated territory bore the clearly relict name “Russian Land” (to distinguish it from the Russian Land as the name of the Old Russian State as a whole, it is called in science the Russian Land in the narrow sense of the word).

South Rus' was a fairly powerful political entity. It accumulated significant economic and military potential of the Slavs Wed. Podneprovya, organized sea ​​voyages to the lands of the Byzantine Empire (besides the campaign against K-pol in 860, there was at least one more, earlier one, on the Asia Minor coast of the Black Sea in the area of ​​Amastris) and competed with the Khazar Kaganate, as evidenced, in particular, by the adoption by the ruler South Rus' Khazars. (Turkic in origin) of the supreme title “Kagan”, as a relic attached to the Kyiv princes back in the 11th century. Probably from the Russian-Khazar. The embassy of the Kagan of Rus' to the Byzantines was also connected with the confrontation. imp. Theophilus in the 2nd half. 30s 9th century with an offer of peace and friendship, and unfolding at the same time with Byzantium. with the help of the active fortress construction of the Khazars: in addition to Sarkel on the Don, more than 10 fortresses were built in the upper reaches of the Seversky Donets and along the river. Quiet Sosna (the right tributary of the Don), which indicates the claims of the South. Rus''s share of glory. tributary sphere of the Khazars (at least to the northerners). The trade relations of the South were extensive. Rus', merchants from the swarm in the west reached the middle Danube (the territory of modern Eastern Austria), in the northeast - Volga Bulgaria, in the south - the Byzantines. Black Sea markets, from where they traveled along the Don and then along the Volga to the Caspian Sea and even to Baghdad. To 2nd half. 60s 9th century include the first information about the beginning of the Christianization of the South. Rus', they are associated with the name of the K-Polish Patriarch Photius. However, this “first baptism” of Rus' did not have significant consequences, since its results were destroyed after the capture of Kyiv by those who came from the North. Rus' by the squads of the prince. Oleg.

Assimilation of scand. element in North. Rus' progressed much more slowly than in Southern Russia. This is explained by the constant influx of new groups of aliens, whose main occupation was also international trade. The mentioned places of concentration of scandina. archaeological antiquities (St. Ladoga, Rurik settlement, etc.) have a pronounced character of trade and craft settlements with an ethnically mixed population. Numerous and sometimes huge treasures of the Arab. coin silver in the territory of the North. Rus, recorded from the turn of the 8th and 9th centuries, allow us to think that it was precisely the desire to ensure access to rich, high-quality Arabs. silver coins to the markets of Volga Bulgaria (to a lesser extent - to distant Black Sea markets along the Volkhov-Dnieper route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”) attracted the military-trading squads of the Varangians to the East. Europe. The same is evidenced by another striking fact: it is an Arab. The dirham formed the basis of ancient Russian. monetary-weight system. Rurik's calling probably entailed the political consolidation of the North. Rus', which made possible its unification under the rule of the North. Varangian dynasty Rurikovich with a more advantageously located in trade and military-strategic terms of the South. Russia.

Strengthening the Old Russian state in the 10th century. (from Oleg to Svyatoslav)

Campaigns against the capital of the Byzantine Empire, organized in 907 and 941. the princes of the united Rus' - Oleg and his successor Igor, as well as the resulting peace treaties of 911 and 944, which ensured the Russian. merchants have significant trading privileges on the Polish market, indicating sharply increased military-political and economic opportunities D. R. Slabevshiy Khazar Khaganate, who finally lost tribute from glory to Rus'. tribes on the left bank of the Dnieper (northerners and Radimichi), could not or did not want (claiming part of the spoils) to prevent the massive raids of the Russians. rooks to the rich cities of South. Caspian region (ca. 910, under Oleg, and in the 1st half of the 40s of the 10th century, under Igor). Apparently, at this time Rus' acquired strongholds in a key area for waterway to the Caspian and Arab. East area of ​​the Kerch Strait - Tmutarakan and Korchev (modern Kerch). The military-political efforts of Rus' were also directed along the overland trade route to the middle Danube: the Slavs became tributary dependent on Kyiv. tribes of Volynians and even Lendzians (west of the upper reaches of the Western Bug).

After the death of Igor during the uprising of the Drevlyans (apparently not earlier than 944/5), the reign, due to the minority of Svyatoslav, Igor's son, ended up in the hands of the widow of the latter. Kng. Olga (Elena). Her main efforts after the pacification of the Drevlyans were aimed at the internal stabilization of the Old Russian state. At kg. Olga entered a new stage of Christianization of the ruling elite of D.R. (“The Tale of Bygone Years” and the treaties of Rus' with Byzantium indicate that many Varangians from the squad of Prince Igor were Christians, in Kyiv there was a cathedral church in the name of Prophet Elijah) . The ruler was baptized during a trip to K-pol; her plans were to establish a church organization in Rus'. In 959, for this purpose, Kng. Olga sent to Germany. cor. Otto I received an embassy, ​​which asked to appoint a “bishop and priests” for Rus'. However, this attempt to establish Christianity did not last long, and the Kiev mission of Bishop. Adalberta 961-962 ended unsuccessfully.

The main reason for the failure in the attempt to establish Christianity in Rus' was indifference to religion. questions from the Kyiv prince. Svyatoslav Igorevich (c. 960-972), during whose reign active military expansion resumed. First, the Vyatichi were brought under the rule of Rus', then the Khazar Kaganate suffered a decisive defeat (965), which is why it soon became dependent on Khorezm and left the political arena. 2 bloody Balkan campaigns in 968-971, in which Svyatoslav first participated in the defeat of the Bulgarian kingdom as an ally of Byzantium, and then, in alliance with conquered Bulgaria, turned against Byzantium, did not lead to the desired goal - the consolidation of Rus' on the lower Danube. Defeat by Byzantine troops. imp. John I Tzimiskes forced Svyatoslav in the summer of 971 to sign a peace treaty that limited the influence of Rus' in the North. Black Sea region. After the early death of Svyatoslav at the hands of the Pechenegs on the way back to Kyiv (in the spring of 972), the territory of D.R. was divided between the young Svyatoslavichs: Yaropolk, who reigned in Kyiv (972-978), Oleg, whose lot was the tribal territory of the Drevlyans, and Equal Apostles. Vladimir (Vasily) Svyatoslavich, whose table was in Novgorod. Vladimir emerged victorious from the civil strife that began between the brothers. In 978 he captured Kyiv. The reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich (978-1015) ushered in the era of the rise of the Old Russian state in the end. X - gray XI century

Political and economic system D.R.

during the reign of the first Kyiv princes emerges only in general terms. The ruling elite consisted of the princely family (quite numerous) and the prince's squad, which existed at the expense of the princely income. State the dependence of those who were part of the Old Russian state was mainly slavs. tribes was expressed in the payment of regular (probably annual) tribute. Its size was determined by the agreement and the obligation to participate in the military enterprises of the ancient Russians. princes. Otherwise, apparently, tribal life remained unaffected, the power of the tribal princes was preserved (for example, the prince of the Drevlyans named Mal is known, who tried to marry Igor’s widow Olga in about 945). This suggests that the chronicles are Eastern Slavs. tribes in the 10th century were quite complex political entities. The very act of the above-mentioned calling to reign on the part of the group of glory. and Finnish tribes indicates their fairly high political organization. Whether or not they were part of the Old Russian state that existed in the 70s. X century to East Slav. lands, political formations under the rule of other (besides the Rurikovich) Varangian dynasties (the dynasty of Prince Rogvolod in Polotsk, Prince Tura in Turov, on Pripyat) and when they arose remains unclear.

The collection of tribute was carried out in the form of the so-called. polyudya - a tour of the tributary territory during the autumn-winter season by the prince or another owner of the tribute (the person to whom the prince ceded the collection of tribute) with a squad; at this time, the tributaries had to be supported by the tributaries. The tribute was levied both in natural products (including goods intended for export to foreign markets - furs, honey, wax) and in coins, ch. arr. Arab. minted. With the name of the king. Olga, the legend reflected in the chronicle connects the administrative-tribute reform of the ser. X century, which, as one might think, consisted in the fact that tribute, the volume of which was revised, was now brought by tributaries to certain permanent points (cemeteries), where representatives of the princely administration stayed. The tribute was subject to division in a certain proportion between the owner of the tribute and the subject of the state. power, that is, the princely family: the first received 1/3, the last - 2/3 of the tribute.

One of the most important components of the D.R. economy was the sending of annual trade caravans with export goods collected during the polyudie down the Dnieper to the international markets of the Black Sea region, etc. - a procedure described in detail in ser. X century in op. Byzantine imp. Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus “On the administration of the empire.” In the K-field, Old Russian. merchants had their own courtyard at the monastery of St. Mamanta and received salary from the imp. The treasury also took upon itself the costs of equipping the return voyage. Such a pronounced foreign trade orientation of the D.R. economy of that time determined the presence of a special social group - the merchants engaged in international trade, which back in the middle. X century was, like the princely family, predominantly of Varangian origin. Judging by the fact that numerous representatives of this social group participated in the conclusion of treaties between Rus' and Byzantium, it could have an independent voice in state affairs. management. Apparently, the merchants constituted the social and property elite in ancient Russia. trade and craft settlements of the 9th-10th centuries. like Gnezdov or Timerev.

Reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich

The first decade of Vladimir's reign in Kyiv was a time of restoration of the position of the Old Russian state, which had been shaken due to the civil strife of the Svyatoslavichs. One after another followed trips to the west. and east borders of Rus'. OK. 980, Przemysl, Cherven cities (a strategically important area on the western bank of the Western Bug) and Sr. were included in its composition. The Bug region was inhabited by the Baltic tribes of the Yatvingians. Then campaigns against the Radimichi, Vyatichi, Khazars and Volga Bulgars(as a result, a long-term peace treaty was concluded with the latter) the successes achieved here by Svyatoslav were consolidated.

Both the international situation and the tasks of internal consolidation of the D.R., heterogeneous in ethnicity, and therefore in religion. respect, the officials urgently demanded. Christianization. Favorable foreign policy circumstances for Rus' 2nd half. 80s X century, when Byzantine. imp. Vasily II the Bulgarian Slayer was forced to ask Russian. military assistance to suppress the rebellion of Varda Phokas, allowed Vladimir to quickly take a decisive step towards accepting Christianity: in 987-989. The personal baptism of Vladimir and his entourage was followed by the marriage of the Kyiv prince with the sister of the emperor. Vasily II by Princess Anna, the destruction of pagan temples and the mass baptism of Kievites (see Baptism of Rus'). Such a marriage of the purple-born princess was a blatant violation of the Byzantines. dynastic principles and forced the empire to take active measures to organize the Old Russian Church. The Kyiv Metropolis and several were established. dioceses in the largest or closest urban centers to Kyiv, probably in Novgorod, Polotsk, Chernigov and Belgorod (near Kiev, now does not exist), which were headed by the Greek. hierarchs. In Kyiv, Greek. The craftsmen erected the first stone temple in Rus' - Desyatinnaya Church. (completed in 996), there were the relics of St. brought among other shrines from Chersonesos. Clement, Pope of Rome. The original wooden church of St. Sophia, the Wisdom of God, became the Metropolitan Cathedral in Kyiv. The princely government took upon itself the material support of the Church, which, at least in the early period, was of a centralized nature (see Art. Tithes), and also took a number of other organizational measures: the construction of local churches, the recruitment and training of children of the nobility to provide the Church with cadres of clergy, etc. The influx of liturgical books for Church Orthodoxy. language was carried out in Rus' mainly from Bulgaria (see South Slavic influences on Old Russian culture). A manifestation of the newfound state. The prestige of Rus' became the minting of gold and silver coins by Vladimir, iconographically close to the Byzantines. samples, but of economic significance, apparently, did not have and performed political and representative functions; picked up at the beginning XI century Svyatopolk (Peter) Vladimirovich and Yaroslav (George) Vladimirovich, later this coinage had no continuation.

