The formation of absolutism in European

Countries

What is absolutism.

Absolutism is a form of government in which power belongs only to the monarch. Absolutism replaced the estate-representative monarchy, in which the ruler, when making decisions, took into account the opinions of the estates, as well as the nobility. During the period of the formation of absolutism, interest in strengthening the supreme power increased among broad sections of society. The nobility saw it as a source of income, and business circles saw it as a guarantor of stability and prosperity. The strengthening of the bourgeoisie led to its rivalry with the nobility. This rivalry allowed the monarchs of a number of countries to rule without regard to class. France became the country of classical absolutism.

Absolutism in France.

The foundations of absolutism were laid in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Estates General were not convened at that time; they were replaced by meetings of persons appointed by the king (notables). The king had at his disposal a developed state apparatus, with the help of which taxes were collected, and a large army.

True, in the large cities of France there were parliaments that somewhat constrained the power of the king. This was especially true for the Parliament of Paris, whose duties included registering royal decrees and expressing their opinion about them. The kings sought to subjugate the church and, with its help, strengthen their power.

Absolutism was finally established in France in the 17th century, after the end religious wars under Henry IV. One of the pillars of absolutism was the population’s desire for peace, the guarantee of which was seen in a strong royalty. Henry IV did not convert special attention on questions of religion. He selected talented assistants, one of whom was the Duke of Sully. Industry and trade were supported, large state-owned manufactories were created, and the founding of private manufactories was encouraged.

In 1610, Henry was killed by a Catholic fanatic. The king was his 9-year-old son Louis XIII. The nobles took advantage of the weakness of the government and provoked unrest in the country. The strengthening of absolutism occurred during the reign of Cardinal Richelieu (1624-1642), the first minister Louis XIII. The “Huguenot republic” in the south of the country was liquidated, Richelieu took decisive measures to subjugate the rebellious aristocrats. Castles were demolished and duels between nobles were banned.

1643 became king Louis XIV, who was 5 years old. He was in power until 1715, but until 1661 the country was ruled by a cardinal Mazarin, his first minister, who continued Richelieu's policies. aimed at strengthening absolutism. The performance of the nobility (Fronde) was suppressed. During the reign of Mazarin, taxes increased enormously, the central

