Characteristics ancient eastern states
The concept of the East in historical science is used not so much as a geographical one, but as a civilizational one. The Ancient East is rightfully considered the cradle of statehood. Here almost simultaneously and on large areas The first institutions of state and law in the history of mankind arose, and judicial bodies appeared. The fact that this happened at the same time still remains a mystery of history.
As for the reasons for the emergence of statehood, this fact can still be explained with some degree of confidence. The states of the Ancient East arose precisely in those territories that were the valleys of the great rivers: the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus and Ganges, Yangtze and Yellow River. This provided people with the opportunity to use river water for individual irrigation of land and thereby made it possible to increase food production, which was an incentive to create a system of division of labor and mutual cooperation. Rivers also served as transport arteries.
World civilizations arose where the average annual isotherm is +20°C. This isotherm passes through Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, Eastern China and further across the ocean to the sites of Mesoamerican civilizations. It’s not for nothing that a temperature of +20°C is called room temperature - this is the temperature of maximum comfort for the human body.
It was here that the optimal ecological environment created favorable conditions for the production of a constant surplus product with fairly primitive tools, which led to the decomposition of the clan organization of society and allowed humanity to make a breakthrough into civilization.
Within the framework of ancient Eastern societies, special social, political and legal structures developed.
Eastern society was characterized by the following features:
1.patriarchy. Its preservation was facilitated by the dominance subsistence farming, stability of state forms of land ownership, extremely slow development of individual private property;
2.collectivism. Ancient Eastern civilizations can be classified as agricultural civilizations. Economic activity in these regions was possible only with the presence of complex irrigation systems regulating the flow regime of the great rivers. Their creation and use required great collective efforts of people. We cannot discount the special role of collective mutual assistance, support and everyday life;
3.community. Originality social order ancient eastern states was created primarily by its social base - the community. With its conservatism, its alienation from outside world and by its reluctance to interfere in politics, the community contributed to the transformation of the central government into despotism. The suppression of a person, his personality, his will began already within the community to which he belonged. At the same time, rural communities could not do without the organizing role of the central government;
4.traditionality. This confirms the fact that the foundations of the social structure, statehood and law of ancient Eastern societies have survived centuries;
5.religiosity. Religion determined a person's way of life. The person was focused on spiritual self-improvement;
6.motley social composition. It can be differentiated within the boundaries of three groups: the ruling layer (officials, court and service aristocracy, military leaders, priests, etc.); free small producers (peasants, artisans); various categories of persons deprived of the means of production (forced workers, including slaves).
The slave system, for all its significance did not become a structure-forming factor. It was not a comprehensive social institution. Slave labor was almost never used in agriculture and craft, and was used mainly in government work in the construction of canals, roads, and fortresses.
The general patterns of the evolution of ancient Eastern multi-structured societies cannot be erased specific features the development of each of them, associated with the time of their existence, with the dominant position of one or another structure and various forms of their interaction, with the characteristics of social and political institutions.
Until the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. on Ancient East city-states (for example, in Sumer) or “new” states, large kingdoms (Egypt) prevailed. Subsequently, an empire became one of the forms of government.
The state carries out numerous and varied functions. State power was called upon to regulate scattered communal production and organize public works(construction of an irrigation system, palace and temple complexes and military fortifications). The coordination of such work throughout the country predetermined a huge concentration of power, contributing to the transformation of the supreme ruler into an unlimited despot.
When they talk about eastern despotism, usually mean this form political regime, at which:
1. the powers of the ruler are not limited, he was considered not only the owner of all the land in the state, but also had the right to control the life or death of each of his subjects;
2.secular power and church power were united in one person, the personality of the head of state in most countries of the Ancient East was deified;
3. power was exercised by a large bureaucratic apparatus;
4. man was a slave to “order,” faith, tradition.
State apparatus was numerous. stood out
three levels of management - central, regional, local (community). Within the apparatus there was no distinction between fulfilling state duties and ensuring the personal interests of the despot.
In conditions of dominance of communal production and underdevelopment market relations the bureaucratic apparatus performed regulatory and coordinating functions. It was built on the unconditional subordination of lower officials to higher ones. The characteristic methods of selecting officials was the appointment of close relatives, close associates of the ruler at his will and choice; granting a position by right of nobility, appointment on the recommendation of influential persons, although there were exceptions.
In many ancient Eastern states the power of the supreme rulers was limited advice nobility, or people's assembly.
Ancient Eastern societies were also aware of republican government forms, in which the traditions of tribal democracy played a significant role.
In general, the ancient eastern region was characterized by a slow pace of historical progress. Major social changes often occurred only under the influence of external conquests or natural disasters. Life went on as if in a vicious circle, obeying the natural cycle, the cycle of agricultural work. Minor improvements could not qualitatively change the existing way of life. If any state ideas appeared, they were kept secret and became the property of only a narrow circle of priests, courtiers, and nobility.