In addition to the tasks of Christianization the most important moments in the politics of Vladimir after baptism the defense of the West appeared. boundaries from pressure from the Old Polish state, which sharply intensified during the reign of Boleslav I the Brave (992-1025), and repelling the Pecheneg threat. In the west of Rus' such a important city, like Berestye (modern Brest), and a new one was built - Vladimir (modern Vladimir-Volynsky). In the south, with numerous fortresses, as well as earthen ramparts with wooden palisades, Vladimir strengthened the banks of the Sula, Stugna and other rivers that covered the approaches to Kyiv from the steppe. A significant sign of Vladimir's time was the completion of the Slavicization of the princely family (which began in the mid-10th century) and his Varangian entourage (Vladimir, unlike his father, was half - on his mother's side - of Slavic origin). The Varangians did not stop coming to Rus', but they no longer joined the ruling elite of the Old Russian state or the elite of trade and craft centers, but acted mainly as military mercenaries of the princes.

Rus' in the era of Yaroslav the Wise

After the death of Prince. Vladimir on July 15, 1015, the situation of the 70s was repeated. 10th century: an internecine fight immediately broke out between the most influential of his many sons. The Kiev table was occupied by the eldest of the princes - Svyatopolk, who began with the murder of his younger brothers - Svyatoslav, saints Boris and Gleb. Yaroslav the Wise, who reigned in Novgorod in 1016, expelled Svyatopolk, who in 1018 returned to Rus' with military assistance his father-in-law - Polish. cor. Boleslav I. However, a year later, Yaroslav Vladimirovich (1019-1054) established himself again in Kyiv, this time definitively. In 1024, Mstislav Vladimirovich, who reigned in Tmutarakan, presented his rights to participate in the management of the Old Russian state. The clash between the brothers ended in 1026 with the conclusion of an agreement, under the terms of which Yaroslav retained Kyiv and Novgorod, his brother received all the lands of the Dnieper left bank with the capital in Chernigov.

The most important event of the 10-year joint reign of Yaroslav and Mstislav was their participation in an alliance with the Germans. imp. Conrad II in the beginning. 30s XI century in the war against the Polish. cor. Meshka II, which led to the temporary collapse of the Old Polish state and the return to Rus' of the Cherven cities seized from it in 1018 by Boleslav I. The death of Mstislav in 1036 made Yaroslav the Wise the sole ruler of the Old Russian state, under which Yaroslav reached the pinnacle of external power and international influence. The victorious battle of 1036 under the walls of Kyiv put an end to the Pecheneg raids. Continuing the military-political alliance with Germany, Yaroslav, through a series of campaigns in Mazovia, contributed to the restoration of the power of the prince in Poland. Casimir I, son of Sack II. In 1046, with military assistance from Yaroslav, the Hungarians. the throne was erected by a cor. friendly to Rus'. Andras I. In 1043 the last Russian campaign took place. fleet to K-pol (the reasons for the conflict with Byzantium are unclear), which, although it did not end entirely successfully, resulted in an honorable peace for Rus' in 1045/46, as can be judged by the marriage of the prince. Vsevolod (Andrey), one of the younger sons of Yaroslav, with a relative (daughter?) imp. Constantine IX Monomakh. And other marriage connections of the princely family clearly indicate the political weight of D.R. in that period. Yaroslav was married to the daughter of a Swede. cor. Olaf St. Irina (Ingigerd), his son Izyaslav (Dimitri) - on his sister Polish. book Casimir I, who married Yaroslav's sister. Yaroslav's daughters were married to Norwegians. cor. Harald Surov, Hung. cor. Andras I and the French. cor. Henry I.

The reign of Yaroslav the Wise also became a time of internal strengthening of D.R. List of Rus. dioceses in the patriarchal notitia episcopatuum of the 70s. XII century allows us to think that most likely under Yaroslav the number of dioceses in Rus' was significantly increased (departments were established in Vladimir-Volynsky, Pereyaslavl, Rostov, Turov). Yaroslav's reign was characterized by the rapid growth of all-Russian culture. national and state self-awareness. This found expression in church life: in 1051, in the installation of a Russian council on the Kyiv metropolitanate. Bishops of Rusyn St. Hilarion, in general Russian. glorification of saints Boris and Gleb as heavenly patrons of the dynasty and Rus' as a whole and in the first original works of ancient Russian. literature (in Praise to Prince Vladimir in the Sermon on Law and Grace of St. Hilarion), and in the 30-50s. XI century - in a radical transformation of the architectural appearance of Kyiv according to the Polish capital model (in the city of Yaroslav, which was many times larger in comparison with the city of Vladimir, the ceremonial Golden Gate, the monumental St. Sophia Cathedral and other stone buildings were erected). Stone cathedrals dedicated to St. Sophia, the Wisdom of God, were also erected during this period in Novgorod and Polotsk (the latter was built, perhaps, shortly after the death of Yaroslav). The reign of Yaroslav is the era of the expansion of the number of schools and the emergence of the first ancient Russians. scriptoria, where the copying of Church Orthodoxy was carried out. texts, and also, probably, translations from Greek. language.

Political system of D.R. under Vladimir and Yaroslav

was determined in general by the nature of inter-princely relations. According to concepts inherited from earlier times, state. The territory and its resources were considered the collective property of the princely family, and the principles of their ownership and inheritance were derived from customary law. The prince's matured sons (usually at the age of 13-15) received ownership of certain areas, while remaining under their father's authority. So, during Vladimir’s life, his sons were imprisoned in Novgorod, Turov, Vladimir-Volynsky, Rostov, Smolensk, Polotsk, and Tmutarakan. Yaroslav planted his eldest sons in Novgorod and Volyn (or Turov). Thus, this method of maintaining the princely family was at the same time a mechanism of the state. management of the lands of Rus'. After the death of the prince-father of the state. the territory was to be divided among all his adult sons. Although the father's table went to the eldest of the brothers, the relationship of subordination of the regions to the Kyiv table disappeared and politically all the brothers found themselves equal, which entailed the actual fragmentation of the state. authorities: both the Svyatoslavichs and the Vladimirovichs were politically independent of each other. At the same time, after the death of the eldest of the brothers, the Kiev table went not to his sons, but to the next oldest brother, who took upon himself the organization of the fate of his nephews by allotting them. This led to constant redistribution of the general public. territory, which was a unique way of maintaining political unity, not excluding potential autocracy. The obvious shortcomings of this system from the point of view. more mature state consciousness led Yaroslav the Wise to the establishment of a seignorate, that is, to the assimilation by the eldest of the sons of a certain amount of political prerogatives inherited from the father in general. scale: the status of a guarantor of dynastic legal order, guardian of the interests of the Church, etc.

Such an important part of the state has also received development. life as legal proceedings. The existence in D.R. of a fairly differentiated customary law (“Russian law”) is already known from treaties with Byzantium in the 1st half. X century, but the codification of its criminal part (punishments for murder, for insult by action, for crimes against property) first took place under Yaroslav (the most ancient Russian Truth). At the same time, certain norms of princely legal proceedings were fixed (“Pokon virny”, which regulated the maintenance of the peasant rope of the princely court official - “virnik”). Vladimir tried to introduce local law some Byzantines. norms, in particular death penalty, but they didn’t take root. With the advent of the institution of the Church, the division of the court into Byzantines occurred. model into secular (princely) and church. In addition to crimes committed by certain categories of the population (clergy and so-called church people), cases related to marriage, family, inheritance, and witchcraft were subject to church jurisdiction (see articles Church Charter of Prince Vladimir, Church Charter of Prince Yaroslav).

D. R. under Yaroslavich (2nd half of the 11th century)

According to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, the territory of the Old Russian state was divided between his 5 surviving sons by that time: the eldest, Izyaslav, received Kyiv and Novgorod, St. Svyatoslav (Nikolai) - Chernigov (the region then included Ryazan and Murom) and Tmutarakan, Vsevolod - Pereyaslavl and Rostov, the younger ones, Vyacheslav and Igor, got Smolensk and Volyn, respectively. As an additional (along with the lordship of Izyaslav) political mechanism that stabilized this system of appanages, a specific co-government was created in all-Russian. questions of 3 senior Yaroslavichs, which was consolidated by the division between them of the Middle Dnieper core of the D.R. (ancient Russian land in the narrow sense of the word). Polotsk, which Vladimir allocated to his son Izyaslav, occupied a special position; after the death of the latter (1001), the Polotsk table was inherited by his son Bryachislav (1001 or 1003-1044), then his grandson Vseslav (1044-1101, with a break). This is all-Russian. triarchy acquired complete features after the early death of the younger Yaroslavichs (Vyacheslav - in 1057, Igor - in 1060), so that even the metropolis was divided into 3 parts: their own metropolitan sees were temporarily established in Chernigov and Pereyaslavl (probably around 1070); The 1st existed until the middle. 80s, 2nd - until 90s. XI century After some successful joint actions (a decisive victory over the Torci in 1060/61), the rule of the Yaroslavichs began to experience difficulties. For the first time, the typical conflict between uncles and nephews made itself felt: in 1064, Prince. Rostislav, son of the Novgorod prince. St. Vladimir, the eldest of the Yaroslavichs, who died while his father was still alive, was forcibly taken from Svyatoslav Yaroslavich Tmutarakan, which he held until his death in 1067. A clash with another nephew - the Polotsk prince. Vseslav, who plundered Novgorod in 1066, did not end with the defeat of Vseslav the following year by the general forces of the Yaroslavichs and captivity.

In the 60s XI century to the south On the borders of Rus', a new threat arose - from those who migrated to South Russia. the steppes of the Polovtsians, the fight against the Crimeans became an urgent task for more than a century and a half, right up to the Mongolians. invasions. In the summer of 1068, the Yaroslavich troops were defeated by the Polovtsians near Pereyaslavl. Izyaslav’s indecision in repelling the nomads caused an uprising in Kyiv, during which the people of Kiev freed Vseslav from prison and proclaimed him the prince of Kyiv, and Izyaslav with his family and retinue was forced to flee to the Polish court. book Boleslav II. In the spring of 1069 Izyaslav from Poland. help, but with the demonstrative inaction of the brothers Svyatoslav and Vsevolod, he regained Kyiv. In Rus', meanwhile, there was a significant redistribution of power to the detriment of Kyiv (thus, Novgorod, which belonged to Izyaslav, ended up in the hands of Svyatoslav), which inevitably should have led to a conflict between the Yaroslavichs. The ceremonial transfer of the relics of Saints Boris and Gleb to the new stone church built by Izyaslav, in which 3 brothers took part on May 20, 1072, turned out to be the last joint act of the Yaroslavichs. In 1073, Svyatoslav, with the support of Vsevolod, expelled Izyaslav from Kyiv, but died already in 1076. Izyaslav, who had sought support in Poland, Germany and Rome (from Pope Gregory VII), returned to the Kiev table in 1077 without much success. However, in 1078 he died in a battle with Svyatoslav’s son Oleg (Mikhail) and his other nephew, Boris Vyacheslavich. Vsevolod (1078-1093) became the prince of Kyiv, whose reign was filled with complex internal political maneuvering in order to satisfy the requests of his nephews (Svyatopolk (Mikhail) and Yaropolk (Gabriel) Izyaslavich and David Igorevich), as well as the grown-up sons of Rostislav Vladimirovich (Rurik, Volodar and Vasily (Vasilka)).

As one of the dioceses of the K-Polish Patriarchate of D.R. in the 2nd half. XI century was affected by the consequences of the division of the West. and Vost. Churches; pl. Old Russian the authors and the Greek metropolitans of Kyiv became active participants in the polemic against the “Latins.” At the same time, continued contacts with the West. Europe led to the fact that in Rus', during the reign of Vsevolod, a common one was established with the West. The church celebrates a holiday in honor of the transfer in 1087 of the relics of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker in Bari (May 9), unknown to the Greek Church.