§ 35. The formation of absolutism in European countries What is absolutism? Absolutism replaced the estate-representative monarchy, in which the ruler, when making decisions, took into account the opinions of the nobility and representatives of the estates. Absolutism is a form of government in which power belongs exclusively to the monarch. During the period of the formation of absolutism in society, interest in strengthening supreme power. The nobility saw it as a source of income, and business circles saw it as a guarantor of stability and prosperity. Strong power contributed to the growth of the state's prestige in the world, which is of interest to all its residents. Absolutism in France. France became the country of classical absolutism. The foundations of absolutism in France were laid in the 15th - 16th centuries. During this period, the Estates General were almost never convened; they were replaced by meetings of persons appointed by the king (notables). The king had at his disposal a developed state apparatus, with the help of which taxes were collected, and a large army. True, in the large cities of France there were parliaments that somewhat constrained the power of the king. This was especially true for the Parliament of Paris, whose duties included registering royal decrees and expressing their opinion about them. In the 17th century, after the end of the religious wars under King Henry IV, absolutism in France was finally established. One of the pillars of absolutism was the desire of people for peace, the guarantee of which was seen in strong royal power. Henry IV selected talented assistants, one of whom was the Huguenot Duke Maximilien de Bethune Sully. He managed to revive the economy, create large state-owned manufactories, and he encouraged the founding of private manufactories. In 1610, Henry IV was assassinated by a Catholic fanatic. Henry's 9-year-old son Louis XIII became king. The nobles took advantage of the ruler's youth and provoked unrest in the country. The strengthening of absolutism in France occurred during the reign of Cardinal Richelieu (1624-1642), the first minister of Louis XIII. During this period, the “Huguenot Republic” in the south of the country was liquidated. Richelieu took decisive measures to subjugate the nobility. Many castles were demolished, and duels between nobles were banned. In 1643, Louis XIV became king at the age of five. He was in power until 1715, but until 1661 the country was ruled by Cardinal Mazarin, the first minister who continued Richelieu's policy aimed at strengthening absolutism. After a stubborn struggle, the protests of the nobility (Fronde) were suppressed. Under Mazarin, taxes increased significantly and the state apparatus strengthened. Since 1661, Louis XIV personally dealt with issues of foreign and domestic policy. His reign was characterized by numerous wars, the most famous of which was the War of spanish inheritance 1701 -1714 He patronized the sciences and arts, but at the same time cruelly persecuted free thought. According to legend, once in response to the statement that the Parisian parliament represented the state, Louis XIV - the Sun King - pronounced his famous phrase: “The state is me.” Absolutism in Spain. In 1516, Charles I became king of Spain, who also inherited the Habsburg possessions in Germany. In 1519, he also became Holy Roman Emperor under the name Charles V. Under his rule were vast lands, including Spanish possessions in America. They said that the sun never sets in the empire of Charles V. Spain itself consisted of several parts, which retained their autonomy even after unification. Castile, Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia and Navarre had their own class-representative institutions, their own viceroys. Karl, trying to create world empire , considered 1 Spain as a source of material and human resources for the army. Under him, tax burden increased greatly. However, his plan to create a global Catholic empire collapsed. In 1555, Charles V abdicated the throne and handed over Spain, along with the Netherlands, to his son Philip II (1555 - 1598). Under Philip II, the features of absolutism, which had its own characteristics here associated with the dominance of Catholicism, became especially pronounced in Spain. The Inquisition was raging in the country. Severe measures were taken against the descendants of the Moors who converted to Christianity (Moriscos). The result of the persecution of the Moriscos, expressed in mass executions and expulsions, was a deterioration in the economic situation. The huge income coming from America initially contributed to the development of the economy. However, the presence of relatively easily acquired wealth contributed to the fact that the authorities, unlike other states, hardly cared about the country’s economy. Gradually the economy declined. Spain became the first victim of the price revolution; goods here became more expensive. Development was hampered by huge taxes, inflated privileges of the nobility, costs of colonies, and the mass exodus of the most active part of the population to America. In the first half of the 16th century. Spain was considered the most powerful military power, and Spanish warriors were invincible on the battlefield. However, under Philip II there was a weakening in this area. After annexing Portugal in 1581 (where the ruling dynasty ended), Philip II set himself the task of subjugating England, whose queen, Mary Tudor (Bloody), he was married to. However, after the death of Mary in 1588 and the rise to power of Queen Elizabeth I, a military confrontation began between the two powers. In 1588, with the help of a huge