They were extremely rare social protests. The dominant religious views encouraged us to perceive adversity as the disfavor of fate and higher powers. The main threat to the stability of ancient despotism was the separatism of individual provinces and the struggle of the nobility for supreme power.
Topic 2.1 Early civilizations, their distinctive features
The student must:
Know:
Concepts of civilization, anthropogenesis, tribal system, neolithic revolution;
Periodization primitive history;
Prerequisites for the emergence of civilizations.
Be able to:
Establish cause-and-effect relationships between geographical conditions and areas of human settlement;
Analyze the settlement map of ancient people;
Assess the Neolithic revolution in human history;
Assess the emergence of private property and slavery;
Highlight characteristic features civilizations.
Basic provisions
Chronological framework history of the ancient world. Early civilizations: Egypt, Western Asia, India, China. Material culture and economy of early civilizations. Social system. Political and military organization. Ideology. Features of Eastern civilization.
Topic 2.2 Ancient civilization
The student must:
Know:
Chronological and geographical framework of the first civilizations;
Features of Western and Eastern civilization
Be able to:
Distinguish between the first eastern and ancient civilizations;
Give examples of cultural achievements and traditions of the first civilizations;
Characterize the political and economic development of the first civilizations.
Basic provisions
The formation of polis civilization in Greece: geographical and social prerequisites. The essence of the Greek polis. The role of Athens and Sparta in the life of the Greek world. Alexander the Great and Hellenism. Ancient Rome: stages of formation of society and state. Economy, social system, state apparatus in republican and imperial Rome. Features of Western civilization.
Questions for self-control:
1 Where and when did the most ancient civilizations of the world originate? Why are they called “river” civilizations?
2 What are the reasons for the emergence of the first states?
3 What is despotism? What are its main features? How did the relationship between the state and the individual develop in the Ancient East?
4 What were the features of aristocratic and democratic forms of government?
5 What features of Eastern society were adopted by the Greek and Roman worlds during the Hellenistic and Roman eras?
Section 3 Civilizations of the West and East in the Middle Ages
Topic 3.1 Features of the development of Eastern civilizations in the Middle Ages
The student must:
Know:
Periodization of the history of the countries of the East in the Middle Ages;
Ruling dynasties Ancient China and India
Be able to:
Explain the basic principles of Confucianism and Buddhism;
Give examples of the cultural heritage of Eastern countries.
Basic provisions
Sino-Confucian civilization. Periodization medieval history China. Ruling dynasties, capitals, borders. The role of historical traditions for the Chinese Middle Ages. Invasion of China in the 4th – 13th centuries: barbarism and civilization. The nature of Mongol rule. Periodization of the medieval history of India, ruling dynasties, capitals, borders. Indian society in the Middle Ages. The essence of Buddhism. Features of the spread of Buddhism.
Topic 3.2 The emergence of Western European medieval civilization
The student must:
Know:
Chronology of the history of Western countries;
The concept of the Great Migration;
The concept of political fragmentation
Be able to:
Explain the meaning and historical results Great Migration;
Explain the process of education barbarian kingdoms.
Basic provisions
Chronological framework Western Middle Ages. The meeting of ancient civilization and the barbarian world. The main stages of the relationship between the Romans and the Germans (I century BC - V century AD). The Great Migration of Peoples and its historical results. The process of Christianization of barbarian kingdoms. Historical results of the early medieval period. European states in the 8th – 11th centuries. Political fragmentation and its causes.
Questions for self-control:
1 What were the socio-economic and internal political causes of the crisis of the Roman Empire?
2 What were the reasons for the Great Migration?
3 In what area of life medieval society did the legacy of antiquity have the greatest impact?
4 Which peoples participated in the creation of medieval Western European civilization?
5 What is the role of Christianity in the emergence of European civilization?
6 What are the reasons for the feudal fragmentation of the barbarian kingdoms?
Topic 3.3 Arab-Muslim civilization
The student must:
Know:
Concept of Islam;
Be able to:
Explain the emergence of Islam;
Name the features of the Islamic state;
Characterize the Islamic state;
Assess the influence of Islam on the states of the East
Basic provisions
The emergence of Islam. Muhammad. The essence of Islam as a creed. Features of the state and social system of the Arabs. Arab conquests. Islamization: ways and methods, the formation of the world of Islam. Geographical and political boundaries world of Islam by the end of the 15th century.
Questions for self-control:
1 What are the main provisions of the Muslim faith?
2 What are the characteristic features of Islamic civilization?
3 What are the reasons for the successful conquests of the Arabs?
4 What were the reasons for the collapse of the Arab Caliphate?
5 What was the influence of Islamic civilization on other countries?
Topic 3.4 Main features and stages of development of Eastern Christian civilization
The student must:
Know:
Periodization of the history of Byzantium;
The concept of Orthodoxy.