Lyubech Congress of 1097

After the death of Vsevolod in 1093, the Kiev table, with the consent of the influential Chernigov prince. Vladimir (Vasily) Vsevolodovich Monomakh was occupied by the eldest in the princely family, Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (1093-1113). The death of Vsevolod was taken advantage of by the most warlike of the Svyatoslavichs - Oleg (from 1083, with the support of Byzantium, reigning in Tmutarakan), who in 1094, with the help of the Polovtsians, forcibly regained his ancestral Chernigov, displacing Vladimir Monomakh from there to Pereyaslavl. In this confusing political situation, in 1097, the all-Russian people gathered in the Dnieper city of Lyubech. a congress of princes designed to improve the Kiev lordship established by Yaroslav the Wise, adapting it to changing conditions. The resolution of the Lyubech Congress: “Let everyone keep his fatherland” meant that the possessions of the princes, according to Yaroslav’s will, were assigned to his grandchildren: to Svyatopolk Izyaslavich - Kyiv, to St. book David, Oleg and Yaroslav (Pankraty) Svyatoslavich - Chernigov (Tmutarakan in the 90s of the 11th century, apparently, came under the rule of Byzantium), for Vladimir Vsevolodovich - Pereyaslavl and Rostov (besides which Novgorod and Smolensk were also in the hands of Monomakh) , behind David Igorevich - Volyn, at the expense of the south and southwest, the swarm (formerly the Principality of Galicia) were, however, also endowed with two Rostislavichs.

The effectiveness of the system of collective preservation of the status quo established in Lyubech was immediately demonstrated in the forceful settlement of the conflict in Volyn, unleashed by David Igorevich and which began with the blinding of Vasilko Rostislavich: Svyatopolk was forced to abandon attempts to seize the possessions of the Rostislavichs, and David had to lose his table and be content with the secondary Dorogobuzh . Dr. A positive consequence of the princely congresses was the joint actions initiated by Vladimir Monomakh against the nomads, whose raids sharply intensified in the 90s. XI century, after the death of Vsevolod. As a result of victories in 1103, 1107, 1111 and 1116. the Polovtsian danger was eliminated for half a century and the Polovtsians took a subordinate place as allies of certain Russians. princes in their internecine struggle. The decisions of the Lyubech Congress did not affect traditions. the principle of inheritance of the Kyiv table by the genealogically oldest of the princes; they only, as is clear from what follows, excluded the Svyatoslavichs from among his potential heirs - after all, de jure Kyiv was not their homeland, since the Kiev reign of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich was considered a usurpation. This led to the actual co-rule of Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh in Rus', so that after the death of the former in 1113, Kyiv, with the support of local boyars, freely passed into the hands of the latter.

Kiev reign of Vladimir Monomakh and his eldest sons (1113-1139)

Board of the book Vladimir (1113-1125) and his son St. book Mstislav (Theodore) the Great (1125-1132) was a time of internal political stabilization of the Old Russian state. Vladimir Monomakh united in his hands dominance over for the most part Rus', with the exception of Chernigov (St. Prince David Svyatoslavich reigned here), Polotsk (where, under the rule of the descendants of Vseslav, along with the old Polotsk, a new center emerged - Minsk), Volyn (it was the possession of Prince Yaroslav (John) Svyatopolchich) and the South Volyn outskirts Rostislavich. Attempts at armed protest against this domination by the Minsk prince. Gleb Vseslavich in 1115/16-1119. and Yaroslav Svyatopolchich in 1117-1118 - ended in tears: both lost their tables and died, which further strengthened the position of Vladimir Monomakh, who acquired Volyn. Then, at the beginning of his reign, the question of inheriting the Kyiv table was decided in advance: in 1117, the eldest of the Vladimirovichs, Mstislav, who was sitting in Novgorod, was transferred by his father to the Kiev suburb of Belgorod, and Novgorod was given, which is significant, not to any of their next eldest sons (Yaropolk (John), Vyacheslav, Yuri (George) Dolgoruky, Roman, who were respectively imprisoned in Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Rostov and Volyn, or so far the landless Andrei the Good), and the eldest of his grandchildren - St. book Vsevolod (Gabriel) Mstislavich. The purpose of this measure became clear when in 1125 Kyiv, after the death of Vladimir Monomakh, was inherited first by Mstislav the Great, and then, in 1132, by the next most senior Monomashich - Yaropolk. Having radically resolved the “Polotsk issue” by expelling almost all of Vseslav’s descendants to Byzantium in 1129, Mstislav the Great left his younger brother a seemingly well-established inheritance. The first political step of the Kyiv prince. Yaropolk Vladimirovich became the translation of the book. Vsevolod Mstislavich from Novgorod to Pereyaslavl. Thus, Monomakh’s plan, sealed by the agreement of the brothers, Mstislav the Great and Yaropolk, boiled down to a significant adjustment of the lordship: Kyiv, after the death of Yaropolk, was to pass not to any of the latter’s brothers, but to his eldest nephew Vsevolod; in the future, he had to remain in the Mstislavich family - otherwise, within a generation, the immoderate increase in the number of stepfathers in Kyiv would inevitably lead to political chaos. Thus, Vladimir Monomakh sought to save the Lyubech principle of fiefdom of Kyiv by violating this principle in relation to his younger children.

However, these plans were met with categorical rejection by the Rostov prince. Yuri Dolgoruky and Prince of Volyn. Andrei Dobry, sons of Monomakh from his 2nd marriage. Yaropolk was forced to give in to his brothers, but then a conflict broke out between the younger Monomashichs and their nephews (primarily Vsevolod and Izyaslav (Panteleimon) Mstislavichs), which resulted in open war, in which the Chernigov princes intervened on the side of the latter. According to the Novgorod chronicler of that time, “the whole Russian land was in rage.” With great difficulty, Yaropolk managed to pacify all parties: Pereyaslavl was given to Andrei the Good, while the center of the Posemya Kursk was separated from it, transferred to Chernigov, while Novgorod ended up in the hands of the Mstislavichs, to which the prince returned. Vsevolod, Volyn, received by Izyaslav, and Smolensk, where St. ruled. book Rostislav (Mikhail) Mstislavich. However, this compromise, established in the beginning. 1136, was extremely shaky. A crisis of Lubech principles has arrived. Already at the beginning 1139, occupied, according to the lordship, Kyiv Prince. Vyacheslav Vladimirovich was several times later. days driven from the table by the Chernigov prince. Vsevolod (Kirill) Olgovich.

The most important changes in the social system and economic structure of D.R.

Along with the evolution of the system of inter-princely relations described above, the main innovations of the period under review in the socio-economic field were the emerging political role of the city and the emergence of private patrimonial land ownership. In the beginning. XI century Fundamental changes occurred in the economic structure of the Old Russian state, which entailed socio-political consequences. At the turn of the X and XI centuries. The influx of Arabs into Rus' stopped. coin silver, only to the Novgorod north in the 11th century. silver continued to arrive from the West. Europe. This meant a crisis oriented in the 9th-10th centuries. to international economic markets D.R. The results of archaeological research indicate that in the beginning. XI century Trade and craft settlements of the proto-urban type quickly and everywhere ceased to exist, in the vicinity of which new cities grew up - centers of princely power (Novgorod near the Rurik settlement, Yaroslavl near Timerev, Smolensk near Gnezdovo, etc.), often also were the centers of dioceses. Economic basis The new cities were, in all likelihood, served by the agricultural production of the volost, which was located near the city, as well as by handicraft production, which was primarily oriented towards the local market. The fairly high level of development of commodity-money relations in these local markets can be judged by the fact that usurious transactions took place in the 11th century. a common occurrence. On the board of Prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, usury acquired the character of an obvious social evil, against which the princely government under Vladimir Monomakh was forced to take restrictive measures.

The socio-political structure of a large city of a given time can only be judged in general terms. The city's population was divided into military adm. units - hundreds, headed by hundreds; the next, highest level of the princely administration in the city was the citywide thousand. At the same time, the city also had some self-government in the form of a veche, which, under certain conditions, could come into conflict with the princely power. The earliest known independent political action The city council was erected above in 1068 on the Kiev table of the Polotsk prince. Vseslav. In 1102, Novgorod resolutely refused to accept the son of the Kyiv prince to reign, thereby destroying the agreement between Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh (the latter’s son, St. Prince Mstislav, remained on the Novgorod table). It was in Novgorod that such self-government acquired its most complete forms. Here, after the uprising of 1136 and the expulsion of the prince. Vsevolod Mstislavich (perhaps several earlier) created “liberty in princes” - the right of Novgorodians to choose and invite a prince, whose power was limited by agreement, which became the legal basis of the entire later political system of Novgorod.

Transformation of agricultural production into the most important part economic life had the inevitable consequence of transformations in land ownership. The bulk of the land consisted of the lands of rural village communities, cultivated by free community farmers - smerds. However, along with communal lands, lands of princes, boyars, and church corporations (episcopal sees, mon-rays) appeared, acquired into ownership through the development of previously undeveloped lands, purchase or donation (the latter usually happened with monasteries). Persons who cultivated such lands were often in one way or another economic or personal dependence on the owner (ordinary workers, purchasers, slaves). A number of articles of the Russian Pravda in a lengthy edition, established under Vladimir Monomakh, regulated the status of these particular social groups, while in the short edition, codified under the Yaroslavichs (probably in 1072), such norms were still absent. There is no data to judge how great the income from this kind of princely lands was in comparison with income from the state. taxes - direct taxes and court fees, but it is clear that it was the suburban princely villages that formed the basis of the palace economy, not only rural, but also craft. The lands of the palace complex did not belong to this or that specific prince, but to the princely table as such. In the 2nd half. XI - 1st half. XII century Church tithes became more differentiated (with tribute, bargaining, court fines, etc.), it was collected locally, although in some cases it could still be replaced by a fixed amount, which was paid from the princely treasury.

The emergence and development of land ownership by private law also brought changes to the nature of relations within the ruling elite of the Old Russian state. If previously the squad in property terms was inextricably linked with the prince, who allocated part of the state for its maintenance. income, now wealthy warriors, purchasing land, have the opportunity to become private owners. This predetermined the constant weakening of the dependence of the senior squad (boyars) on the prince, which over time was fraught with an open conflict of their interests (for example, in Galician and Rostov-Suzdal lands in the 2nd half. XII century). There is not enough data to give a definite answer to the question to what extent land grants from the prince played a role in the formation of the economic and socio-political status of the boyars. This circumstance, as well as the presence in science of various interpretations of the essence of feudalism (state-political, socio-economic, etc.), makes conditional a common characteristic of the social system of the DR in the X-XII centuries. as (early) feudal and brings to the fore the problem of the specificity of Old Russian. feudalism in comparison with classical Western European.

The fight for Kyiv in mid. XII century

The Kiev reign of Vsevolod Olgovich (1139-1146) ushered in an era of almost continuous struggle for Kyiv, which inevitably led to the gradual degradation of the political role of all-Russians. capital Cities. Vsevolod was in every respect a destroyer of traditions. dynastic rules. In 1127, he seized the Chernigov throne by force by forcibly eliminating his uncle Yaroslav Svyatoslavich and bypassing the genealogically oldest cousins ​​- the sons of the Chernigov prince. St. David Svyatoslavich. Vsevolod could not offer anything else as a structure for power but to pick up the idea of ​​Monomakh, only replacing one dynasty (the Mstislavichs) with another (the Olgovichs). As a result, all a complex system inter-princely relations, which Vsevolod built through military pressure and political compromises and whose success was based solely on the lack of unity between the descendants of Monomakh, collapsed immediately after his death in 1146. The transfer of Kyiv planned by Vsevolod to his brothers - first St. book Igor (George), then Prince. Svyatoslav (Nicholas), despite the cross-kissing oath of the people of Kiev and Izyaslav Mstislavich, then Prince of Pereyaslav (the eldest of the Mstislavichs after the death of St. Prince Vsevolod in 1138), did not take place. During the rebellion that broke out in Kyiv, Prince. Igor was captured, tonsured a monk and soon died, and the people of Kiev invited Izyaslav to reign. As a result, the struggle immediately resumed between the Mstislavichs (in their hands were also Smolensk and Novgorod, where Izyaslav’s younger brothers, princes Rostislav and Svyatopolk, were sitting) and their uncle, the Rostov-Suzdal prince. Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky.

