Reasons for carrying out Peter's reforms. Reasons and main directions of reforms

Kadatskaya Victoria Vladimirovna, student of YuRIU RANEPA

Reasons, features, consequences and price of Peter's reforms.

The figure of Peter I and his era are perhaps the most mythologized in Russian history. Disputes about the results of his reforms began during his lifetime and continue to this day.

Opening any standard history textbook, we will immediately see the following reasons for Peter’s reforms:

1. Russia is noticeably lagging behind advanced European states in terms of its level of socio-economic, military and cultural development.
2. Awareness of the need for reforms using European experience.
3. Active-volitional activity of Peter 1, orientation towards transformations and changes value orientations people. [ 7, p. 180]

After this, the multifaceted activities of Peter 1 for the benefit of the Fatherland begin to be covered: a regular army and navy were created, victory in Northern War, Europe was forced to reckon with Russia, industry grew several times, production volume increased, new capital and new cities, the Academy of Sciences was founded, schools, printing houses, the publication of the Vedomosti newspaper were opened, the transition to a new chronology, etc.

I note the merits of the emperor, his cruel methods are also mentioned in passing, but “the time was such,” “Peter was the son of his time,” “it was impossible to do otherwise.”

After this, the question immediately arises: “Why then do disputes about Peter’s activities go on for such an extended amount of time?” My task is to analyze the activities of Peter I, and most importantly, to summarize the consequences of this activity.

To do this you need:

1. Reasons for Peter's reforms.
2. Features of Peter's reforms.
3. Consequences of the implementation of Peter's reforms with some statistics.
4. "Price" of Peter's reforms

Reasons for Peter's reforms

To do this, in order to correctly highlight Peter’s activities, we will consider the reasons given above. To do this, we believe that it is very important to consider what the state of the country was before Peter I ascended the throne.

Historians still write little about Sophia’s seven-year reign, considering it a “dark period” before the brilliant era of Peter. But the facts prove otherwise. Despite its tough male character Sophia ruled with feminine gentleness and discretion. Even Prince Boris Kurakin, who often criticized her, admitted in his memoirs: “The reign of Princess Sofia Alekseevna began with all diligence and justice to everyone and to the pleasure of the people, so there has never been such a wise reign in the Russian state.”[ 4 ]

The princess intensified the fight against bribes and arbitrariness of officials, as well as against denunciation, which has become a real scourge in Russia. She forbade the acceptance of anonymous denunciations, and ordered the scoundrels who filled the courtrooms to be flogged. changes in some articles in the legislation towards mitigation: the death penalty for uttering “obscene and tricky” words was replaced by whipping and exile; women who killed their husbands were no longer punished terrible death“dig-in”, which meant burying the guilty person alive in a grave, and they were punished without suffering by cutting off the head. [ 9 ]

The new decree prohibited creditors from taking debtor husbands without their wives to work off the debt; it was also prohibited to collect debts from widows and orphans if there was no estate left after the death of their husbands and fathers. Continuing her father’s policy, Sophia actively invited foreign specialists to Russia. The domestic education system also developed - in 1687, the Slavic School, conceived by the princess’s teacher Simeon of Polotsk, was opened. Greco-Latin academy. There is information that the princess even thought about opening a school for girls.

The careful diplomacy of Sophia and Golitsyn brought success in foreign policy. Poland agreed to " Eternal Peace”, which legalized the annexation of Ukrainian lands to Russia. The Treaty of Nerchinsk was signed with China, which recognized the interests of the Russians on the distant banks of the Amur. Envoys from the French, Austrian, and Turkish courts appeared in Moscow. One of them, de Neuville, wrote about Sophia: “As wide, short and rough as her figure is, so subtle, sharp and political is her mind.” Almost all contemporaries agreed with this.

According to contemporaries, Prince V. Golitsyn had many reform plans. Thus, the prince considered it necessary to send nobles to Europe to study military affairs, dreamed of creating regular army consisting of the nobility. He was going to free the peasants from serfdom (this only happened in 1861), and impose state quitrent on the land plots that became their property. Unfortunately, V. Golitsyn did not have time not only to implement all these grandiose plans, but not even to take any initial steps. All these good wishes remained only on paper.