Be able to:
Explain influence ancient heritage on the culture of Byzantium;
Name the features of the Byzantine state;
Assess the influence of Byzantium on neighboring states
Basic provisions
The role of ancient traditions in the development of Eastern Christian civilization. Byzantine state, church, society. Features of relationships land ownership. City and countryside: high level of development. Culture and Orthodoxy. Paths and stages of the spread of Orthodoxy. Internal and external reasons the death of Byzantium.
Questions for self-control:
1 What was the influence of the ancient heritage on the history and culture of Byzantium?
2 What is the role of the imperial power and Orthodox Church in the life of the Byzantines?
3 What was the difference between Eastern and Western Christendom?
4 How were the relations between Byzantium and the Slavs?
5 What are the reasons for the death of Byzantium?
Topic 3.5 The rise of Western European civilization
The student must:
Know:
Concepts of feud, vassal relations;
Main medieval classes;
Features of medieval civilization in Europe;
Periodization of medieval European history.
Be able to:
Describe the medieval city;
Explain the interaction of church, state and society;
Give examples of social conflicts;
Evaluate value crusades in the history of the Middle Ages.
Basic provisions
Socio-economic features of the period. The formation of medieval classes and estates. Property relations. Feud. Vassal connections. Agrarian character of medieval civilization. Phenomenon medieval city. Basic forms state power. Estate-representative monarchies. Church and secular authorities, church and society. Social conflicts in the Middle Ages: heresies, peasant uprisings, popular movements. Crusades. Meeting of Eastern Christian, Muslim and Western Christian civilizations. Mutual influence
in material life, science, culture.
Questions for self-control:
1 Name the main features of feudalism. What are the causes of feudal fragmentation?
2 Describe the position of the medieval classes. What were their privileges and responsibilities?
3 What was the role christian church and the papacy in medieval Europe?
4 What were the reasons for the Crusades?
Section 4 History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century
The main features of the development of Western and eastern types civilizations in ancient times are:
1) lack of value of the personality, the individual in the East (it is no coincidence that one of the most common symbols oriental culture is an image of a man in a boat without oars, i.e. subordinate to the "flow of the river" - nature, state) - early creation of the foundations civil society, providing for the right of everyone to participate in governance, recognition of his personality, rights and freedoms in the West.
2) stability of Eastern civilization, extremely slow pace of change (new cultures do not destroy old ones, but fit in and dissolve in them); reproduction and preservation of biological and social foundations of life, loyalty to traditions (it is not for nothing that Eastern civilizations are often called “traditional societies”) - the dynamic nature of the development of society in Western civilization;
3) public ownership in the eastern state of the means of production, land and water, recognition of only the rights of the owner for a private person; lack of economic independence of private individuals in the East, bureaucratic control - predominance in ancient state private interests, early market orientation;
4) absolute dominance of the state over society, regulation of all diversity human relations(in the East) - minor government intervention in privacy citizens (in the West);
5) the regulating role of religion, the set of moral and ethical principles in Eastern society - emphasized respect in Western society for the laws within which craft and trade operate;
6) despotism as common line socio-political development of eastern civilizations - and the emergence in the West of the first in history example of democracy, democracy (albeit limited). This contradiction is of particular interest in our time.
It should be noted that although the term "despotism" comes from ancient Greek word“despotes” - the owner, the head of the house, managing the family household and distributing responsibilities - despotism as a form of organization of state power was widespread in Egypt, the states of Mesopotamia, China, India and other countries of the East. In addition to the already mentioned features, one can add to the characteristics of the phenomenon of eastern despotism: the almost obligatory presence in such a society of a policy of coercion and even terror; a paradoxical combination of fear of the supreme Power with boundless faith in specific rulers; complete absence or insignificant role of class differences; complex hierarchical social structure; absolute domination state bureaucracy; impersonality of the state machine; lack of open competition between parties, ideas or talents; the existence at the grassroots level of economically independent and self-governing associations of a religious and production nature (rural communities, sects, workshops, castes, etc.).
The idea of democracy as the brightest distinctive feature Western society is best embodied by civilization Ancient Greece and, above all, such a specific political structure, as a "polis" - city - state.
The Greek world has always consisted of many independent policies, sometimes entering into military, religious or some other unions (“symmachy”), but usually independent and self-sufficient in administrative, economic and cultural terms.