The internecine struggle between Yuri and Izyaslav occupied the entire ser. XII century Yuri relied on an alliance with the extremely strengthened Galician principality of Vladimir Volodarevich; Izyaslav had the sympathy of the people of Kiev and the military support of the Hungarians on his side. cor. Geza II, married to Izyaslav's sister. A split occurred among the Chernigov Svyatoslavichs: Svyatoslav Olgovich was loyal to Yuri, and Vladimir and Izyaslav Davidovich united with Izyaslav. The fight was with with varying success, and Kyiv several. passed from hand to hand once: Izyaslav occupied it three times - in 1146-1149, 1150 and 1151-1154, and Yuri also three times - in 1149-1150, 1150-1151, 1155-1157, and in the winter of 1154/55 g., after the death of Izyaslav, the brother of the latter, the Smolensk prince, tried unsuccessfully to gain a foothold here. Rostislav Mstislavich, then Prince of Chernigov. Izyaslav Davidovich.

All-Russian The scale of the upheavals was aggravated by the fact that the Church was also captured by them. Back in 1147, under pressure from Prince. Izyaslav Mstislavich to the metropolitanate without the sanction of the Polish Patriarch part of the Russian. bishops (mainly from Southern Rus') Kliment Smolyatich was erected. This was an attempt on the part of the prince to break the usual order of installing Kyiv metropolitans in K-pol and receive in the person of the metropolitan an instrument for the execution of his political plans. However, Clement was not recognized not only by the Bishop of Rostov. Nestor (which would be understandable), but also the bishops of Novgorod St. Nifont and Smolensk St. Manuel. The schism lasted until 1156, when a new metropolitan arrived in Rus' from K-polye at the request of Yuri Dolgoruky. Constantine I. He not only canceled all of Clement’s consecrations, but also subjected him, as well as (posthumously) his patron Izyaslav, to a church curse, which once again emphasized the extreme bitterness of the conflict. It ended only after the death of Yuri Dolgoruky in 1157, when, after the short reigns of Izyaslav Davidovich (1157-1158) and Mstislav (1158-1159), the eldest son of Izyaslav Mstislavich, St. book Rostislav Mstislavich (1159-1167, with a short break), at whose request a new metropolitan, Theodore, arrived in Kyiv. However, Rostislav could no longer return the previous importance to the reign of Kyiv.

Old and new in relation to Kyiv on the part of the princes and the formation of the political dominance of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality (last third of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century).

Soon after his death in 1167, Prince. Rostislava seemed to resume in the next generation conflict situation the times of Izyaslav and Yuri Dolgoruky: Mstislav Izyaslavich (1167-1169), who was once again princely in Kyiv, was knocked out of it as a result of the campaign of the princes, which was organized by the leader. book St. Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky and even his cousins ​​who had left the previous union with Mstislav took part (Prince Roman of Smolensk and David, Rurik and Mstislav Rostislavich, who were imprisoned in various cities of the Kiev region), dissatisfied with the fact that Mstislav Izyaslavich sent his son Roman as prince to Novgorod, from where one of the Rostislavichs, Svyatoslav, was expelled. In March 1169, Kyiv was taken and plundered, including its churches and mon-ri, which had never happened before during princely civil strife, and Mstislav fled to Volyn, to his homeland. Andrei Bogolyubsky (who did not personally participate in the campaign) used his success not for his own enthronement in Kyiv, like his father, but for the imprisonment of his younger brother, the Pereyaslavl prince, here. Gleb Yuryevich. And although a similar campaign against Novgorod in the beginning. 1170 was not crowned with success (see “The Sign”, icon of the Mother of God), the Novgorodians soon also had to submit and, having sent Mstislavich, accept the prince. Rurik Rostislavich, who was replaced by Andrei's son Yuri in 1172. In 1170 the Volyn prince died. Mstislav, in the beginning 1171 - Prince of Kiev. Gleb, after which Andrei’s eldership again clearly became apparent: he once again decided the fate of Kyiv, placing Roman Rostislavich there. Thus, the fears of Vladimir Monomakh came true: any consistent order of the legacy of the Kyiv table was lost, the connection between the capital’s reign and the recognized eldership in the princely family was greatly undermined, and with it one of the most important institutions that ensured the unity of the Old Russian state . The dominance of the Rostov-Suzdal prince did not last long. In 1173, the Rostislavichs, outraged by his too straightforward autocracy, refused to submit to him, the punitive campaign against Kyiv in 1174 ended unsuccessfully, and in the summer of the same year, as a result of a conspiracy, Andrei Bogolyubsky was killed. The battle for Kyiv immediately began, in which three sides now took part: in addition to the Rostislavichs, the younger brother of the late Mstislav Izyaslavich Yaroslav (who reigned in Volyn Lutsk) and the Chernigov prince. Svyatoslav (Mikhail) Vsevolodovich. As a result, in 1181, for a long period (until the death of Svyatoslav in 1194), a unique order of dual power, unprecedented before, was established in Kyiv, when the capital itself was in the power of Svyatoslav, and the entire Kiev principality was in the hands of his co-ruler Rurik Rostislavich.

At this time, one no longer hears about the seniority of this or that prince in all of Rus', we're talking about only about a separate eldership in the “Monomakh tribe” and especially among the Chernigov Olgovichi. Real political influence was increasingly taken into the hands of the Vladimir-Suzdal prince, recognized as the oldest among all Monomashichs (including the Volyn descendants of Izyaslav Mstislavich). Vsevolod (Dimitri) Yurievich Big Nest, younger brother of Andrei Bogolyubsky. From the time of the Treaty of Kyiv in 1181, he steadily, with a short interruption, until his death in 1212, maintained suzerainty over Novgorod, anticipating the later connection of the Novgorod table with the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. In 1188-1198/99. The supreme power of Vsevolod was also recognized by the last Galician prince from the Rostislavich family, Vladimir Yaroslavich. Even earlier, at the very beginning of Vsevolod’s reign (in 1177), the Ryazan and Murom princes became dependent on him. Thus, the nominal supremacy of the Vladimir-Suzdal prince extended to all of Rus', except Chernigov. This position of his was reflected in his title: it was to Vsevolod that the Big Nest from the middle. 80s XII century for the first time in ancient Russia. In practice, the definition of “Grand Duke” began to be systematically applied, which has since become official. the title of Vladimir-Suzdal, and then Moscow princes. It is all the more significant that, despite the favorable situation for himself, Vsevolod, like Andrei Bogolyubsky, never made any attempts to become a prince in Kyiv.

Formation of the polycentric status of D.R. (2nd half of the 12th century - 1st third of the 13th century).

Decline political significance Kyiv, its transformation into the subject of claims on the part of princes from various princely groups became a consequence of the development of the Old Russian state, outlined by the Lyubech Congress. To 2nd half. XII century There was a clear tendency towards the formation of several. territorially stable large lands-principals, politically little dependent either on each other or on changes in Kyiv. This development was facilitated by the above-mentioned growth in the political influence of local elites and the urban population, who preferred to have “their own” princes - a dynasty, whose interests would be tightly connected with the fate of one or another regional center. This phenomenon is often characterized as “feudal fragmentation,” which puts it on a par with political particularism in countries of classical feudalism (France, Germany). However, the legality of such a definition remains in question due to the origin of the princely lands not from feudal grants, but from dynastic divisions. The main obstacle to the separation of lands was the constant redistribution of tables and volosts, which usually accompanied the appearance of a new prince in Kyiv. The first lands to be isolated were the princes of which were excluded from the number of heirs to the Kyiv table: Polotsk, Galicia and Murom-Ryazan.

Polotsk land

Having expelled the Polotsk princes in 1129, the Kiev prince. Mstislav the Great first annexed the Polotsk land to Kyiv, ruling it through his son Izyaslav, but after the death of Mstislav, the Polotsk people placed on their table Vseslav’s grandson Vasilko Svyatoslavich (obviously one of the few who escaped exile), although the Minsk volost remained for a time under the rule of Kyiv . Immediately after the reign of Vsevolod Olgovich in Kyiv, the Polotsk princes returned to their homeland, and the history of the land in the 40-50s. XII century took place under the sign of the struggle for Polotsk between the Minsk prince. Rostislav, son of Gleb Vseslavich, and Rogvolod (Vasily), son of the Polotsk prince. Rogvolod (Boris) Vseslavich. In the 60-80s. XII century Vseslav Vasilkovich was held in Polotsk with certain interruptions. In the course of this struggle, not all stages of the cut are clear enough, the Polotsk land was split into separate principalities (in addition to the mentioned Minsk, also Drutsk, Izyaslavl, Logozhsk, Borisov, etc.), the princes of which, as well as the Polotsk ones themselves, entered into a relationship of dependence either from Svyatoslav Olgovich (from the princes of the Chernigov branch, to whom in the 50s of the 12th century belonged the Dregovichi lands to the south of the Polotsk land), then from the east. neighbors - the Smolensk Rostislavichs, who even for some time owned the Vitebsk volost. The further history of the Polotsk land is vague. Political and economic dependence on Smolensk continued to strengthen, while in the 1st third of the 13th century. in the north-west, Polotsk came under pressure from Riga and the Livonian Order and by 1207 and 1214. lost its strategically and commercially important vassal principalities in the lower reaches of the West. Dvina - Koknese (Kukenois) and Ersika (Gertsike). At the same time, the weakening Polotsk land suffered from litas. raids.

Galician and Volyn lands

The situation was similar Pereyaslavl principality, located on the left bank of the Dnieper, south of the Ostra (the left tributary of the Desna), with the difference, however, that here in the 2nd half. XII century could not form its own princely dynasty. After leaving for Kyiv, Gleb Yuryevich transferred Pereyaslavl to his son Vladimir in 1169, who held it (with a short break) until his death in 1187. Subsequently, the Pereyaslavl table was replaced either by the Kyiv princes, or by the closest relatives or sons of Vsevolod the Big Nest. Data for the 1st third of the 13th century. fragmentary; it seems that after 1213 BC. 50s XIII century Pereyaslavl was under the supreme authority of the leader. Prince Vladimirsky. The Pereyaslavl principality played a key role in the defense of the south. borders of Rus' from the Polovtsians.

Chernigov land

was one of the most important parts of the D.R. Its territorial basis was made up of lands received in 1054 by the son of Yaroslav the Wise, Svyatoslav. They extended east from the Dnieper, including the entire Podesenie region, up to Sr. Face to face with Murom. Deprived, apparently, at the Lyubech Congress of 1097 of the right to participate in the inheritance of the Kyiv table, the Chernigov Svyatoslavichs (David, Oleg and Yaroslav), apparently, it was then that they received the Kursk Posemye (separated from Pereyaslavl) as compensation, as well as the Dregovichi lands ceded by Kiev north of Pripyat with the cities of Klechesk, Sluchesk and Rogachev. These areas were lost by Chernigov in 1127 - the price of non-intervention of the Kyiv prince. Mstislav the Great in the conflict between Vsevolod Olgovich, who seized the Chernigov throne, and his uncle Yaroslav Svyatoslavich; but soon both Kursk (in 1136) and the mentioned Dregovichi volosts (in the mid-12th century) again became part of the Chernigov land. Despite the fact that after Vsevolod Olgovich captured Kyiv in 1139, the Chernigov princes more than once successfully intervened in the struggle for it, they, as a rule, did not strive to obtain tables outside the Chernigov land, which indicates a certain isolation of their dynastic consciousness, formed in 1 -th generation of Svyatoslavichs.