As we see from the last paragraph, most of the transformations that Peter 1 carried out were proposed by Prince V. Golitsyn. Other transformations in which Peter 1 is attributed to the pioneers are generally false:

1. Creation of the first institutions. In fact, the first institute was built under Sophia - the Slavic - Greek-Latin Academy.
2. Creation of a regular army. Historians have different opinions on this matter; some believe that the creation of a regular army took place under Mikhail Romanov. Creation of regiments of the “foreign (new) system” - soldiers (foot), reitar (mounted) and dragoons (both on foot and on horseback). To serve in the regiments, volunteers were recruited from among free people and Cossacks. They received government cash salaries, firearms and bladed weapons, horses, and uniforms. Foreigners experienced in military affairs were usually appointed commanders of these regiments.

3.Creation of self-government bodies. But before Peter there were many bodies of self-government - Zemsky Sobors, veche liberties, vassal-squad relations. Let's not forget that Peter 1 liquidated the Boyar Duma, an institution that represented the interests of part of the top of society, just as he liquidated another body of self-government - provincial and zemstvo elders - in 1702.

Special attention should be paid to Peter's transformations, which brought us closer to the developed countries of Europe. When a conversation arises about Europe, many textbooks are replete with similar theses: often visiting abroad, he tried to adopt all the best for implementation in Russia.

However, let's remember what the head of state studied: ship building, turning, he was a good carpenter, blacksmith, watchmaker, skilled pathologist - Peter knew all 14 crafts. But at this stage the question does not arise in your mind: “Why does the head of state need to be a good carpenter or blacksmith? Wouldn’t it be more useful for the emperor, especially during his stay in Europe, to learn how to govern the state, develop industry, etc., rather than climb the masts of ships?” From the XVI-XVIII centuries. In developed countries, the process of returning to society part of its functions, once taken from it by the state, is observed and gaining momentum. For example, in the 80s, 17th century in Sweden, Charles IV abolished serfdom. In Russia, such transformations did not occur. On the contrary, all the reforms were aimed at strengthening autocratic power: he removed all the liberties of the nobility - the decree “On Single Inheritance” of 1714, forced them to shave their beards and dress in European dresses; full control of the activities of artisans - organization of workshops; merchants were organized into kumpanstvos.

From all of the above, I would like to conclude that the reasons given above are not sufficiently literate, because Peter 1 was not involved in transforming Russia along the lines of European developed states; some transformations, where Peter 1 is credited with primacy, were laid down even before him.

Features of Peter's reforms.

Speaking about the peculiarities of Peter’s transformations, historians note them internal inconsistency and cruelty. He did not understand that the violence with which reforms were carried out gave immediate results. Example: the economy of the 18th century in Russia was based on manual labor, and we did it. for a short period of time, to catch up with Europe in its development. But in Europe, at that time, machine labor was already developing, and it was no longer possible for us to catch up with manual labor. The peculiarity of his reforms was that they gave results only when Peter was alive; after his death, people were not so afraid of his heirs. How feared he was, so the reforms stopped bearing fruit.

Consequences of the implementation of Peter's reforms

1. The country's population, according to researcher P. N. Milyukov, decreased by 14.6%, i.e. by one seventh. The bulk of the losses were those who died during the construction of St. Petersburg and other cities, who died from hunger and ruin due to unaffordable taxes. According to researchers Ya. E. Vodarsky, E. V. Anisimov and others, the data of P.N. Miliukov are a little overpriced. But anyway it's huge amount victims, erasing all the positive achievements of Peter.
2. Direct and indirect taxes increased 5.5 times, according to E.V. Anisimova.
3. The ruin of the wealthiest part of the Russian merchants - the “living room of the hundred”, the destruction of loan and usurious capital.
4. The process of replacing civilian free labor with slave unproductive labor of serfs (Edicts of January 18, 1721 (on permission to buy peasants and serfs to factories), of May 28, 1723 (regulating the procedure for hiring people) and others). This determined the future economic lag of Russia.
5. In a detrimental way spiritual development society was affected by church reform. By replacing the patriarchate with the Synod, Peter 1 abolished the autonomy and partial independence of the church. He made extensive use of church institutions to implement police policies. Subjects, under pain of heavy fines, were obliged to attend church and confess their sins to a priest. The priest, according to the law, was obliged to report to the authorities about everything illegal that became known during confession. The secret of confession has ceased to be a secret. This significantly undermined the authority of the church.
6. As a result of Peter's reforms, there was a significant strengthening of the split between “masters and servants,” which weakened our country and slowed down its development.
7. The system of public administration created by Peter controlled and regulated all spheres of society, suppressing all public activity.
8. Theft and corruption have reached unprecedented levels. Many textbooks give a textbook example that Peter, listening to reports on thefts in the Senate, lost his temper and ordered the promulgation of a decree stating that if anyone steals from the treasury only enough to buy a rope, he will be hanged with it. The answer of the Prosecutor General of the Senate P.I. Yaguzhinsky is also known: “Do you, Your Majesty, want to remain the emperor alone, without subjects? We all steal, only one is bigger and more noticeable than the other.”