Spanish fleet (“Invincible Armada”), Philip II tried to land troops on the shores of England. But the English fleet defeated the Spaniards and did not allow them to carry out their plan. As the Invincible Armada retreated, a storm destroyed almost all of the remaining Spanish ships. Spain's naval power was undermined. Spain successfully fought against the Ottoman Turks in the Mediterranean and North Africa, but did not receive much benefit from its victories here. The intervention of Spanish troops in the religious wars in France was useless for strengthening the country's position and costly for the treasury. The heaviest blow to the power of Spain was dealt as a result of the victory of the national liberation movement in the Netherlands (1566 -1609). Absolutism in England. In the 16th century English feudal lords were divided into old and new nobility. The old nobility collected rent from their peasants or had income from their positions. The new nobility (gentry) quickly grew rich. Many representatives of the new nobility raised sheep on their estates, whose wool was in great demand as a raw material for the production of fabrics. The gentry often took peasant plots to pasture their sheep. The peasants were driven off the land, and the resulting pastures were enclosed with fences. This phenomenon is called enclosure. All protesters were mercilessly exterminated. The land brought in a lot of income, and wealthy people from among the townspeople and wealthy peasants willingly acquired it, joining the ranks of the nobility. From 1485 to 1603, England was ruled by the Tudor dynasty, with which the formation of English absolutism is associated. King Henry VIII (1509 -1547) dealt with the dissatisfied nobility. This policy was continued by his daughters, Queens Mary and Elizabeth. One of the means of strengthening absolutism in England was the Reformation, carried out under Henry VIII. Some religious rituals were changed; the king was declared the head of the Church instead of the pope. The Reformation was accompanied by the closure of all monasteries, persecution and mass extermination of monks. Church and monastery lands were transferred to the state. The Reformation was carried out under conditions of brutal terror. Subjects were required to submit completely to the new Anglican Church. Refusal was punishable by death. Thus, the King's Lord Chancellor paid with his life, great humanist Thomas More. Among the British there were many adherents of even more profound changes in religious teaching based on Calvinism - the Puritans. Bloody Mary's attempt to restore Catholicism in the country with the help of mass terror was unsuccessful. Under the Tudors, the desire to seize colonies intensified. Queen Elizabeth I encouraged the activities of pirates. Her favorite is the captain Francis Drake with a small squadron accomplished the second in the history of mankind circumnavigation and plundered many Spanish colonies in the process. The British also profited from the slave trade. Enlightened absolutism. Absolutism as a form of government continued to exist in the 18th century. Submitting to the demands of the time, absolute monarchs in a number of European countries sought to carry out reforms aimed at developing the economy, improving government administration, modernizing the army, and supporting culture. They relied on then popular ideas related to ideas about decisive role state power in the development of society. Later, the activities of such monarchs were called the policy of enlightened absolutism. The most famous embodiment of this policy was the activities of the rulers of Prussia and the Habsburg monarchy. The Kingdom of Prussia emerged at the turn of the 17th century. from the North German state formations of Brandenburg and Prussia united under the rule of the Hohenzollern dynasty. In 1740, Frederick II the Great became king here. It was educated person, a talented politician and commander. He was distinguished by unprecedented cynicism and pragmatism. He patronized trade, industry, agriculture(for example, he encouraged the planting of potatoes), reformed government administration, the judicial system (abolished torture, introduced equality of all before the law, proclaimed the independence of the court). Under Frederick, as a result of the wars, the territory of Prussia grew significantly - and it became one of the leading states in Europe. The Habsburg monarchy was a conglomerate of territories, which included Austria, the Czech Republic, Croatia, conquered from Ottoman Empire Hungary and some South Slavic lands, the Netherlands, part of Italy. In historical literature, the Habsburg monarchy is usually called Austria. Empress Maria Theresa (1740 -1780) carried out a number of reforms in Austria aimed at strengthening the state and developing the economy. Since 1765, her son Joseph II, also an adherent of the ideas of enlightened absolutism, became its co-ruler. They managed to reduce the influence of the Church in the country; part of the monastery lands was transferred to the state. Joseph II proclaimed the equality of all subjects, their right to occupy any public office, canceled serfdom, which persisted in a number of regions of the empire. QUESTIONS AND TASKS 1. What is absolutism? Why did he appear? 2. Why is France called the country of classical absolutism? 3. What were the features of absolutism in Spain? 4. How did absolutism emerge and develop in England? 5. Compare absolutism in France, Spain, England. Name the common and distinctive features in the implementation of the policy of absolutism. 6. What is enlightened absolutism? How was he different from absolutism XVI- XVII centuries? 3