The division of the Chernigov land between the Svyatoslavichs (the eldest, David, got Chernigov, Oleg - the middle Podesnie with the cities of Starodub, Snovsk and Novgorod-Seversky, the youngest, Yaroslav, - Mur) marked the beginning of the development of independent volosts. The most important of them in the middle - 2nd half. XII century there were the volosts of Gomiy (modern Gomel) on the lower Sozh, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub, Vshchizh in Podesenye, Kursk, Rylsk and Putivl in Posemye. Vyatichi Poochie for a long time remained a peripheral forest region, where even at the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries. tribal princes were preserved; information about the appanage table here (in Kozelsk) first appears in the beginning. XIII century The Davidovichs quickly left the historical arena. The involvement of Izyaslav Davidovich in the struggle for Kyiv at the turn of the 50s and 60s. XII century ended with the whole Chernigov land ended up in the power of Svyatoslav Olgovich and his nephew Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, and David’s only grandson Svyatoslav Vladimirovich died in 1167 on the Vshchizh table. After the death of the Chernigov prince in 1164. Svyatoslav Olgovich's Chernigov throne was inherited by genealogical seniority: from his nephews Svyatoslav (1164-1176; in 1176 Svyatoslav became the prince of Kiev) and Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1176-1198) to his son Igor (1198-1202), the hero of an unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians in 1185 g., sung in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Following This Chernigov reign was already in the next generation of Olgovichs, in the 1st quarter. XIII century, concentrated in the hands of the sons of Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich (Vsevolod Chermny, Oleg, Gleb, Mstislav), and then his grandchildren (St. Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich and Mstislav Glebovich). The descendants of Svyatoslav Olgovich were forced in general (excluding the brief reign of Igor Svyatoslavich in Chernigov) to be content with Novgorod-Seversky, Putivl, Kursk and Rylsky. The sons of Igor, who were the grandchildren of the Galician prince on their mother’s side. Yaroslav Osmomysl, found themselves in the beginning. XIII century, after the death in 1199 of the childless Galician prince. Vladimir Yaroslavich, were drawn into the political struggle in the Galician land, but could not gain a foothold on the Galician tables (with the exception of Kamenets): three of them in 1211, when Galich was once again captured by the Hungarians, were hanged at the insistence of their opponents from among the influential Galicians boyars (an exceptional case for Rus').

Smolensk land

In the 2nd half. XI - 1st third of the XII century. Smolensk, like Volyn, was considered a volost belonging to Kyiv. Since 1078, the beginning of the Kyiv reign of Vsevolod Yaroslavich, Smolensk was assigned (except for a short break in the 90s of the 11th century) to Vladimir Monomakh; in 1125 it went to the grandson of the latter, St. book Rostislav Mstislavich, whose reign was in 1125-1159. connected by the political isolation of Smolensk from Kyiv, the emergence of the Smolensk diocese in its possessions (see Smolensk and Kaliningrad diocese) and the final territorial registration of the Smolensk land, stretching from the upper reaches of the Sozh and Dnieper in the south to the interfluve of the West. Dvina and Lovat (Toropetsk volost) in the north, capturing in the east the “Vyatichi wedge” between the upper reaches of the Moscow River and Oka. Thus, the core of the Smolensk land was the area of ​​portages between Lovat, West. The Dvina and Dnieper are a key section on the “path from the Varangians to the Greeks.” About the territory and tax centers of the Smolensk land in the 1st half. XII century A visual representation is given by a unique document - the Charter of the book. Rostislav of Smolensk bishopric 1136

Rostislav did not take an active part in the struggle for Kyiv that unfolded between his older brother Izyaslav and Yuri Dolgoruky in 1149-1154, but 2 years after the death of Yuri, in 1159, having become genealogically the oldest among the Monomashichs, he left for Kyiv, leaving in Smolensk, the eldest son Roman. Dr. The Rostislavichs (Rurik, David, Mstislav; Svyatoslav Rostislavich held Novgorod at that time) during the reign of their father in Kiev received tables in the Kyiv land, which they held even after the death of Rostislav in 1167. A stable and monolithic complex of possessions of the princes of the Smolensk house to the west took shape and northwest of Kyiv with tables in Belgorod, Vyshgorod, Torchesk and Ovruch. Its stability was obviously explained by the fact that the elder Rostislavichs, and later their offspring, if they did not occupy the Kiev table, were always one of the main contenders for it. The tendency of the Rostislavichs to occupy tables outside the Smolensk land, which distinguished them so much from representatives of other branches of Old Russia. princely family, manifested itself in temporary possession in the 2nd half. XII century Polotsk volosts bordering Smolensk - Drutsk and Vitebsk. A short time after death, approx. 1210 Kyiv prince. Rurik Rostislavich, the Smolensk princes again and for a long time took possession of the Kyiv table, in which in 1214-1223. Prince Rostislav's grandson was sitting. Mstislav (Boris) Romanovich the Old, and in 1223-1235 - cousin of the last prince. Vladimir (Dimitri) Rurikovich. This was the period of the highest power of Smolensk. No later than the 20s. XIII century the capital Polotsk came under his suzerainty, and during the reign of Mstislav Romanovich in Kiev, also Novgorod.

Following What was said in the Smolensk land, in contrast to other lands of the D.R. (with the exception of Novgorod), the formation of politically isolated volosts is practically not traced. Only the princely table in Toropets was occasionally occupied. Even when he was already the Prince of Smolensk (1180-1197), David Rostislavich planted his son Prince, who was removed from Novgorod in 1187. Mstislav is not in Smolensk land, but in Kiev Vyshgorod. According to indirect data, it can be assumed that all the Rostislavichs had some kind of possessions in the Smolensk land (for example, in 1172 Rurik allocated the Smolensk city of Luchin to his newborn son Rostislav), but they preferred to reign outside its borders. This trend also affected the inheritance of the Smolensk table itself. Twice, in 1171 and 1174, when leaving for Kyiv, Roman Rostislavich passed it on not to the next most senior brother, but to his son Yaropolk, and only the indignant Smolensk veche for the 2nd time insisted on replacing Yaropolk with the youngest of the Rostislavichs - Mstislav the Brave (to -ry, however, was forced to cede Smolensk to Roman, who left the Kiev table in 1176). Subsequently, Smolensk was inherited according to tradition. paternal seniority among the closest descendants of Roman († 1180) and David († 1197), of whom the latter finally settled here in the 2nd half. XIII century

Vladimir-Suzdal land

(see also Art. Grand Duchy of Vladimir) was formed on the basis of the Rostov Fatherland of Vladimir Monomakh. The last one was at the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries. embraced the lands of the Volga-Klyazma interfluve with the cities of Rostov, Suzdal and Yaroslavl, as well as Beloozero located to the north. OK. In 1110/15, it went to one of the younger Monomashichs (the eldest son from Vladimir’s 2nd marriage) - Yuri Dolgoruky, during whose almost half-century reign it became an independent land. The rapid rise of the Rostov-Suzdal region under Yuri was a consequence of the convenient location of these lands: thanks to the Volga, they were directly involved in trade with the rich East, the fertile Suzdal region served as a reliable agricultural basis, and the Vyatichi forests blocked the path of Polovtsian raids. Yuri made Suzdal his capital city (apparently, like his successors, burdened by the tutelage of the old Rostov boyars) and expanded the territory of the principality through the development of the Tver Volga region and the Moscow River basin, also beginning the promotion of Rostov-Suzdal tributes beyond the Volga, into Bud. Galich-Kostroma region.

Having entered the struggle for Kyiv in 1149, Yuri took steps that were very reminiscent of the slightly later practice of the Smolensk prince. Rostislav Mstislavich: he began to distribute volosts to his sons in the south of Rus', primarily in the Kyiv land (Andrey - Vyshgorod, Boris - Belgorod, Rostislav, and then Gleb - Pereyaslavl, Vasilka - Porosye with Torchesky), but none of them, except the Pereyaslavl prince . Gleb Yurievich, post. couldn't stay there. Moreover, in 1155 Andrei voluntarily left Vyshgorod and returned to his fiefdom in his homeland (probably Vladimir), anticipating the main trend in the future Kyiv policy of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes. It was precisely wanting to provide his offspring with decisive influence in the Kyiv land that Yuri bequeathed the Suzdal table to his younger sons from his 2nd marriage - Mikhalko (Mikhail) and Vsevolod. But his plans were dashed by the willfulness of the Rostov and Suzdal veches, who invited the prince to reign. Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174). Andrei dealt with the princely opposition, temporarily sending into exile three younger brothers (Vasilka, Mikhalka, Vsevolod) and nephews - the sons of his elder brother Rostislav, who died during the life of Yuri Dolgoruky, as well as part of his father's senior squad. Having received the reign thanks to the veche, Andrei did not tolerate any dependence on him and therefore made Vladimir the main table, because of which a deep conflict arose between the old Rostov and Suzdal and the new Vladimir, which was sharply revealed after the murder of Prince. Andrei in 1174. The people of Rostov and Suzdal called Mstislav and Yaropolk, the sons of Rostislav Yuryevich, to the table, while the people of Vladimir stood for the younger Yuryevichs - Mikhalko and Vsevolod. The confrontation ended in favor of the latter, and Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) reigned for a long time on the Vladimir table (after the early death of Mikhalko). After the protracted civil strife of the Vsevolodovichs in 1212-1216, Novgorod was drawn into the swarm, and the quick death of the victorious St. book Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. 1158-1160, 1185-1189 Photo. Con. XX century

The reign of Vsevolod Yuryevich the Big Nest became an era of political and economic prosperity of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the prince was an authority for all of Rus'. At the same time, Andrei Bogolyubsky, while remaining in Vladimir, still tried to dictate his will to the Southern Russians. princes, then Vsevolod already preferred to limit himself to simple recognition on their part of his eldership. This policy of the Yuryevichs had 2 important consequences. The first was the most dramatic (compared to other lands) isolation of the Vladimir-Suzdal land within the Old Russian state, expressed, in particular, in Andrei’s attempts, albeit failed, to establish in the 60s. XII century in Vladimir, a metropolis separate from Kyiv (after the death in 1167 of the Kyiv prince Rostislav Mstislavich, Andrei became genealogically the oldest and plans to create the Vladimir metropolis were abandoned). The second consequence was the intensive formation of the possessions of numerous Vsevolodovichs and their descendants. On the eve of the Mongol invasion, there were already at least 5 such appanage tables (Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Pereyaslavl Zalessky, Yuryev Polskoy), despite the fact that the main territory remained in the hands of the leaders. Prince Vladimirsky. These possessions quickly turned into fatherlands (Rostov became the fatherland of the descendants of Prince Vasilko Konstantinovich, the eldest grandson of Vsevolod, Pereyaslavl - the fatherland of the descendants of Yaroslav (Theodore) Vsevolodovich, etc.). Subsequently, this fragmentation progressed rapidly.

With a restrained interest in affairs in the south of the D.R., the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, probably pursuing the strategic goal of ensuring their interests in international trade, directed great efforts to control Novgorod and the fight against Volga Bulgaria. Already to the last. Thursday XII century co-ownership of Vladimir and Novgorod took shape in a key point in the south of the Novgorod land - Torzhok, which gave Vladimir a powerful lever of influence on Novgorod, since it was through Torzhok that the bread so necessary for Novgorod came from the south. Campaigns were launched against Volga Bulgaria: in 1120 under Yuri Dolgoruky (after which a peace treaty was concluded, which was observed, as far as can be judged, almost until the end of Yuri’s reign), in 1164 and in the winter of 1171/72 under Andrei Bogolyubsky, a grandiose campaign 1183 under Vsevolod the Big Nest (also ending in a long-term peace treaty), in 1220 under Yuri Vsevolodovich. These military actions were accompanied by the expansion of the territory of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality down the Volga (no later than the 60s of the 12th century, Gorodets Radilov was founded, in 1221 - Nizhny Novgorod), as well as bringing the Mords into vassalage. tribes previously subordinate to the Bulgars.

Novgorod land

occupied a special place among the reigning lands of D.R. Until the end. XI century the Novgorod table was replaced by princes and posadniks, who were appointed from Kyiv, and, consequently, Novgorod was under political subordination to the Kyiv princes. However, apparently it's already ok. In 1090, a mayor from the local boyars appeared in Novgorod, with whom the Crimean prince had to share power in one way or another. The institution of posadnichestvo strengthened with the accession of Monomakh's grandson, St., to the Novgorod table in 1117. book Vsevolod Mstislavich, who, as there is reason to believe, was for the first time forced to condition his enthronement on an agreement with Novgorod. In 1136, the Novgorodians expelled Vsevolod, citing, among other reasons, a violation of the agreement on the part of the prince, and from then on, the election of the Novgorod prince finally became the prerogative of the city council. At the same time, the Novgorod bishops also became elected, and then went to Kyiv to be appointed to the metropolitan. Novgorod's “liberty among princes” was not unlimited. Political and economic interests forced Novgorod to look for a place for itself in all-Russia. politics, maneuvering between the strongest princes and from them, depending on the situation, trying to get a prince: either from the Vladimir-Suzdal Yuryevichs, or from the Smolensk Rostislavichs, or (less often) from the Chernigov Olgovichs.