A little about the price of Peter's reforms

The majority mindlessly states: Peter 1 created an army. But few people think about the cost at which he did it. This is how one of the documents of the Military Collegium (September 1719) describes the conduct of recruitment: “...1) when recruits are collected in the provinces, they are first led out of their houses, shackled, and brought to the cities, they are kept in great crowds in prisons and the prisons for a considerable time, and thus exhausted on the spot, they will be sent, without considering the number of people and the distance of the journey, with one, and then unfit, officer or nobleman, with insufficient food; besides, they will lead, having missed convenient time, a cruel thaw, from which many illnesses occur on the road and die untimely, and what’s worse is that many without repentance, while others, unable to bear such great need, run and pester the thieves’ companies, from which the worst ruin befalls the state, because from such a bad order, neither peasants nor soldiers, but destroyers of the state become... 2) Even though they wanted to go into service with pleasure, when they first see such a disorder over their brothers, they come into great fear.” [10, p 446]

Not everything was so simple in the field of education. Many are touched by the success in disseminating knowledge and opening schools and colleges. Firstly, at that time, among merchants, 96% were able to write and read, and among nobles, 65%. There were many literate people among officials and townspeople. Secondly, in this area Peter used his traditional methods of violence and administration.

The fact that the Tsar sent the sons of Russian aristocrats to study abroad is widely known. However, few people know the details of this plot. In 1697, 61 people were sent for training, 23 of them bore the princely title: 39 people to Italy, 22 to England and Holland. This is how the Austrian agent describes this departure in his report to the Tsar on July 8, 1697: “Young people leave here (from Moscow - author’s note) every day, who, under pain of losing their lands and property, were ordered to go at their own expense, and no one can return without evidence of services rendered.” It was not the desire to expand their horizons, but fear that drove most young people out of their homes. V. O. Klyuchevsky wrote that Peter’s school, “which turned the education of youth into the training of animals, could only repel people.”

As soon as the emperor closed his eyes, his closest associates began talking about the possible death of the state. Prosecutor General of the Senate P.I. Yaguzhinsky gave Catherine 1 Note. This document spoke about many years of crop failures, that the people, ruined by the poll tax, were impoverished and dying of hunger, about mass exodus to Poland, the Don and even to the Bashkirs. The Note ends with a warning that if the previous policy is continued, the state may come to “ultimate destruction and flight.”

The experience of Peter’s reforms confirmed the global practice - without delegating part of the powers to a society that is at least partially structured (parliament, self-government, political parties etc.), without civilized forms of feedback between the state and society, even a well-functioning state apparatus is doomed to pursue ineffective policies: strategic and tactical miscalculations with long-term negative consequences, solving problems at the cost of such costs and losses that completely or partially depreciate the achieved results results.

List of sources used

1. Alekseeva E.V. The use of European experience in government under Peter I // Questions of history. 2006 No. 2
2. Anisimov E.V. "Peter I: the birth of an empire."
3. Ansimov E.V. Tax reform of Peter I. M., 1987
4. Bogdanov A.P. “Princess Sophia and Peter. Drama of Sofia” / A.P. Bogdanov - M.: Veche - 2008. -380 s.
5. Bogoslovsky M.M. “Peter I. Materials for biography” / Ed. V.I. Lebedeva. T. 1. M.,
6. Danilov A.G. “Russia at the crossroads of history of the XIV-XIX centuries.” / A.G. Danilov - St. Petersburg: Aletheya, 2017. -440 p.
7. Kirillov V.V. "History of Russia, a textbook for bachelors." Tutorial/ V.V. Kirillov - 4th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Education Yurayt, 2012. - 661 p. — Series: Bachelor.
8. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course. Part IV.
9. Sklyarenko V., Syadko V., Rudycheva I., “Riddles of History. Romanov Dynasty” / V. Sklyarenko, V. Syadko, I. Rudycheva. — Publisher: Folio, 2013 — 520 p.
10. Soloviev S.M. “History of Russia since ancient times” Book. VIII, T. 16.
11. Shilnik L. “Black holes of the Russian Empire” / L. Shilnik - M.: NTs ENAS, 2007. -192s.
12. Eidelman N.Ya. "Revolution from above" in Russia. M., 1989