The universal human scale of the exchange of material and spiritual values between the West and the East was subjectively realized in the spiritual movements of antiquity - the teachings of the Cyrenaics, Stoics, Buddhist and early Christian preaching. It is also important to note that in this exchange, Eastern and Western civilizations played an equal role, even for a long time the West was the “receiving” party - it borrowed from the East certain crops (oats and rye), achievements of metallurgy and science (especially astronomy and geometry) .
All these contacts between the West and the East led to a new and unique stage in the development of culture - a synthesis of cultures (examples: Greco-Bactrian and Gandhara art; Kushan pantheon of gods; Alexandrian science; later - Fayum portraits, the figurative world of early Christian literature). This synthesis laid the foundations of the canons of the Byzantine and Western European Middle Ages. The so-called “barbarians” also made a significant contribution to the development of the most famous civilizations of antiquity, having mastered new lands and often creating a culture adapted to life in extreme conditions(Scythians). In addition, the "barbarian" world is a constant source raw materials for states; and most importantly, the “supplier” of slaves, whose labor is the foundation of all civilizations of antiquity. It is known that outstanding Athenian artists - vase painters - were also slaves; and the founder of the fable genre, Aesop; the outstanding philosopher Epictetus; and the founder of European drama Terence...
It should be noted that civilization, according to many researchers, goes through 3 main stages of development: 1) agricultural society; 2) industrial society; 3) post-industrial society. Ancient civilizations were agrarian societies, that is, societies based on the predominance of the agricultural sector in the economy, manual labor, etc. But this stage of development in the history of civilizations of different peoples lasted until last decades XVIII century -early XIX V. new era, when as a result of the “industrial revolution” an industrial society was formed, in which the relationship between man and nature radically changed. The ideology of technocracy, which spread in such a society, sought to transfer the principles of production management even to the relationship between man and nature, which resulted in environmental crises threatening the existence of civilization. Post-industrial society, the transition to which began in the most developed countries and the last quarter of the 20th century of the new era and was caused by a new stage of the scientific and technological revolution, should provide new approach in the relationship between a person and the external environment.
West is west, east is east, they will never meet. Only at the foot of the Throne of God on the day of the Last Judgment.
These lines belonging to the great English writer Rudyard Kipling, and still attract attention to this day. Some agree with Kipling, saying that East and West really cannot understand each other. Others, on the contrary, protest, pointing out that the East is being Europeanized, and the West is showing increasing interest in the traditions of the East (philosophy, arts, medicine). Eastern civilization means primarily India, China and Japan over a gigantic period of time: from the middle 2nd millennium BC - to the 17th century AD - 3000 years. During this time, several civilizations succeeded one after another in the West. The stability of Eastern civilization is the first feature of the East. The West is moving forward in spurts. And every breakthrough (Antiquity, the Middle Ages, etc.) is accompanied by the collapse of the old system of values, as well as political and economic structures. The development of the East, on the contrary, appears as a continuous line. New trends here do not destroy the foundations of civilization. On the contrary, they organically fit into the old and dissolve in it. The East is very flexible, it is able to absorb and process many elements that are alien to itself. Thus, according to the remark of one of the leading orientalists, the invasions of the “barbarians” (nomadic tribes living on the borders of China and experiencing the period of disintegration of the primitive communal system) not only did not destroy the Chinese state, but did not even interrupt its existence... And even in the northern part of the country , where “barbarian” kingdoms were formed, these kingdoms very soon ceased to be “barbarian”, turning into the same Chinese ones. The indigenous Chinese population of this part of the country assimilated the newcomers and instilled in them their civilization.
In addition, unlike Europe, many religions coexisted in the East, and even Islam, irreconcilable with Western Christianity, coexisted quite calmly with traditional Eastern beliefs. Thus, no matter what upheavals occurred, the foundations of civilization remained unshakable.