In the 2nd half. XII - 1st quarter. XIII century The management structure of Novgorod acquired the form that was generally preserved later. at the time of independence: along with the prince, whose competence was limited to military issues and a joint court with the mayor and whose ownership rights were significantly constrained, the veche elected the mayor and the archbishop, from the end. XII century - thousand. The influential layer was the merchant class, organized into self-governing corporations headed by elders. This influence of the merchants was explained primarily by the active participation of Novgorod in international trade in the Baltic. Novgorod trading boats sailed in Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, German. ports. In Novgorod there were Gotlandic (Gothic courtyard; apparently from the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries) and German courtyards. merchants (German court; most likely from the end of the 12th century), on the territory of which there were Catholics. churches (also happened in Kyiv and Smolensk). This international trade was regulated by special treaties, the oldest of which (among those extant) dates most likely to 1191/92. In addition to the usual for large ancient Russians. cities divided into 10 hundreds. Novgorod was divided into 5 ends. Same adm. The organization was also characteristic of the Novgorod land as a whole; in addition to hundreds, the region was also divided into 5 pyatitins. The relationship between the hundredth and Konchansko-pyatin structures remains controversial.

General state Issues were often resolved at the meeting, in which, along with the Novgorodians, representatives of other cities of the Novgorod land took part - Pskov, Ladoga, Rusa, which reflected the territorial scope of the Novgorod region of the 11th century - from Pskov to the Msta basin, from Ladoga to Lovat. Already in the 11th century. the penetration of Novgorod tributes began to the northeast - to the region of Lake Onega. and Podvinya (Zavolochye). No later than 1st quarter. XII century these lands were densely covered by the system of Novgorod churchyards, which is clearly illustrated by the Charter of the Prince. Svyatoslav Novgorod bishopric 1137 The moving border of Novgorod possessions in the west and north is difficult to determine, just as it is not easy to separate the territories of Novgorod tributaries from lands directly included in the political structure of the Novgorod land. In the 1st half. XI century The power of Novgorod was established in the Estonian region west of Lake Peipsi, where in 1030 Yaroslav the Wise founded the city of Yuryev of Livonian (modern Tartu), but these possessions were lost after the beginning in the 90s. XII century expansion of the Livonian Order and Denmark in the East. Baltic states, although later. speeches of the Estonians against the Livonian and the dates. domination often enjoyed military support from Novgorod. Probably, simultaneously with the lands of the Estonians, the regions of Vodi and Izhora to the south were developed. shore of the Gulf of Finland, as well as Karelians around Lake Ladoga. Later, tributary dependence on Novgorod spread to the Finns. Emi tribes to the north. coast of the Gulf of Finland, no later than the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries - to the Finns of the Terek coast (White Sea coast of the Kola Peninsula). Their lands were lost to Novgorod in the middle. XII century, when they were captured by Sweden. Novgorod-Swedish the conflict was long-lasting, sometimes taking the form of long-distance campaigns: the Swedes to Ladoga in 1164, the Karelians, subject to Novgorod, to the capital of Sweden, Sigtuna (the region was taken and plundered) in 1187.

The fate of the Kyiv land and the mechanisms of all-Russian unity

The Kiev land, like Novgorod, stood apart in the system of land-princeships of D.R. Traditional the idea of ​​Kyiv as the possession of a princely family, expressed in the alternate replacement of the Kyiv table with princes from different branches in accordance with the principles of genealogical seniority and paternity (a prince whose father had never reigned in it could not lay claim to Kiev), did not allow the capital to . R. become the property of some separate dynasty, as was the case in all other lands except Novgorod. Eldership, which began with the middle - 2nd half. XII century unobvious and increasingly becoming the subject of an inter-princely agreement, could not prevent the fact that Kyiv was turning into a bone of contention between the warring factions of the princes and its possession was achieved at the cost of more or less significant territorial compromises. As a result, in the 70s. XII century The Kiev land lost to Volyn such important volosts as Beresteyskaya, which went to the sons of the Vladimir-Volyn prince. Mstislav Izyaslavich, and Pogorin (in the upper reaches of the Goryn with the center in Dorogobuzh), where the sons of Mstislav's brother, the Lutsk prince, reigned. Yaroslav Izyaslavich. All R. XII century Turov also left the Kyiv reign.

However, even in this truncated form, Kyiv and the Kiev land represented a political organism, in relation to which the interests of almost all lands of the D.R. were somehow intertwined and thereby united; All-Russian The importance of Kyiv was to a large extent due to the fact that the cathedra of the High Hierarch of the Russian Church was located here. In the conditions of the state. polycentricity, the idea of ​​​​unity of D.R., which continued to live as the core idea of ​​​​ancient Russian. social consciousness and the dynastic idea consecrated by antiquity, was embodied primarily in the church unity of ancient Russia. lands that made up the Kyiv Metropolis, the primates of the swarm constantly acted as peacemakers in inter-princely conflicts. The tradition of general clan ownership of D.R. was reflected in the belief that the defense of the South. Rus', i.e., first of all, the Kiev region and Pereyaslav region, from the Polovtsian threat was the common cause of the princes of all lands (which was supported by the memory of the ancient Russian land in the narrow sense of the word). In order to more effectively “guard the Russian land,” the princes of the lands had the right to claim ownership (“parts” or “participations”) in this Russian land. Although it remains unclear how systematically the practice of “sacraments” was carried out, its significance as an institution that embodied the idea of ​​an all-Russian unity is evident. Hiking in Polovtsian steppe were, as a rule, collective enterprises to a greater or lesser extent. Thus, in the campaign of 1183, in response to the renewed Polovtsian raids, in addition to the Kyiv ones, Smolensk, Volyn and Galician regiments took part. The call of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” for joint defense against the Polovtsians (at the same time, the Chernigov author of “The Tale...” addresses by name the princes of all the most important ancient Russian lands in the 80s of the 12th century) is not just a patriotic slogan, but an appeal to the prevailing political practice. In fact, the campaign against the Mongols in 1223, with the participation of the princes, which ended in complete defeat on Kalka, was also all-Russian Kyiv Mstislav Romanovich, Chernigov Mstislav Svyatoslavich, Galician Mstislav Mstislavich, Volyn Daniil Romanovich (the regiment sent by Vladimir Grand Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich did not make it to the battle). Vivid evidence of the living sense of unity of Greater Rus' - from the “Ugor” (Hungary) to the “Breathing Sea” (North. Arctic Ocean), the memory of the time of its heyday - the reign of Vladimir Monomakh - as a public and state one. Ideally, the “Word about the destruction of the Russian land”, created immediately after Mong. invasions (until 1246).

Mongol invasion and decline of the Old Russian state (mid-2nd half of the 13th century)

Mong. invasion 1237-1240 and the subsequent establishment of the supreme power of the Mongols over almost all ancient Russians. principalities led to a general shock to the Old Russian state. Mong. The khans did not seek to destroy the political structures that existed in Rus', trying to rely on them for their administrative, economic (tax collection) and military purposes (use of Russian troops). The most important established structures in the Domong continued to exist. time of reigning lands: Vladimir-Suzdal (under the rule of the descendants of Vsevolod the Big Nest), Galicia-Volynskaya (under the rule of the Romanovichs), Smolensk (where the Rostislavichs still ruled), Chernigovo-Severskaya, the center of the swarm temporarily moved to Bryansk (here The Olgovichi retained power, but Bryansk in the late 13th century fell into the hands of the princes of the Smolensk branch), Ryazan (which also retained its dynasty); Novgorod, as before, recognized the suzerainty of the Vladimir leaders. princes. The fate of Kyiv and the Kyiv land of that time is extremely sparingly reflected in the sources, but it is known that the power of the Vladimir leaders was probably maintained there too. princes - at least under Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1238-1246) and St. Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky (1252-1263), who received Kyiv by the will of the leader. Khan back in 1249. In this sense, the loss of political sovereignty of ancient Rus. princes in the middle XIII century did not yet mean the immediate destruction of the Old Russian state.

However, the radical military-political and economic weakening of ancient Russia. principalities with a sharp increase in external threats led to the fact that trends towards regionalization of political interests the most important princes, persistently manifested themselves already in Domong. period have become irreversible. The utopian attempt to organize a collective resistance to the Mongols through a military-political alliance between the leaders did not justify itself. book Vladimir Andrei Yaroslavich (1249-1252) and Daniil Galitsky. The only realistic policy prevailed. book Alexandra Nevsky, loyal to the Mongolians. khanam, formed, of course, during his reign in Novgorod from the experience of repelling the offensive of Sweden and the Livonian Order on the vassal lands of Novgorod, and then on Novgorod. All this disabled one of the main mechanisms of all-Russian unity - joint defense against the “filthy” (steppe people). In parallel, there was a process of political fragmentation of ancient Russia. principalities and lands. So, in mid. XIII century In the Vladimir-Suzdal land, in addition to the Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Pereyaslavl, Suzdal, Starodub and Yuryev principalities that already existed by that time, 6 more princely tables were formed: Belozersky, Galicia-Dmitrovsky, Moscow, Tver, Kostroma and Gorodetsky, in almost every one of them. -rykh established its own princely branch. The situation was similar in the Chernigov-Seversk land, where at that time the Vorgol, Lipovech, Bryansk, Karachev, Glukhov and Tarusa principalities appeared, and in other lands. A consequence of the political fragmentation of ancient Russia. principalities and lands was a devaluation of the political role of the great reign, which became simply a territorial addition to the possessions of one or another “oldest” prince of his kind. The exception was the Galicia-Volyn principality, which has been established since the 70s. XIII century consolidated under the rule of the Galician prince. Lev I Danilovich and the Volyn prince. Vladimir Vasilkovich with the leading role of the first. However, the political interests of Leo I and Vladimir, as well as their successors, were focused on the Catholics. the west (Hungary and Poland) and the pagan north (reflecting the Lithuanian and Yatvingian threat).

Under the current conditions, there is no stable coordination of the efforts of the Old Russian. principalities (Volyn, Smolensk, Bryansk, Novgorod, etc.) that suffered from litas. raids, which gradually developed into territorial seizures, are not observed (with the exception of campaigns organized by order and with the participation of troops of the Horde khans). In this sense, the crisis is ancient Russian. statehood as a result of the establishment of the Horde yoke predetermined the success of Lithuania’s expansion in the 14th century, which was catastrophic for ancient Rus. unity, because he deprived the fragments of the Old Russian state of the last political bond - the community of the dynasty. All these events significantly weakened the unifying role of the Church in relation to ancient Russia. lands. In the end XIII century center of all-Russian The metropolis moved from Kyiv, devastated by the Mongols, to the northeast - first to Vladimir, then to Moscow. To the southwest Russian. lands, from the middle XIV century found themselves dependent on litas. and Polish rulers, since the beginning of this century, attempts have been made, which had temporary success, to establish independent metropolitan sees (see the articles Galician diocese, Lithuanian metropolitanate). As a result, to ser. XV century Russian Church for several years centuries it was divided into Moscow and Western Russian parts. Old Russian idea. unity continued to live in the field of culture and writing, primarily in church circles, turning into an ideology that was waiting for the time when it would be adopted by the Muscovite sovereigns and the Russians. emperors.

Source: PSRL. T. 1-43; DRKU; Ross. legislation of the X-XX centuries. M., 1984. T. 1: Legislation Dr. Rus'; DIIVE. T. -. [comment. foreign code sources]; Yanin V.L. Actual seals Dr. Rus'. M., 1970-1998. T. 1-3 (vol. 3 jointly with P. G. Gaidukov); Sotnikova M. P. The most ancient Russians. coins of the X-XI centuries: Cat. and research M., 1995; Bibikov M.V. Byzantinorossica: Byzantine Code. evidence about Rus'. M., 2004. T. 1.