17th century - the time of Russia's study from Western Europe "German Settlement" "German Settlement" - settlement of foreign specialists in Moscow (in Kukuy) "German Settlement" "German Settlement" "German Settlement" - settlement of foreign specialists in Moscow (in Kukuy) " German settlement" in fashion foreign languages, dancing, clothes, the Dutch are building factories and ships, they failed to return the coast of the Gulf of Finland, reforms are needed to stop the Crimean raids

Reforms of Fyodor Alekseevich (): Abolition of localism 1682; Increase in regiments of the “new system”; Strengthening the power of local governors; Orders that duplicated each other's activities have been abolished.

Basilian monk, spiritual writer, theologian, poet, playwright, translator. He was a mentor to the children of Alexei Mikhailovich from Miloslavskaya: Alexei, Sophia and Fedor. Basilian monk, spiritual writer, theologian, poet, playwright, translator. He was a mentor to the children of Alexei Mikhailovich from Miloslavskaya: Alexei, Sophia and Fedor.

Ordin-Nashchokin Afanasy Lavrentievich (nearby, Pskov), Russian statesman and military leader, diplomat and economist of the mid and 2nd half of the 17th century. Born into the family of a Pskov nobleman, he grew up in Opochka, received good education(studied foreign languages, mathematics, rhetoric). From 1622 to military service in Pskov, from the early 40s. involved in the diplomatic service. During Russian-Swedish war participated in the assault on Vitebsk, the campaign against Dinaburg, and led the assault on Drissa. In 1656 he signed a treaty of friendship and alliance with Courland and established relations with Brandenburg. In 1658 he conducted successful negotiations with the Swedes, which ended with the signing of a truce

Yuri Krizhanich(Croatian Juraj Križanić; around September 1683) Croatian theologian, philosopher, writer, polyglot linguist, historian, ethnographer, publicist and encyclopedist, missionary priest, advocated the union of the Catholic and Orthodox churches and for the unity of the Slavic peoples. Croatian September 1683, Croatian theologian, philosopher, writer, linguist, polyglot historian, ethnographer, publicist, encyclopedist of the Catholic and Orthodox churches. Arrived in Moscow in 1661, he was accused of supporting the Uniates and sent into exile in Tobolsk, where he spent 16 years. In Tobolsk, Krizhanich wrote his main works: “Politics”, “On Divine Providence”, “Interpretation of Historical Prophecies”, “On Holy Baptism”, “Grammatical Research on the Russian Language (the Idea of ​​a Pan-Slavic Language)”. After the death of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, on March 5, 1676, Krizhanich received royal forgiveness and permission to return to Moscow, and then leave Russia. Moscow in the year of the Uniates Tobolsk Alexei Mikhailovich 1676

The country was on the eve of great transformations. What were the prerequisites for Peter's reforms?

Russia was a backward country. This backwardness posed a serious danger to the independence of the Russian people.

Industry was feudal in structure, and in terms of production volume it was significantly inferior to the industry of Western European countries.

The Russian army largely consisted of backward noble militia and archers, poorly armed and trained. The complex and clumsy state apparatus, headed by the boyar aristocracy, did not meet the needs of the country.

Rus' also lagged behind in the field of spiritual culture. Education hardly penetrated the masses, and even in the ruling circles there were many uneducated and completely illiterate people.

Russia of the 17th century itself historical development was faced with the need for radical reforms, since only in this way could it secure its worthy place among the states of the West and the East.

It should be noted that by this time in the history of our country, significant shifts in its development had already occurred.

The first ones arose industrial enterprises manufacturing type, handicrafts and crafts grew, trade in agricultural products developed.