Second important feature The fact of the East was that society here had not lost touch with nature. The favorite argument of the European colonialists in favor of conquest was the assertion that they benefited the people of the East with what they were unable to create themselves (machines, the latest weapons, etc.). Usually this is seen as only a primitive attempt to justify oneself. However, most Europeans were at one time firmly convinced of this. So what is the matter here? The answer lies in the fundamental difference in the psychology of representatives of the two civilizations. Europeans in their development took the simplest path. They began to compensate for their imperfections and weaknesses in front of the forces of nature by creating cumbersome machines. They sharply separated themselves from nature and stopped feeling like a part of it. Moreover, nature in their understanding has become something of an enemy. She had to be overcome, defeated, put into her service. Convincing themselves that man is the crown of creation and everything in this world was created exclusively for him, Europeans began to reshape nature in their own way and plunder its wealth, regardless of environmental pollution or other losses. Of course, nature is “not a temple, but a workshop,” as Bazarov put it in Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons.” Unlike Europeans, the man of the East never lost touch with his environment. He directed his thoughts not at creating mechanisms to compensate for his own imperfections, but at improving his soul and body. The world was perceived by him as a single whole, and man in this whole is not the master, but only one of the component parts. And if so, then the goal of man is not enmity, but the desire to be in harmony with nature and, having learned its basic laws, try not to contradict them. Thus, the philosophers of the East believed that peoples and states should develop in a natural (natural) way, taking an example from plants and animals, in whose life there is nothing superfluous or random. The styles of various martial arts of the East developed as a result of observations of the movements of wild animals (tiger, bear, monkey, etc.) Having thoroughly studied the environment, the Eastern man knew how it affected his body. For example, the effectiveness of blows (in martial arts) to various points of the body was calculated depending on time
days.People of the East were convinced that only then can a person improve the world when, through improvement, he gains harmony and integrity in himself. For evil and the desire to destroy are completely alien to him. Culture Ancient China reached high level. Already in very ancient times, Chinese scientists made many important discoveries in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, medicine and other sciences. In the 2nd millennium BC. hieroglyphic writing already existed in China. Somewhat later they were invented
compass and then seismograph. In the middle of the first millennium BC. the world's first star catalog was compiled, numbering 800 luminaries. The third feature of the East is its adherence to tradition. The tradition was also found in Europe, but in the civilizations of the East it was erected in the distant past, in the mythical golden age. And everything new received justification only when it was possible to find something similar in antiquity. Everything here is constantly repeated, somewhat modified, but necessarily maintaining similarities to Man. European Middle Ages It never occurred to me to write in the style of Homer. And in the East, for 3000 years you can find the same meters, melodies, etc. in poetry. Any unjustified violation of traditions (even the most insignificant ones) was perceived as a complete nightmare. Thus, the great Chinese philosopher Confucius talks about one dignitary who organized “dances in the temple in which the dancers lined up in eight rows.” Since in ancient times only the emperor could give such holidays, Confucius indignantly declares: “If this can be endured, then what cannot be endured?!” He created a whole theory (which still has a huge
influence) that society should live according to a once and for all established ritual of behavior. Without ritual, in his opinion, everything is worthless. "Reverence without ritual leads to vanity. Caution without ritual turns into fear. Boldness without ritual appears rude." Ritual reigns not only in human society, but also in nature. The change of seasons, blossoming and fading are subordinate to him. Confucius also perceived his theory not as something new, but only as a revival of the teachings of previous centuries. “I present, but do not create. I treat antiquity with love and faith.” Attitude towards religion is one of the most important indicators in the characteristics of civilization. In the East it is very different from the West. And the religions themselves are diverse and unlike Christianity. For example, Confucianism. It is called religion, but it is rather a set of rules and norms that define
influencing human life in society. The main issues in Confucianism were ethics, morality and government. The main principle of Confucian ethics is the concept of ren ("humanity") as supreme law relationships between people in society and family. Ren is achieved through moral self-improvement based on compliance with li ("etiquette") - norms of behavior based on deference and respect for elders in age and position, honor for parents, devotion to the sovereign, politeness, etc. According to Confucianism, only a select few, the so-called jun zi (“noble men”), i.e., can comprehend ren. representatives of the upper classes of society; common people - xiae ren (literally - "small people") are not able to comprehend ren. This opposition of the “noble” to the common people and the assertion of the superiority of the former over the latter, often found in Confucius and his followers, is a clear expression of the social orientation and class nature of Confucianism. Confucianism paid great attention to the issues of so-called humane governance, relying on the idea of deifying the power of the ruler, which existed before Confucianism, but developed and justified. The sovereign was declared the “son of heaven” (tianzi), who ruled at the command of heaven and carried out his will. The power of the ruler was recognized by Confucianism as sacred, bestowed from above by heaven. Believing that “to govern is to correct,” Confucianism attached great importance to the teaching of zheng ming (about “correction of names”), which called for putting everyone in society in their place, strictly and accurately defining the duties of everyone, which was expressed in the words of Confucius: “Sovereign must be a sovereign, a subject must be a subject, a father must be a father, a son must be a son.” Confucianism called on rulers to rule the people not on the basis of laws and punishments, but with the help of virtue, an example