Lit.: Karamzin. IGR. T. 1-4; Solovyov. Story. T. 1-2; Klyuchevsky V. O. Russian course. stories. M., 1904-1906. Part 1-2; Grushevsky M. History of Ukraine-Rus. Lviv, 1904-19052. T. 1-3; Presnyakov A.E. Princely law in Dr. Rus': Essays on the history of the X-XII centuries. St. Petersburg, 1909. M., 1993; aka. Lectures in Russian stories. M., 1938. T. 1: Kievan Rus; Priselkov M.D. Essays on church-political issues. history of Kievan Rus X-XII centuries. St. Petersburg, 1913, 2003; Pashuto V. T. Essays on the history of Galician-Volyn Rus. M., 1950; aka. Foreign Policy Dr. Rus'. M., 1968; Grekov B. D. Kievan Rus. M., 19536; Korolyuk V. D. Zap. Slavs and Kievan Rus in the X-XI centuries. M., 1964; Novoseltsev A.P. et al. Old Russian the state and its international meaning. M., 1965; Poppe A. Państwo i kościół na Rusi w XI w. Warsz., 1968; idem. The Rise of Christianity Russia. L., 1982; Mavrodin V.V. Education Old Russian. states and the formation of Old Russian. nationalities. M., 1971; Shchapov Ya. N. Princely statutes and the Church in Dr. Rus', XI-XIV centuries. M., 1972; aka. Byzantine and South Slav. legal heritage in Rus' in the XI-XIII centuries. M., 1978; aka. State and Church Dr. Rus', X-XIII centuries. M., 1989; Froyanov I. Ya. Kievan Rus: Essays on social-economics. stories. L., 1974; aka. Kievan Rus: Essays on social and political issues. stories. L., 1980; Old Russian principalities of the X-XIII centuries: Sat. Art. M., 1975; Die städtischen Handelszentren der nordwestlichen Ru ś : Anfänge und frühe Entwicklung altrussischer Städte (bis gegen Ende des 12. Jh.). Stuttg., 1991; Tolochko A.P. Prince in Dr. Rus: Power, property, ideology. K., 1992; Goehrke C. Frühzeit des Ostslaventums / Unter Mitwirk. von U. Kälin. Darmstadt, 1992; Petrukhin V. Ya. The beginning of the ethnocultural history of Rus', IX-XI centuries. Smolensk; M., 1995; Gorsky A. A. Rus. lands in the XIII-XIV centuries: Watered ways. development. M., 1996; aka. Rus': From Slavic settlement to the Muscovite kingdom. M., 2004; Ancient Rus': Life and Culture / Ed.: B. A. Kolchin, T. I. Makarova. M., 1997; Danilevsky I. N. Dr. Rus' through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants (IX-XII centuries): A course of lectures. M., 1998; Kotlyar N. F. Old Russian. statehood. St. Petersburg, 1998; Petrukhin V. Ya., Raevsky D. S. Essays on the history of the peoples of Russia in ancient times and the early Middle Ages. M., 1998, 200; Tolochko O. P., Tolochko P. P. Kievan Rus. K., 1998; Dr. Rus' in the light of foreign sources / Ed.: E. A. Melnikova. M., 1999, 2003; Nazarenko A.V. Russian Church in the X - 1st third of the XV centuries. // PE. T. ROC. pp. 38-60; aka. Dr. Rus' at the international ways: Interdisciplinary essays on cultural, commercial, political. connections of the 9th-12th centuries. M., 2001; Poloznev D. F., Florya B. N., Shchapov Ya. N. Higher Church power and its interaction with the state. power. X-XVII centuries // PE. T. ROC. pp. 190-212;

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The beginning of Rus', 750-1200. St. Petersburg, 2000; From the history of Russian. culture. M., 2000. T. 1: Dr. Rus; Les centers proto-urbains russes entre Scandinavie, Byzance et Orient / Ed. M. Kazanski, A. Nercessian et C. Zuckerman. P., 2000; Mayorov A.V. Galicia-Volyn Rus': Essays on social and political issues. relations in Domong. period: Prince, boyars and city community. St. Petersburg, 2001; Yanin V. L. At the origins of Novgorod statehood. Novgorod, 2001; aka.

Novgorod mayors. M., 20032; aka.

Varangians - (Normans, Vikings) the name of participants in predatory campaigns who came from Scandinavia (Danes, Norwegians, Swedes)

Druzhina - a group of permanent military comrades, friends of the prince, professional warriors and advisers to the prince (armed cavalry detachment)

Verv - ancient Slavic community

World - peasant community. Form social organization

The temple is a place of idolatry where pagan cults are celebrated

Idol - image of a deity

Magi and magicians-priests, ministers of pagan cults

Trizna - ritual actions and feasting in memory of the deceased

Evening people's meeting of community members (male warriors)

Servants - servants, slaves

Events - crowded tribal holidays (from -to be together)

Polyudye - collection of tribute from community members in favor of the prince

Youth, child - junior squad, ordinary soldiers

Voi - people's militia

Rat - army

Warrior - warrior

Outposts - border fortresses

Vira - a fine in favor of the prince in the ancient Russian state

Virnik - fine collector

Glagolitic, Cyrillic - Slavic alphabet, created by Cyril and Methodius. (the first one is not

got accustomed)

Greedy - princely warriors, bodyguards of the prince, junior squad.

Outcasts - in Ancient Rus' XI-XII centuries. peasants who have broken ties with the community and are not

who enjoyed her patronage, were freed or ransomed

slaves and other persons.

Chronicles are historical works, weather records of the most important events.

Posadnik is an elected official in an ancient Russian city-republic. Chapter

executive power

Posad people (posad) - commercial and industrial population of Russian cities (citizens)

those who carried out duties in favor of the prince (including military service) and paid him

Ognishchanin, tiun - manager in the prince’s household

Gardarika - that’s what Rus' was called in Scandinavia - that is, the country of cities.

The churchyard is a place for collecting tribute, established by Princess Olga

Kupa - loan (grain, livestock)

Purchase - (a peasant dependent on the feudal lord) - working in his field for a purchase (loan)

People are communal peasants (hence - commoners)

Votchina - land inherited from father to son (feudal possession)

Tysyatsky - appointed by the prince or elected head of the city administration and

leader of the militia.

Miniature - small colorful drawing

Yoke - (yoke) - oppression, severe bondage, hardships of enslavement.

Yarlyk Khan's charter for the right to own a principality

Ulus - appanage possession of the khan (sons and grandsons of Genghis Khan)

Baskaks - tribute collectors

Golden Horde - state of the Mongol-Tatars

Paiza - a sign of the power of Mongolian officials (silver or gold platinum, on

who were slaughtered by the orders of the khan)

Yasa - a set of laws created by Genghis Khan

Exit - payment of tribute to the Golden Horde

The number is a census of the population of Rus' by the Mongols to collect tribute.

Basic terms and concepts (16-17 centuries)

Arshin– a measure of length equal to 16 vershoks -71.12 cm.

White settlements- the name of settlements whose population was temporarily exempted from state duties.

Vershok– a measure of length equal to 4.4 cm.

Verst- Russian travel measure equal to 1066.7 m.

Head- the name of military and administrative positions in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries.

Golytba- poor poor people. They fled south to the Cossacks and formed the Golutven (alien) Cossacks.

Golutvennoye Cossacks- (golutva - clearing, cleared field for cultivation) - was not part of the registered Cossack army, did not receive any income, was engaged in agriculture.

City Clerk- commandant of the fortified city, head of the garrison, later mayor.

Lip- territorial district in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries. led by the provincial headman.

Lip reform- carried out in the 30-50s. XVI century to remove cases of robbers from the court of governors and transfer them to provincial institutions - local government bodies in the province. First they were in charge of investigation and criminal court, then issues of current management.

Walking people- the general name for freed slaves, runaway peasants and townspeople. They lived by wage work and robbery.

Dragoons- a type of cavalry designed to operate on horseback and on foot.

Duma boyars- participants of the Boyar Duma, its first rank. In addition to them, it included okolniks, Duma nobles, and Duma clerks.

Heresy- a movement that deviates from the dogmas of the official church, advocating its transformation.

Zaporizhzhya Sich- organization of Ukrainian Cossacks. It was located beyond the rapids of the Dnieper in the form of a freemen - a Cossack republic with a Sich Rada led by a Kosh chieftain.

Zaseka- a defensive line from an external enemy.

Zemshchina- the main part of Russian territory not included in the oprichnina.

Cossacks - free people who served in the border areas. Self-governing communities were created - Cossack freemen with an elected elder.

Privateering(Dutch - sea robbery) - a legal form of piracy, an attack by armed merchant ships of a warring state on foreign ships carrying cargo for the enemy. Used by Ivan the Terrible in Livonian War.

Equerry- court position, the highest rank in the Duma. He headed the Konyushenny Prikaz.

Kopek- Russian small change coin, introduced into circulation in 1534, was 1/100 of a ruble.

Serfdom- the most severe form of peasant dependence, manifested in their attachment to the land and complete subordination to the power of the feudal lord.

Manufactory - large enterprise with manual labor divided into specialties.

Small-scale production- the labor of artisans who produce products for the market in their workshops, mainly without the use of hired force.

Moskovka– Moscow denga, Russian silver coin (0.34 g)

Hirelings- the general name for bankrupt peasants and townspeople, runaway slaves, etc., who were hired for work and became personally dependent on the employer.

German settlement- a place of settlement for foreigners in Russian cities.

Odnodvortsy - state peasants from former service people “according to the device” (streltsy, gunners, city Cossacks, etc.) until 1840. had the right to own serfs.

Oprich - according to Dahl's dictionary, means: “Outside, around, outside, beyond what.”

Oprichnina- comes from Old Russian "oprich", which means "special", "except". 1. In the Principality of Moscow, oprichnina was the name given to the “widow’s share,” which after the death of the prince was allocated to his widow. 2. The personal destiny of Ivan the Terrible, where a terrorist regime was established, carried out by the guardsmen in the fight against alleged treason among the feudal lords.

Parsuna- (from the word persona) - portrait painting that used icon painting techniques in painting portraits.

Scribe books- summary descriptions of the farm for taxable land taxation - plow letter (collection of taxes from the plow)

Subjects- peasants and townspeople who lost their farms. They lived in the yards of tax-paying people and helped them in their work.

Podyachy- employee in orders and local institutions (clerk's assistant).

Ladles- feudal-dependent peasants who worked for the feudal lord, usually giving him half of the harvest.

Polushka- a small change silver coin minted since the 15th century. The smallest coin of the Moscow State, equal to 1/4 kopeck, amounted to 0.17 g of silver

Local order– a centralized government agency. He allocated estates to the nobles, controlled changes in land ownership, conducted an inventory of lands and a population census, and searched for runaway peasants. Central court for land issues.

Orders- organs central control

Protectionism- (Latin - protection) - state policy of protecting the domestic market from foreigners by strengthening exports and limiting imports, introducing high customs duties and a number of other measures.

Robbery order– central state an institution involved in the investigation and trial of major criminal cases, the protests of peasants and townspeople, and the control of provincial institutions.

Rank - appointment to service taking into account localism and with an entry in the rank books, which were maintained by the Rank Order, which was in charge of the affairs of service people, the salaries of nobles, military administration, the appointment of regimental and city governors, and the border service.

Split- separation from the Russian Orthodox Church of some believers who did not recognize Nikon’s reforms. The supporters of the schism were the schismatics (Old Believers), led by Archpriest Avvakum.

Reitars- (German - horsemen) - heavy cavalry in the Russian army, mainly made up of foreign mercenaries.

Autocracy- a monarchical form of government in Russia, based on the strong, almost unlimited power of the tsar.

"The Sovereign's Word and Deed"- a system of political investigation of the late 15th-18th centuries: everyone, under pain of death, is obliged to report known intentions against the tsar, about high treason. The informer uttered the phrase “Word and deed” and stated the fact. The informer and the accused were subjected to interrogation and torture.

Sokha – unit of taxation, measured by the amount of labor, in the 15th century. - the Novgorod plow was equal to 3 harvests (a crushing shaft, a measure of land plowed per day by one horse) C mid-16th century V. a large plow consisted of several quarters (400-600 hectares of land).

Mill- administrative-territorial unit. 2-3 camps made up a district.

Sagittarius - service people, infantrymen with firearms, constituted a standing army. They were recruited from the free population and could engage in trade and crafts. The service became lifelong and hereditary with a cash and grain salary.

Tamga- a state duty levied for the transportation of goods, which were marked with a special stamp - tamga. From this word comes the concept of customs, an institution that controls the transportation of goods across the border and sets customs duties.