The social and geographical division of labor has continuously increased - the basis of the established and developing all-Russian market. The city was separated from the village. Fishing and agricultural areas were identified.

Domestic and foreign trade developed.

In the second half of the 17th century, the nature of the state system in Rus' began to change, and absolutism took shape more and more clearly.

Received further development Russian culture and sciences: mathematics and mechanics, physics and chemistry, geography and botany, astronomy and mining. Cossack explorers discovered a number of new lands in Siberia.

Belinsky was right when he spoke about the affairs and people of pre-Petrine Russia: “My God, what eras, what faces! Yes, there would be several Shakespeares and Walter Scotts!”

The 17th century was the time when Russia established constant communication with Western Europe, established closer trade and diplomatic ties with her, used her technology and science, perceived her culture and enlightenment. Studying and borrowing, Russia developed independently, taking only what it needed, and only when it was necessary. This was a time of accumulation of strength of the Russian people, which made it possible to implement the grandiose reforms of Peter, prepared by the very course of the historical development of Russia.

Peter's reforms were prepared by the entire previous history of the people, "demanded by the people." Already before Peter, a fairly integral reform program had been drawn up, which in many ways coincided with Peter’s reforms, in others going even further than them. A general transformation was being prepared, which, in the peaceful course of affairs, could spread over a number of generations.

The reform, as it was carried out by Peter, was his personal matter, an unparalleled violent matter and, however, involuntary and necessary.

The external dangers of the state outpaced the natural growth of the people, who were ossified in their development. The renewal of Russia could not be left to the gradual quiet work of time, not pushed by force.

The reforms affected literally all aspects of the life of the Russian state and the Russian people, but the main ones include the following reforms: military, government and administration, class structure of Russian society, taxation, church, as well as in the field of culture and everyday life.

It should be noted that the main driving force behind Peter's reforms was war.

It is necessary to highlight three important events of those years that influenced the formation of Peter the Reformer. Firstly, this is a trip to Arkhangelsk in 1693-1694. An ordinary “amusing” trip to the city on the White Sea undoubtedly became a major event in the life of the young tsar. For the first time he saw a real sea, real ships, made his first voyage in a turbulent and dangerous element, so unlike the surface of the ponds of the Moscow region and Lake Pleshcheyevo. This gave a powerful impetus to fantasy, a dream of the sea appeared for Russia, and a genuine cult of the ship and the sea element arose. Since that time in Arkhangelsk, as M. Bogoslovsky wrote, “the sound of sea waves, sea air, sea ​​element pull him towards themselves and over the years they will become for him necessary need. He will develop an organic desire for the sea.”

The second important event of those years was the Azov campaigns of 1695-1696 - the war with Turkey for access to the Sea of ​​Azov. Here, on the southern borders, occurred during these years dress rehearsal those events that unfolded on a different, more grandiose and dramatic scale in early XVII I century already on the western borders. Initial failures with the capture of Azov, the construction of the fleet in Voronezh, finally military victory over a serious opponent, erection on the shore Sea of ​​Azov a new city, different from traditional Russian cities - Taganrog - we later meet all this on the banks of the Neva and Baltic. For Peter, the Azov campaigns were the first military school, which, although he later assessed it skeptically, still brought him undoubted benefit. The experience of leading a large army, besieging and storming a strong fortress was not in vain for the military genius Peter. No less important is the fact that here, under the walls of Azov, the idea of ​​his place, “position,” and role in the life of Russia entered into Peter’s consciousness. It is with Azov campaigns, and not from the moment of accession, as rightly noted Soviet historian N. I. Pavlenko. Peter subsequently counted down his “service” on the throne. It was the idea of ​​serving Russia, as he understood it, that became the main core of his life, filling for him with the highest meaning all his actions and deeds, even the most unseemly and dubious from the point of view of the morality of that time.

Finally, the third event that influenced the development of the personality of the future transformer of Russia was his long trip abroad as part of the Great Embassy in 1696-1697. Peter rode not as a member of the delegation, but as an accompanying person, among other nobles and servants. This gave him significant freedom and allowed him to become closely acquainted with many aspects of life in Holland, England and other countries. And it was, of course, not only about learning the craft of a shipbuilder in Dutch and English shipyards. Peter for the first time saw Western European civilization in all its military and cultural power, felt its spirit, meaning and strength. He took from Europe not only knowledge, impressions, work peeves, but also an idea that he formulated for himself very simply: to make Russia just as strong , like the great powers of Europe, it is necessary to adopt everything necessary from the West as quickly as possible. It was then that Peter’s orientation towards the Western European model of life finally took shape.