of highly moral behavior, on the basis of customary law, and not burden the people with heavy taxes and duties. Confucius was not very worried about the gods. They, of course, established these very rules in time immemorial. But this, in general, was the limit of their contacts with the human world. “I revere the gods, but I stay away from them” - here life principle Confucius. The main views of Confucius (Kunzi, born approximately 551 - died 479 BC) are set out in the book "Conversations and Judgments" ("Lun Yu"), which is a record of the sayings and conversations of Confucius with his closest students and followers. The gods do not rule over nature, but are part of it and are dependent on it. Example: in the West, monks led a righteous ascetic lifestyle, since it pleased God and ensured heavenly bliss. In Hinduism, asceticism is a way to become equal to the gods, and sometimes even surpass them. Thanks to him, the ascetic hermit acquired such power from the Universe that he could impose a curse on the gods and send all sorts of misfortunes to them. Knowing the powerful power of asceticism, the gods themselves often follow it. Only in Hinduism can one come across such, from a European point of view, a comical picture: the most powerful god Shiva, capable of pulverizing the entire Universe with one breath, leads the life of an ascetic and wanders the roads. His family exists on this alms. From time to time, such a life becomes a burden to him, and he bitterly complains about his unhappy lot (the rest, they say, the gods live in contentment, and he is begging). However, understanding that in asceticism its source supernatural power , he doesn't give it up. To top off all the misfortunes, he has scandals with his wife because he brings little alms, etc. Another religion that arose in the East and later became world-wide is Buddhism. Its founder, Buddha, is at the same time a kind of cosmic mind with which they strive to merge his followers through liberation from vain desires and passions that bind people to the earth, forcing them to be born again and again in different forms. Thus, having achieved nirvana (enlightenment), a person passed into a new quality - unearthly. And, finally, in Taoism, which arose in China, God as such is completely absent. Instead, there is a Tao (path) - a certain fundamental principle of all things, having learned the laws of which and following them, a person becomes perfect. The religions of the East are, first of all, ways of self-improvement, and through them, the improvement of the surrounding world. The most essential part of the worldview of the people of the East was the belief in the infinite a chain of deaths and rebirths of each person in different forms, and the future human form had to be earned by a righteous life. Otherwise, one could be reborn as anyone. Such a theory gave rise to the idea of the eternal movement of all living things in a closed cycle (everything has already happened and will happen again someday). This is where the famous fatalism of the East comes from - the belief in the impossibility and unnecessaryness of changing one’s destined fate. This is how Confucius argues, visiting the robber lands: “If heaven wants to destroy the wisdom contained in me, so it will be. And if not, then what can these robbers do to me?” The concept of freedom, so valued by Western civilization, is completely absent in the East. So does the demographic pattern of government. Eastern man is not free, but obliged. Moreover, he is not burdened by this obligation, but recognizes it as completely natural. Obliged to observe traditions, rituals, systems of subordination (parents - children, husband - wife, superior - inferior). Everyone is bound by this duty, from the sovereign to the very last of his subjects. A person is obliged to live in a strictly defined way, otherwise it is better for him to die. In this regard, the example of the Japanese samurai - the military class - is indicative. For any violation of the “code of honor” by a samurai, he was obliged to commit suicide by committing hara-kiri. Thus, a person here was not free to live or die otherwise than according to established custom. The social structures of the East are bizarre and variegated. There are closed castes here (in India). And the possibility of moving from one social group to another by surrendering state exams(China). The son of a peasant, thus, could get to the very top of society. Here we have a rare case in history when an increase in education meant at the same time an increase in social status. Political and economic forms were no less bizarre. Thus, the Tang Empire in China is called a feudal state. However, the Chinese nobility did not receive a penny from their lands. All income went to the treasury, and from there (in the form of salaries) to the feudal lords who held various posts in state apparatus. This effectively reduced them to the role of simple officials. In general, it must be borne in mind that despite the aspects common to the entire Eastern civilization, there were also significant differences between the countries included in it in traditions, ways of thinking, and paths of development. Even Buddhism and Taoism, common to all countries of the East (China, Japan), took on their own special, unique forms in each country. What do the Japanese samurai, who despised the lower classes, and the knights-errant of China, who considered it their duty to stand up for the offended and uphold justice, have in common? Finally, if India and China developed exclusively in their own way, Japan largely followed the path of borrowing and transforming in its own way their philosophy, military art, traditions, sciences, etc. To summarize: the civilization of the East was viable as long as it had to face barbaric peoples. She defended herself from them passively, absorbing and rearranging them in her own way. However, having encountered the civilization of Europe, which was technically more developed, carrying a completely different program and striving for the destruction of everything unlike it, the East could not resist. Eastern civilization is, first of all, a traditional society (Western society is characterized as technogenic).
QUESTIONS
1. Where and when did the most ancient civilizations of the world originate? Why are they called “river” civilizations?
The first ancient civilizations arose in the 5th – 4th millennium BC. e. on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates (several successive civilizations subsequently existed here - Sumerian-Akkadian, Assyrian, Babylonian) and in the Nile River valley. Somewhat later - in the 3rd - 2nd millennium BC. e. - Indian culture originated in the Indus River valley, and in the 2nd millennium BC. e. - Chinese (in the Yellow River Valley) civilization.
The first civilizations are called “river” because they arose in the valleys of the great rivers of Africa and Asia, and all economic life took place around them.