). Beginning with the Renaissance, the role of class-representative bodies gradually declined, and by the end of the seventeenth century, an absolute, that is, unlimited, monarchy was established in many European states.

In France, absolutism was favored by theologians who attributed divine origin to the supreme power, and by jurists who recognized the absolute power of the ancient Roman emperors for the sovereigns. This state uniform reached the apogee of its development under King Louis XIV, who systematically implemented his famous principle “The State is I” (fr. "L'Etat c'est moi").

Throughout the nineteenth century, after the Great French Revolution, a process of gradual democratization and limitation of the power of the monarch took place. However, this process was uneven; for example, in Russia, the absolute monarchy lasted until the twentieth century.

From the end of the 15th century to Europe is coming transition to absolute monarchy from estate-representative, a form of government in which the supreme state power by law belongs to the monarch - king, emperor, king. The monarchs found the legal justification for their power in the restoration of the norms of Roman law, which were recorded in the 6th century in the Code Byzantine emperor Justinian: “The will of the emperor has the force of law.” State interest becomes the supreme criterion in politics for the monarch, in contrast to the Middle Ages, where the criterion was seigneurial-vassal dynastic interests.

Absolutism has the following features: the formation of institutions of public power is a created own bureaucratic apparatus in the courtyard and locally, a permanent mercenary army, a tax and fiscal system, an apparatus of violence - the police, judicial system, unified state law, there is an evolution of the bodies of the estate-representative monarchy, in which the privileges of the feudal aristocracy are eliminated, and in which the estate bodies evolve into structures of public power - these are the Estates General in France, the parliament in England, the Cortes in Spain, the Landtags and the Reichstag in Germany, the Rigsdag in Sweden, diets in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Zemsky Sobors in Russia; There is also a change in the relationship between the state and the church - the state despotically subjugates the church. There is also a personification of the power of the monarch in the period of the so-called. early absolutism, in which monarchs personified power, and then there was a transition to bureaucratic absolutism. The idea of ​​absolute power was glorified in PR campaigns, in which Roman lawyers, humanists, and philosophers enlightened society about this current idea.

There are national centralized states, multi-ethnic empires, territorial principalities; that is, there were regional and universalist types of absolutism. The social basis of absolutism is as follows: the feudal aristocracy passes into the court, knighthood into the nobility (80% of medieval knighthood went bankrupt, millions of vagabond beggars appeared!), clergy into officials, peasants and burghers into tax classes: this is a period of social regulation. Territorial consolidation and formation of territory is taking place nation states. Separatism fought against centralization, there were civil and pan-European wars, and in 1648, for the first time, new system European connections Peace of Westphalia. Absolutism developed in the conditions of the New Age, in which the economy moves from an agrarian-individual character to an industrial-social one; international factor appears due to the emergence of the world market, and the medieval society collapses, a new one appears, in which the new nobility passes into the bureaucracy. The patriciate and the plebs also evolved in new absolutist conditions of existence, market-capitalist relations replaced feudalism.

Absolutism in 16th century Europe is a form of government in which supreme power belongs to the monarch.

Links

• Kareev N. I., Western European monarchy of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, on the Runivers website
• Kareev N. I., History of Western Europe in Modern Times (in 7 volumes), on the Runiverse website
• Zakharov V. Yu. Absolutism and autocracy: the relationship of concepts // Electronic magazine"Knowledge. Understanding. Skill ». - 2008. - No. 6 – History.

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What is absolutism?

Absolutism is a form of government in which power belongs only to the monarch. Absolutism replaced the estate-representative monarchy, in which the ruler, when making decisions, took into account the opinions of the estates, as well as the nobility. During the period of the formation of absolutism, interest in strengthening the supreme power increased among broad sections of society. The nobility saw it as a source of income, and business circles saw it as a guarantor of stability and prosperity. The strengthening of the bourgeoisie led to its rivalry with the nobility. This rivalry allowed the monarchs of a number of countries to rule without regard to class. France became the country of classical absolutism.

Absolutism in France.

The foundations of absolutism were laid in the 15th -16th centuries. The Estates General were not convened at that time; they were replaced by meetings of persons appointed by the king (notables). The king had at his disposal a developed state apparatus, with the help of which taxes were collected, and a large army.