Prerequisites for Peter's reforms

In the first years of his reign, the tsar, who was later destined to become famous for the comprehensive transformation of the Russian state, still stood aloof from government administration. As before, he was attracted only by “Neptune’s” and “Mars’s fun,” but in these “fun” the main outlines of the future transformations of the army and navy that were to make Russia powerful state. Natalya Kirillovna herself was “of easy mind” and therefore “she was not a fool to rule.”

The government of the country ended up in the hands of a handful of mediocre and narrow-minded boyars led by younger brother Tsarina Natalya Kirillovna by Lev Kirillovich Naryshkin, a power-hungry and greedy man, energetic and temperamental, but “of a much mean mind,” who put everything in the service of his own enrichment. Due to his inexperience and limitations, Lev Kirillovich could not even understand the affairs of the Ambassadorial Prikaz he headed, where clerk Emelyan Ukraintsev was in charge. Little different as rulers from Lev Kirillovich were Tikhon Nikitich Streshnev, the head of the Rank Order, Ivan Borisovich Troekurov, Pyotr Ivanovich Prozorovsky and other boyars who headed various orders. The exception to this crowd of mediocre rulers was Boris Alekseevich Golitsyn, “a man of great intelligence, and especially sharpness.” Boris Alekseevich, who was friends with foreigners even before the events of August 1689, contributed to Peter’s rapprochement with foreign officers Patrick Gordon and Franz Lefort. But, unfortunately, Golitsyn was extremely “prone to drink” and loved “fun.” The head of this government was Lev Kirillovich. For ten years (1689–1699) this government did nothing remarkable.

IN government affairs Stagnation reigned, trade and industry were in decline, factories inherited by the careless owner - Naryshkin, were destroyed, the army also bore the mark of the pernicious influence of the incompetent government.

Meanwhile, the country stood on the eve of great transformations, which were urgently demanded by the Russian national economy, public administration, and the army.

What were the prerequisites for Peter's reforms?

Russia was a backward country. This backwardness posed a serious danger to national independence Russian people.

Industry developed, but it was feudal in structure, and in terms of production volume it was significantly inferior to the industry of Western European countries. Agriculture was characterized by routine farming methods and was based on the forced labor of the exhausted, impoverished serf.

The Russian army, for the most part, consisted of backward noble militia and archers, poorly armed and trained. The complex and clumsy state apparatus of Moscow Rus', headed by the boyar aristocracy, complicated and expensive, did not meet the needs of the country.

Lenin spoke about the Russian autocracy of the 17th century. as an autocracy with the Boyar Duma and the boyar aristocracy at its head.

This political system was clearly becoming obsolete and required radical reforms.

Rus' also lagged behind in the field of spiritual culture.

Education almost did not penetrate into the masses of the people, who were downtrodden and robbed. Even in the ruling circles there were many uneducated, “unstudent” people, and many were completely illiterate. There were almost no schools, literacy and book culture did not become the property of any broad masses. The majority of the boyars and clergy were afraid of “bookishness,” i.e., science.

Russia XVII century was truly wretched and abundant, powerful and powerless.

By the very course of historical development, evolution state apparatus, political system, the development of culture, Russia was faced with the need for radical reforms to eliminate backwardness in the field of industry, and in the field of culture, and in the field of political system, etc., because only in this way could it secure its rightful place among the states of the West and the East.

In the 16th century as a result of a long, fierce struggle, Ivan the Terrible defeated the reactionary boyars and, relying on the progressive army of the guardsmen, eliminated the remnants political system period feudal fragmentation, which hampered the economic development of Russia, weakened it militarily, and impeded the development of national Russian culture.

Muscovite Rus' during the reign of Ivan the Terrible made great success in the field of development national economy country and strengthening its international position.