2. What are the reasons for the emergence of the first states?
The main reason for the emergence of the first states was the need to monitor the creation and use of a system of irrigation structures. One leader could not cope with the organization similar works, he needed a management apparatus and numerous assistants: guards, accountants, scribes, etc. These people were formed ruling groups united by a common interest. Part of the public wealth created by the labor of the masses of community members was spent on maintaining the administrative apparatus. As this apparatus became separated from society, early states emerged.
3. What is despotism? What are its main features? How did the relationship between the state and the individual develop in the Ancient East?
Despotism is special shape states where power and property were inseparable and the ruler has absolute power and is the supreme owner of all land.
Features of despotism:
Unlimited power of the ruler;
Lack of private property;
Inheritance of a public office with the corresponding rights and privileges assigned to it (including receiving products from certain lands).
Deification of the ruler;
The presence of a centralized management apparatus that controlled the entire life of the country;
Relations between the state and the individual were formed on the basis of laws and traditions, which determined the place of each social layer (and the person belonging to it) within a peculiar social pyramid. At the top of this pyramid was the ruler. The degree of closeness to him determined the position, duties, rights and privileges of officials. The bulk of the population did not have access to power.
4. What were the features of the aristocratic and democratic forms of government in the policies?
Under the aristocratic form of government, the noble and wealthy received greater opportunities in governing the state. Aristocrats paid large sums to the treasury, equipped warships at their own expense, and came to war in more expensive and heavier weapons. As a result, noble people were elected as military leaders, judges, and were appointed to other important positions.
In a democratic form of government, all citizens were involved in running the state, regardless of origin and wealth. A democratic system developed in Athens and was characterized by such features as the power of citizens exercised through the people's assembly, the election of officials, and payment for their activities.
5. What features of Eastern society were adopted by the Greek and Roman worlds during the Hellenistic and Roman eras?
The Greek and Roman worlds during the era of Hellenism and the Roman Empire adopted the following features of Eastern society:
The system of government, the states were headed by kings, management began to resemble eastern despotism;
Elements of culture.
TASKS
1. Compare the relationship between the state and the individual in ancient Eastern societies and policies of the Greco-Roman world. Which segments of the population and why were interested in the development of ancient democracy?
In ancient Eastern societies, the relationship between the state and the individual was built on the principle of complete subordination and the absence of any rights among the residents of the state. The ruler had absolute power and was the supreme owner of all the land. In ancient Eastern states there was practically no private property. It was inherited by a noble person public office with the corresponding rights and privileges assigned to it.
In the ancient Eastern despotisms, a centralized administrative apparatus was formed that controlled the entire life of the country. Laws and traditions determined the place of each social layer (and the person belonging to it) within a kind of social pyramid. At the top of this pyramid was the ruler. The degree of closeness to him determined the position, duties, rights and privileges of officials. The bulk of the population did not have access to power.
In the policies of the Greco-Roman world, the relationship between man and the state was built on the existence of the rights of citizens, their participation in public administration. Supreme power in the policy belonged to the people's assembly, in which all full-fledged citizens could participate. The assembly passed laws, elected rulers, made peace or declared war. The policy protected the interests of its citizens, but they also had certain responsibilities. The first of these was participation in the wars waged by the policy. For citizens, the state was not a force above society, protecting the interests of only a small group of people - the king and his nobles. Therefore, the main value for a resident of the policy was the well-being of not only his family, but also his hometown.
Craftsmen and traders, who made up a significant part of the inhabitants of the polis, were interested in the formation and development of ancient democracy. They opposed the fact that all power in the state belonged to the agricultural nobility and fought for their right to participate in government.
2. The Roman Empire was called a world power. Using card No. 1 (page I on the color tab), determine why it was called that way. The lands of which ancient civilizations became part of the empire? Which modern states located on its territory?
Because Rome became the ruler not only of Italy, but of the entire Mediterranean. At the time of the greatest expansion of the Roman Empire, its population was 27 million people. The provinces of the state were located in three parts of the world. Rome captured the lands of such ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Babylon, Ancient Greece.
Today, these lands contain states: Italy, Greece, Macedonia, Spain, Britain, Egypt, France, Germany, Israel, Palestine, etc.
Roman history constitutes the final link in the ancient history of the Mediterranean, completing the history of antiquity. IN eastern half In the Mediterranean, class formations arose very early and the foundations of ancient culture were laid.
The next stage of development ancient world connected to the coast Aegean Sea. Favorable combination geographical conditions, on the one hand, and the strong influence of nearby eastern states, on the other, created the preconditions for the flourishing of the ancient Greek city-states. An ancient democracy developed here, within the framework of which, especially in Athens, in the U-IV centuries. BC the greatest were created cultural values, which formed the basis for the cultural development of Europe.