True, in the large cities of France there were parliaments that somewhat constrained the power of the king. This was especially true for the Parliament of Paris, whose duties included registering royal decrees and expressing their opinion about them. The kings sought to subjugate the church and, with its help, strengthen their power.

Absolutism was finally established in France in the 17th century, after the end of the religious wars under Henry IV. One of the pillars of absolutism was the population’s desire for peace, the guarantee of which was seen in strong royal power. Henry IV did not pay much attention to matters of religion. He selected talented assistants, one of whom was the Duke of Sully. Industry and trade were supported, large state-owned manufactories were created, and the founding of private manufactories was encouraged.

In 1610, Henry was killed by a Catholic fanatic. His 9-year-old son Louis XIII became king. The nobles took advantage of the weakness of the government and provoked unrest in the country. The strengthening of absolutism occurred during the reign of Cardinal Richelieu (1624-- 1642), the first minister of Louis XIII. The “Huguenot republic” in the south of the country was liquidated, Richelieu took decisive measures to subjugate the rebellious aristocrats. Castles were demolished and duels between nobles were banned.

1643 Louis XIV, who was 5 years old, became king. He was in power until 1715, but until 1661 the country was ruled by Cardinal Mazarin, his first minister, who continued the policies of Richelieu. aimed at strengthening absolutism. The performance of the nobility (Fronde) was suppressed. During the reign of Mazarin, taxes increased enormously, the central

state apparatus.

Since 1661, Louis XIV was personally involved in issues of foreign and domestic policy. His reign was characterized by high-profile military victories in initial period and catastrophic defeats in the end, patronage of the sciences and arts and cruel persecution of free thought. Louis XIV waged a decisive struggle against parliaments. According to legend, in response to the statement that parliament represents the state, the king uttered his famous phrase: “I am the state.”

Countries

What is absolutism.

Absolutism is a form of government in which power belongs only to the monarch. Absolutism replaced the estate-representative monarchy, in which the ruler, when making decisions, took into account the opinions of the estates, as well as the nobility. During the period of the formation of absolutism, interest in strengthening the supreme power increased among broad sections of society. The nobility saw it as a source of income, and business circles saw it as a guarantor of stability and prosperity. The strengthening of the bourgeoisie led to its rivalry with the nobility. This rivalry allowed the monarchs of a number of countries to rule without regard to class. France became the country of classical absolutism.

Absolutism in France.

The foundations of absolutism were laid in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Estates General were not convened at that time; they were replaced by meetings of persons appointed by the king (notables). The king had at his disposal a developed state apparatus, with the help of which taxes were collected, and a large army.

True, in the large cities of France there were parliaments that somewhat constrained the power of the king. This was especially true for the Parliament of Paris, whose duties included registering royal decrees and expressing their opinion about them. The kings sought to subjugate the church and, with its help, strengthen their power.

Absolutism was finally established in France in the 17th century, after the end of the religious wars under Henry IV. One of the pillars of absolutism was the population’s desire for peace, the guarantee of which was seen in strong royal power. Henry IV did not pay much attention to matters of religion. He selected talented assistants, one of whom was the Duke of Sully. Industry and trade were supported, large state-owned manufactories were created, and the founding of private manufactories was encouraged.

In 1610, Henry was killed by a Catholic fanatic. The king was his 9-year-old son Louis XIII. The nobles took advantage of the weakness of the government and provoked unrest in the country. The strengthening of absolutism occurred during the reign of Cardinal Richelieu (1624-1642), the first minister of Louis XIII. The “Huguenot republic” in the south of the country was liquidated, Richelieu took decisive measures to subjugate the rebellious aristocrats. Castles were demolished and duels between nobles were banned.

1643 became king Louis XIV, who was 5 years old. He was in power until 1715, but until 1661 the country was ruled by a cardinal Mazarin, his first minister, who continued Richelieu's policies. aimed at strengthening absolutism. The performance of the nobility (Fronde) was suppressed. During the reign of Mazarin, taxes increased enormously, the central

state apparatus.