Despite these achievements, the Russian state late XVI and the beginning of the 17th century. lagged behind the advanced countries of Europe, and this gave the Poles and Swedes the opportunity at the beginning of the 17th century. undertake an intervention that ravaged and devastated the Russian land. The Swedes occupied the north-west and settled in Novgorod; the Poles settled in Moscow, and detachments Polish gentry and the Zholners robbed the Russian people, smashed and burned Russian cities and villages. An exceptional lift was needed masses, led by the great patriots and commanders of the Russian land Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, so that the people's militia they created would expel the invaders from their native land and put an end to foreign rule.

The 17th century in the history of our country was characterized by significant shifts in the field of economic development of Russia, its government system, in the field of development of Russian culture.

The first industrial enterprises of the manufacturing type arose: Tula and Kashira ironworks, Olonets, Zvenigorod factories, etc., handicraft industries (Pomeranian, Volga, Tula, Ustyuzhensk, Yaroslavl, etc.), crafts, trades of serf-owners grew, and trade in agricultural products developed.

The social and geographical division of labor has continuously increased - the basis of the established and developing all-Russian market. The city became more and more separated from the village. The number of urban-type settlements increased. Their growth is especially rapid in the second half XVII c., when about one hundred and sixty cities were founded.

The division of labor is reflected in the division of fishing and agricultural areas. In the area of ​​Tula, Kargopol, and Ustyuzhina, handicraft and handicraft iron-making industries are taking shape. Yaroslavl, Belozersk, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Arkhangelsk are famous for their leather, woodworking, cloth, linen and other crafts. Mutual relations are established trade relations between the cities of the Russian land. Customs books say that, for example, Vyazma trades with forty-five cities, Tikhvin with thirty, etc. City markets, markets, and fairs are growing (Makaryevskaya, Irbitskaya, Arkhangelskaya); Siberia supplies furs, the North - wooden crafts, timber, blubber and other products of hunting and fishing, resin, tar, potash; Ryazan land and Seversk Ukraine - bread; Volga region - fish, salt, potash and also bread, etc.

Along with domestic trade, foreign trade also developed. Through Kholmogory and Arkhangelsk, Moscow communicates with England, Holland, Denmark and other countries of Western Europe, trades through Narva and Riga, using them as ports.

The rapid pace of development of trades and crafts, the emergence and development of the first manufactories, the growth of domestic and foreign trade - all this could not but influence the economic policy of the Moscow government.

The Novgorod Charter of 1667, authored by the boyar Afanasy Lavrentievich Ordyn-Nashchokin, provided for the introduction of a single customs duty and established customs tariffs and trade rules that spoke of the government's protective policy towards Russian merchants. The New Trade Charter testifies to the emergence in the Moscow State of the 17th century. economic policy of mercantilism, and, even more, judging by the fact that it encourages the export not of raw materials, but of goods, it was about economic policy type of Colbertism, which provides for the development of not only trade, but above all industry. It is very interesting to note that the same Ordyk-Nashchokin in his Novgorod Charter recommended that merchants trade in “warehouses,” that is, organize trading companies. On his initiative, the first Russian ship “Eagle” was laid down, negotiations were held on the lease of harbors on the Baltic Sea, he was also the author of the project for the creation of city government and the order of Merchant Affairs, a kind of forerunner of the Ministry of Trade. A whole series of Ordyn-Nashchokin’s events remained unimplemented, since they were ahead of their time, but the very possibility of the emergence of his projects, like those listed above, indicates high development crafts, trades, manufactures and trade in Russia XVII V.

Moscow state in the 17th century. was not that provincial “Muscovy” that was written about not so long ago foreign travelers. Already during the reign of Ivan III, during the beginning of the formation of the Russian centralized state, Russia became important factor diplomacy and international relations.

A serious danger looming over the Russian land at the beginning of the 17th century, when the Swedish and Polish troops threatened the very existence of the Russian people, forced the Moscow government to take a number of measures to strengthen the defense of the borders of their country and expand trade and diplomatic ties with the states of Western Europe and the East. That wall with which Rus' was fenced off from Western Europe during the years of hated and difficult Tatar yoke, which insulted and withered the very soul of the Russian people who became its victims and was the cause of Russia’s backwardness, has long since cracked in many places. Trade and diplomatic relations, international agreements and embassies, mutual exchange experience, travel, appearance German settlement in Moscow, the arrival of foreigners who settled in Russia, the trips of Russian people abroad, the spread of the principles of Western European science and culture in Russia, on the one hand, on the other, the use of the experience of Russian people and Russian “bookishness” in Western Europe - all this ultimately led to the elimination of the former isolation of Russia caused by the Golden Horde rule.