However, the close borders of the Aegean world and its political fragmentation accelerated the crisis of the entire system classical Greece. Within the narrow framework of the policies, further development became impossible. This caused a transition to a new stage of historical development - Hellenism. The conquests of Alexander the Great and the further colonization of the East by the Greeks and Macedonians created the preconditions for the emergence of a higher stage of development of society in the countries of the eastern Mediterranean. The Hellenistic states became the leading forces for some time historical process, preparing the transition to the last era of ancient history.
Long before this, a small city-state arose in Italy, on the Lower Tiber - Rome. For the time being, it remained an independent and relatively isolated center of historical development in the Mediterranean system. However, it was a center of great social power, the center of the intersection of diverse ethnic, economic and cultural interactions in Central Italy. In parallel with the development of Roman expansion in Italy (V-III centuries), and then outside it - in the western and eastern Mediterranean (III-I centuries), Rome was drawn into the system of Mediterranean economic and cultural ties and, in turn, began to influence she has a strong influence. By the end of the 1st century. BC the Roman world power was formed in its main features, incorporating all that preceded it state entities in the area Mediterranean Sea. Ancient history has entered its final phase.
Rome, as has been said, entered the established system of the Hellenistic world. But as he entered her, he began to transform her. Slave societies The Mediterranean, primarily Italy itself, experienced a number of profound changes during the Roman conquests: a significant growth in the money economy, the enormous development of slavery, the concentration of land, and the impoverishment of small free producers. All these changes were specific features of the Roman economic system, which became the most tall shape ancient society.
The entire region of the Mediterranean Sea with its wide periphery adjacent to it was covered by economic ties close enough to speak of the embryos of a single Mediterranean market and of some economic phenomena, common to the entire region - price fluctuations, crises. Therefore, the Roman power, created by slaveholding expansion, relied not only on the strength of Roman weapons, but also on some economic unity of the Mediterranean region. And in its form this power, while remaining a federation of autonomous cities, approached the territorial states of the Hellenistic type.
In the field of culture, Rome mainly used the achievements of previous eras, especially Hellenism. However, he created his own original civilization, based on a special system of values that developed in the Roman civil community in connection with the peculiarities of its historical development. Such features include the establishment of a democratic form of government as a result of the struggle between patricians and plebeians and the victories of the latter, and the almost continuous wars of Rome, which turned it from a small Italian town into the capital of a huge power.
Under the influence of these factors, the ideology and value system of Roman citizens took shape. It was determined primarily by patriotism - the idea of the special chosenness of God of the Roman people and the victories destined for them by fate, of Rome as the highest value, of the duty of a citizen to serve it with all his might, not sparing his strength and life. For this, a citizen had to have courage, fortitude, honesty, loyalty, dignity, moderation in lifestyle, the ability to obey iron discipline in war, the law approved by the people's assembly and the custom established by the “ancestors” in peacetime, to honor the patron gods of their families, their rural communities and, of course, Rome. When slavery began to spread in Rome, which reached its highest development for antiquity, the opposition between a slave and a free-born citizen began to play a significant role in ideology, for whom it was considered shameful to be suspected of “slave vices” (lies, dishonesty, flattery) or “slave classes,” which here, unlike Greece, included not only crafts, but also performing on stage, writing plays, and working as a sculptor and painter.
Only politics, war, agriculture, the development of law (civil and sacred), and historiography were recognized as affairs worthy of a Roman, especially from the nobility. The early culture of Rome was formed on this basis. Foreign influences, primarily Greek, which had long penetrated through the Greek cities of southern Italy, and then directly from Greece and Asia Minor, were accepted only insofar as they did not contradict the Roman system of values or were processed in accordance with it. In turn, Rome, having subjugated the countries of Hellenistic culture, exerted a significant influence on them. This is how the synthesis of Greek and Roman cultures was formed. The Romans mastered Greek philosophy, forms and styles of Greek literature, art, but put their own content into them, developing their ideas and worldview in these new forms.
And the natives of the Hellenic and Hellenized provinces of the Roman Empire perceived Roman political thought, Roman ideas about the duty of a citizen, politician, ruler, and the meaning of the law. The rapprochement of Roman and Greek cultures became especially intense with the establishment of the empire, when philosophical and political theories, which developed among the subjects of the Hellenistic kings, became close to the Romans. This late antique Greco-Roman culture, in which both components played an equal role, spread to both the eastern and western half of the empire. It was this that formed the basis of the civilization of Byzantium, the Slavic states, and Western Europe.
But, having brought its social system based on slavery to full development, Rome thereby brought all its social contradictions to maximum tension. The internal instability of Roman society in the last years of the empire, together with barbarian conquests, destroyed the ancient society of the Mediterranean and marked the beginning of the European Middle Ages.