Since 1661, Louis XIV was personally involved in issues of foreign and domestic policy. His reign was characterized by resounding military victories in the initial period and catastrophic defeats in the end, patronage of the sciences and arts, and brutal persecution of free thought. Louis XIV waged a decisive struggle against parliaments. According to legend, in response to the statement that parliament represents the state, the king uttered his famous phrase: “I am the state.”

Absolutism in Spain.

In 1516, Charles I became king of Spain and inherited the Habsburg possessions in Germany. In 1519, he also became Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire under the name of Charles V. Vast lands, including America, came under his rule. They said that the sun never sets in the empire of Charles V. Spain consisted of several previously independent kingdoms, which retained their autonomy after unification. Castile, Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia and Navarre had their own class-representative institutions, their own viceroys. Charles V sought to create a worldwide empire and saw Spain as a source of funds and men for the army. Tax burden has increased significantly. However, the plan to create a global Catholic empire collapsed. In 1555, Charles V abdicated the throne and handed over Spain, along with the Netherlands, to his son

Philip II (1555-1598).

Under Philip II, the features of absolutism became especially pronounced in Spain. It had its own characteristics associated with the dominance of Catholicism. The country was raging Inquisition. Severe measures were taken against the descendants of the Moors who converted to Christianity (Moriscos). As a result of their persecution and extermination, the country's economic decline began, which soon manifested itself in foreign policy. Philip II annexed Portugal and set himself the task of taking over England. But the morning did not work out. Spain successfully fought the Ottoman Turks, but did not receive any special benefits from its victories. The heaviest blow to the power of Spain was dealt as a result of the victory of the national liberation movement in the Netherlands (1566 -1609).

Absolutism in England.

In the 16th century English feudal lords were divided into old and new nobility. The old nobility still received quitrents from their peasants or had income from their positions. The new nobility quickly grew rich. These nobles raised sheep on their estates, whose wool was in great demand

They took peasant plots for sheep pastures. The peasants were driven off the land, and the resulting pastures were fenced off behind forests. The dissatisfied were mercilessly exterminated. Land gradually became an object of profitable capital investment; the rich willingly acquired it, joining the ranks of the nobility.

From 1485 to 1603 England was ruled by Tudor dynasty, c which is associated with the formation of English absolutism. King Henry VIII dealt with the disgruntled nobility. This policy was continued by his queen daughters Bloody Mary And Elizabeth. One of the important

The means of strengthening absolutism was the reform of the church under Henry VIII. All monasteries were closed, and their lands were confiscated and transferred to the crown. The Reformation was carried out under conditions of brutal terror. The British were required to submit completely

new Anglican Church. Refusal was punishable by death. The church was headed by the king, the clergy obeyed him.

Under the Tudors, the desire to seize colonies intensified. Elizabeth encouraged the actions of pirates. Pirate F. Drake with a small squadron made the second voyage around the world in history and plundered many Spanish colonies. The British profited not only from piracy, but also from the slave trade.

English Revolution XVII V.

Causes of the revolution.

From the 16th century there has been strong growth in England various industries industry. New technical inventions and improvements, and most importantly, new forms of organization of industrial labor, designed for mass production of goods, indicated that English industry was being rebuilt along a capitalist path. But England was inferior in its economic development Holland. .During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, England remained an agricultural country; most people lived in villages, and the only big city was London.

After Elizabeth's death she came to power Stuart dynasty. During this time, conflicts became more frequent in the country. Merchants were hampered by feudal restrictions - bans on trade, guild regulations, dependence on the king, and guardianship of the authorities over parliamentary activities.

The English monarchy tried to rely on the aristocracy, the feudal nobility and the Anglican Church. Kings James I And Charles/created a system for distributing monopoly rights to produce one or another product, which hampered the development of industry. In foreign policy, these kings also did not take into account the interests of the bourgeoisie: they tried to conclude an alliance with Spain and France, which interfered with the development of English trade.