Specific lands - the share of a member of the princely family in the ancestral possession, an integral part of a large grand duchy, ruled by a member of the grand ducal family - an appanage principality: land ownership imperial family, created in 1797 from palace lands.

Enamel- type of cloisonne enamel (in jewelry art).

Kisser- an official elected from the townspeople or black-growing peasants to carry out financial and judicial matters. Took an oath (kissed the cross)

Quarter - ancient measure land equal to 40 fathoms in length and 30 in width. Fathom 2.134 m.

state of the Eastern Slavs, which existed in the 9th–13th centuries. For a long time, many peoples lived on the vast territory of Eastern Europe - Slavic, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Germanic. Almost all of these ethnic groups by the beginning of the first millennium AD. e. State forms of social structure did not develop and tribal relations dominated. Serious changes for this vast region of Eurasia came when, begun from the steppes of Central Asia by the expansion of the Huns, the so-called. The “Great Migration,” which had global consequences for the civilized world of that time.

Numerous tribes of Turks and Ugrians poured into the Northern Black Sea region and the East European Plain. In turn, the autochthonous population, forced out of their land, moved westward, into the boundaries of the Roman Empire, which by that time had been divided into two parts.

In the West, the Germanic tribes (once powerful Celtic peoples by this time they had already lost their historical initiative and were largely Romanized).

The borders of the Byzantine Empire were mainly invaded by Slavic tribes, who populated entire regions of historical Hellas (especially the Peloponnese). The Slavs, who inhabited the forest-steppe and forest territories in conditions of external danger associated with the constant threat of aggression from the steppe, were forced to unite and look for more durable and effective forms of social structure than ties based on blood kinship and community of origin.

According to the opinion of most historians, Rus', which first emerged as a tribal union of East Slavic tribes (Polans, who played a leading role in it, Radimichi, Dregovich, etc.), already in the 9th century. turned into an early feudal state.

Researchers are still arguing about the origin of the name “Rus”. Some explain it from the point of view of toponymy - “those living near the Ros River, that is, Russians, Russians.” Others are inclined to believe that the root “rus” goes back to the Proto-Slavic language and generally means “river”, “water”. Hence - “channel”, “mermaid”, etc. And since the Slavs preferred to settle exclusively in river valleys, the word “Russians” should be considered a common self-name for all Eastern Slavs. But the most convincing seems to be the hypothesis that the word “Russians” denotes not ethnicity, but state affiliation, since according to all the rules of grammar it is a possessive name (“Russian” is the answer to the question: “whose?”).

These views were consistently presented in the works of supporters of the “Norman theory”, the founders of which were G. F. Miller and A. L. Shletser. Based on the Tale of Bygone Years, scientists came to the conclusion that local Slavic tribes called for the protection of the Varangians - the squad of King Hrerekr (Rurik) of Denmark, a real historical character, as modern research has shown. It was from this time, in their opinion, that Russian statehood began. Moreover, their followers are convinced, the very name “Rus” is not Slavic, but Scandinavian, i.e. German origin and is the self-name of the community to which Rurik belonged (Rustringen district in Frisia).

According to Byzantine and Arabic sources, initially it was the Scandinavians, the prince and his squads who called themselves “Rus”. Hence the possessive name “Russians” for all the tribes subject to them. The prominent historian L. Gumilyov writes about continuous conflicts between the Slavs and the Rus. The first were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, and were forced to defend themselves from the Rus, who lived exclusively by robbery and raids. So, contrary to the opinion of supporters of the “Norman theory”, the “calling of the Varangians” actually does not look like a civilizing mission of a more developed people towards backward tribes, but like the hiring of professional warriors, widespread at all times.

Historical facts indisputably indicate that the level of development of the Scandinavian peoples in the 9th century. was in no way superior to the one on which were the tribes of the Slavs who lived in the north-west of the East European Plain, in the area of ​​​​the current Novgorod, Pskov, Leningrad, Tver, Vologda regions. It is no coincidence that the Scandinavians called the land of the Slavs “Gardariki” - “the country of cities”: the Varangians themselves had very few of them.

In addition, there is a point of view that the Rus were not Germanic in origin, but a Baltic people, related to the tribes of the Letto-Lithuanian group of the Indo-European language family, which included the ancestors of modern Lithuanians and Latvians, as well as part of the exterminated, part of the assimilated Yatvingians and Prussians.

Obviously, the “calling of the Varangians” should be interpreted as the usurpation of power in Novgorod by the leader of the mercenaries Rurik in 862. He captured the city and suppressed the uprising of Vadim the Brave, which broke out against the dominance of the Varangian mercenaries (“Russ”). Then Rurik sent a detachment led by Askold and Dir to seize the lands of the Slavs in the lower reaches of the Dnieper in order to create a springboard for the war with Byzantium. They conquered the main city of the glades, Kyiv, without much bloodshed; the Slavs greeted them friendly. Having gathered a large army, Askold and Dir attacked Constantinople in 860. The chronicles testify that the city residents managed to get rid of the terrible threat only when they, leaving the gates, walked around the city walls in a religious procession with the icon of Our Lady Hodegetria. A storm that arose scattered the Russian ships, and they lifted the siege. The miraculous deliverance of Constantinople (as the Slavs called Constantinople) made such a strong impression on the Kyiv princes that a few years later, having met Patriarch Photius in 867, they adopted Christianity. Prince Oleg (Helgi), continuing what was started by his relative Rurik, significantly expanded his possessions young state, subjugated the surrounding tribes of the Slavs and Chuds to his power, imposing tribute on them. In 882, Oleg, who later received the nickname Prophetic in Russian tradition, having gathered a significant squad, moved south from his capital Ladoga. He took Kyiv, killing Askold and Dir.

From north to south - this was exactly the vector for building a new powerful state in Eastern Europe, which was born in the struggle with the two strongest states of those times - Byzantium and the Khazar Khaganate. In a geopolitical sense, this direction of expansion was dominant later (as a rule, it was not the eldest son who became the supreme ruler of Rus', but the one who had previously ruled in the northern lands - in Ladoga and Novgorod).

Having made many successful military campaigns against the Khazar Khaganate and the capital of the powerful Byzantium in 907, when, according to the chronicles, as a sign of victory Oleg nailed his shield to the “gates of Constantinople”, Oleg the Prophet died, leaving it on the Kiev “table”, according to modern historians, his son Oleg “the Second,” who entered into an alliance with the Khazars, participated in anti-Arab and anti-Byzantine campaigns and died ingloriously in one of them. The direct princely branch was interrupted and it is still not clear by what right the throne was inherited by Prince Igor (Ingvar) with his young wife Olga (possibly Oleg’s daughter), who immediately encountered resistance from the subject tribe of the Drevlyans, who did not want to pay tribute to the new prince.

During Igor's reign, military campaigns were carried out both against the East Slavic tribes and against Byzantium, with which another treaty was concluded. After his death in 945 (Igor was killed by the Drevlyans), power in Kyiv passed to his wife Olga (d. 969), one of the first Christians in Rus' (her godfather was the Byzantine emperor Constantine IX Porphyrogenitus), and Igor’s son Svyatoslav (942 –72).

He, like his father, spent his entire life in military campaigns, subjugated the Vyatichi, completely defeated the Khazar Khaganate and entered into a military clash with Byzantium on the territory of Bulgaria. Svyatoslav’s attempts to gain a foothold here and move the center of his state to the Bulgarian city of Pereyaslavets ended in failure. The army of Emperor John Tzimiskes blocked the Russian squad in 971 and actually forced the prince to capitulate. And when Svyatoslav was returning to Kyiv after an ill-fated campaign, he was ambushed and killed by the Pecheneg Khan Kurei.

After the death of Svyatoslav, the struggle for power in Rus' intensified between his sons. The winner was the Novgorod prince Vladimir (c. 960–1015), whose mother was Svyatoslav’s housekeeper Malush, and whose uncle was Dobrynya Nikitich, who later became a famous character in Russian epics.

It was Vladimir who was destined to become the ruler of Rus', under whom she adopted Christianity in 988. Her baptism was not a one-time act. First, pagan temples were destroyed in Kyiv and the townspeople were baptized en masse right in the Dnieper. Acceptance happened similarly new faith and in other cities. But paganism was still preserved among the people for quite a long time, for more than one century. Great authority among ordinary people The servants of the ancient cult, the Magi, also continued to use it. But, starting from 988, all ruling class Ancient Rus' - from the Kyiv prince to simple warriors and princely servants, began to profess Christianity, and from then on the country developed as a state of the Christian world, as a European power.

Only under Vladimir did numerous Slavic, Finno-Ugric, Baltic and even remnants of Germanic tribes begin to call themselves by the single name “Russians”. But the achieved unity was fragile due to the lack of a system of succession to the throne - the principalities were distributed to numerous sons already during the life of the Grand Duke (Vladimir himself, by the way, bore the title of “Kagan” as a sign of victory over the Khazar Khaganate).

This was especially evident under the successors of Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko. After his death in 1015 and the struggle with the heirs for the Kiev table, one of Vladimir’s sons, Yaroslav, nicknamed the Wise, who had previously reigned in Yaroslavl and Novgorod, became the supreme ruler of Rus'.

His accession to the throne is associated with one of the dramatic pages of Russian history. One of Vladimir’s sons, Prince Svyatopolk, nicknamed the Accursed, relying on the support of the Poles, usurped power in Kyiv and killed Boris and Gleb, Vladimir’s other sons, who also laid claim to the throne. Yaroslav emerged victorious from the battle, who avenged those killed, who were later canonized and became the first Russian saints.

Under Yaroslav, a significant number of Orthodox churches and monasteries were built in Rus', which were centers of literacy and education, new cities, and the system of defensive structures, the international authority of Rus' has grown significantly. The first code of Russian law was compiled - “Russian Truth”, which for many years remained one of the main sources of Russian legal thought.

Rus' is entering a period of prosperity, becoming one of the most cultural states in Europe. This is evidenced by an interesting fact: when Yaroslav’s daughter Anna, married to the king of France, arrived there, she was sincerely amazed at the widespread illiteracy of the courtiers.

One of the last and great rulers of Ancient Rus' was Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich, nicknamed Monomakh (1053–1125), who tried to preserve the unity of the Old Russian state. In Russian tradition, he is considered an example of a wise and far-sighted ruler. He is the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, and his other grandfather was the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomakh.

Vladimir took part in many internecine wars in Rus', defeated the Polovtsians more than once, and after the death of Svyatopolk in 1113, he was elected Grand Duke. He remained that way until his death.

This was the heyday of Ancient Rus'. The warlike steppe inhabitants were defeated, the economy was on the rise, crafts were actively developing, and the number of schools increased. Under Monomakh, many books were translated from Greek, including the books of the Old and New Testaments, chronicle writing actively developed, and the lives of Russian saints were written. The prince himself was also no stranger to literary creativity and left the work “Instruction for Children”, or “Spiritual”. Under Monomakh, Metropolitan Hilarion wrote the “Sermon on Law and Grace” - a great monument to the theological thought of Ancient Rus'.

The process of disintegration of Russian lands after the death of Vladimir Monomakh proceeded rapidly. The degree of drama of what happened is narrated by the most striking monument of ancient Russian literature - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, which tells about the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians in 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich.

During the 11th–12th centuries. Due to the constant raids of the steppes and internecine wars for the Kiev table, the lands of the southern principalities were largely devastated and devastated. Together with ruling dynasty Artisans, architects, and clergy leave the steppe people to the north of Rus' in search of safety.

Kyiv lost its significance as a capital city, and gradually the center of power in the country moved to North-Eastern Rus', which was ruled by the Vladimir-Suzdal princes. Subsequently, after the monstrous and cruel raid of the Mongol-Tatars and the division of Ancient Rus' into three great principalities (Galicia-Volyn, Vladimir-Suzdal and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania), it was North-Eastern Rus' that became the heir, bearer and multiplier of the traditions of the Old Russian state. The Principality of Galicia-Volyn and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania gradually came under the influence of Catholicism, lost their sovereignty and became part of other states.

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality, having gone through a period of holy asceticism (see Holy Rus'), preserving its faith, language and culture, became the basis for the Muscovite Kingdom - the largest power in Eastern Europe.

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