Opposition grew in parliament. Kings used emergency courts to fight the dissatisfied. However, foreign policy failures and the financial crisis forced Charles I to appeal to parliament in 1628. The leaders of the opposition in their speeches attacked the government and its incompetent foreign policy. The second session of Parliament opened with sharp criticism of the ecclesiastical policies of Charles I. Pending assurance that the royal policy would be changed, the House of Commons refused to approve customs duties. The king ordered the parliament to be interrupted, but for the first time he showed open disobedience to the royal will. Charles I dissolved parliament in 1629 and ruled alone for 11 years. To make up for the lack of funds, the king increased indirect taxes and resumed feudal exactions.

The progress of the revolution.

In 1639, war began with Scotland. The king convened a parliament, which, after working for two weeks, was dissolved (Short Parliament). The second parliament, convened in 1640, was called the Long. Its convocation is considered to be the beginning of the English Revolution.

The opposition's program was expressed in the "Great Remonstration". To implement this program, parliament took the following measures: in July 1641, emergency courts and feudal taxes were abolished, and opposition leaders were released from prison. In its struggle, the parliamentary opposition relied on the popular movement. In January 1642, the king tried to arrest members of parliament who were in favor of the "Great Remonstrance", but the people hid them. Then in August 1642 the king announced to parliament

England was divided into two warring camps: supporters of the king - gentlemen and supporters of parliament - roundheads, for the latter, unlike the gentlemen, did not wear long hair. Started civil war. The economically backward and sparsely populated counties of North-West England supported the king; the rich, economically more developed counties of South-East and Central England sided with Parliament. The feudal nobility, the Anglican Church, court officials and monopolistic financiers associated with the court stood for the king; The bourgeoisie and the new nobility, artisans and traders, and peasants were against it.

At first, the Roundheads suffered defeats. The parliamentary command acted hesitantly, and every now and then began negotiations with the king. In the parliamentary army, the majority were people who believed that the state should not interfere in the affairs of the church. They were called independents(independent). And he became a leader Oliver Cromwell minor nobleman. By 1645 he managed to create new army, different from the king's troops and

the former army of parliament. It included poor new nobles, peasants, artisans, and apprentices. Cromwell's army began to win victories over the king's army. The Cavaliers were finally defeated at Naseby on June 14, 1645. Charles I fled to Scotland, but was ransomed by Parliament.

The victory was secured by a revolutionary act of parliament on February 24, 1646, which provided for the abolition of royal guardianship over the land of the nobles, the elimination of feudal dependence on the king, the elimination of all fines and a number of other feudal obligations. Landowners now had the opportunity to unlimitedly dispose of their lands. In this regard, they began to infringe on the rights of the peasants: they fenced off their plots and drained the swamps. The people began to realize that the revolution had not lived up to their hopes. Core revolutionary forces becomes an army. 13 it adds up political party Levellers. In 1646, they issued a “Remonstration of Many Thousands of Citizens,” which contained demands; destruction of the power of the king and the House of Lords; transfer of power to the House of Commons; turning parliament into an annually elected body; complete freedom of conscience; responsibility of officials.

In May 1647, elections to the Army Council were spontaneously held. In the spring of 1648, the second civil war began. At this time the Independents became close to the Levellers. From Parliament expelled Charles' supporters, a special court sentenced Charles 1st Stuart to death penalty. On January 30, 1649, the king was executed, and a republic was proclaimed in the country.

Protectorate regime.

The desire to establish order and strong power has intensified in society. In 1653, the Long Parliament was dissolved, and Cromwell, proclaimed Eagle Protector, became the ruler of England. The protectorate regime was a military dictatorship in form. More » 1649-1650 Cromwell led a campaign in Ireland, during which huge land holdings, A local population was enslaved. In 1650-1651 Cromwell conquered Scotland.