In the second half of the 17th century. The nature of the political system in Rus' begins to change. Zemsky Sobors cease to be convened, the value decreases Boyar Duma. But the Order of Secret Affairs, “Near Room,” begins to play a big role. Absolutism begins to take shape.

A new period in Russian history - the 17th century was a new stage in the development of Russian science and culture. He demanded new knowledge and discoveries. Foreign intervention at the beginning of the century, during the days of the “Moscow Troubles”, the threat to Russia from hostile states throughout the century, the growth of the country’s national economy, which determined a new stage in the development of Russian foreign policy and determined the direction of Russia’s military efforts - all this caused the development of a number of sciences: mathematics and mechanics, physics and chemistry, geography and botany, astronomy and “mining”.

At the beginning of the 17th century. the famous “Charter of military, cannon and other affairs” was drawn up, reflecting scientific ideas Renaissance. The achievements of Western European science were not copied by him, but were selected and processed in relation to the interests of Russia, taking into account its accumulated knowledge and experience. The “Charter” was not inferior either in erudition or experience to the “cunning wisdom of overseas.” The understanding of Russian people about the world around them, about countries and peoples is expanding. Moscow “book people” of the 17th century. knew about Egypt and Abyssinia, Barbary and the Nile, Florida and Mexico, Peru and Brazil, Java and Ceylon, Sumatra and China. On fragile kochas and horses, Cossack explorers discovered the Ob and Irtysh, the Yenisei and Lena, the Kolyma and Indigirka, the Big Stone Nose and the Bering Strait, Kamchatka and the Amur.

That is why in Russia in the 17th century. such people lived and acted as Ordyn-Nashchokin, who was the first to understand the need for fundamental transformations of the country, who said: “It is not a shame for a good person to learn from strangers,” and at the same time he knew for sure that foreign “dress is not for us, but ours is not for them.” He saw the future of Russia “at sea” and therefore stubbornly demanded the activation of Russian diplomacy in the Baltic, dreamed of organizing a regular army, sent ambassadors abroad, waged war with Sweden and “hunted” for the brotherhood of all Slavic peoples under the leadership of powerful Russia.

He tried to establish trade relations with Khiva, Bukhara, Persia, equipped an embassy to India, strove for the “Bogdoy seas”, to China, to the Far East, to the shores of Pacific Ocean and Amur, which he thought to populate with Cossacks.

Ordyn-Nashchokin strove for “sea havens”, established a “city structure” in Pskov, designed the replacement of the noble militia with regular troops recruited on the basis conscription, and proposed a number of projects that could honor the statesman not only of the 17th, but also of the 18th century.

In Russia in the 17th century. During this period, the activities of Vasily Vasilyevich Golitsyn, a widely educated scientist, the author of the project for the creation of a regular army, who, as we have already seen, put forward, among other transformations, the idea of ​​​​changing the situation of peasants living on state land.

Vasily Vasilyevich Golitsyn went further than Ordyn-Nashchokin in his “projects”. He dreamed of social reconstruction, “moral improvement,” the spread of education and enlightenment, and strengthening ties with Europe. He was not a businessman, like Afanasy Lavrentievich Ordyn-Nashchokin, but rather a “projector” in the style of the “enlightened age” of Catherine II. Who knows what thoughts, unsaid by the Polish ambassador Neville, to whom Golitsyn opened up, swarmed in his head and what he wrote in his manuscript “On civil life or on the correction of all affairs that belong to the common people,” kept in his library!

The spirit of transformation penetrated into the boyars' mansions. Tsar Alexei’s “uncle” Boris Ivanovich Morozov and boyar Artamon Sergeevich Matveev, a bibliophile, a very educated and well-read man, the first compiler of historical works, followed this path.

On the initiative of Artamon Matveev, the first theater in Rus' arose and drama school, and at the court and in a number of boyar houses the girl ceased to be a recluse in the chamber; on his own initiative, “comedy performances” were watched at court, which was already the embryo of Peter’s assemblies.

He was a statesman who looked boldly and walked forward.

Next to him, in addition, but on a different path, walked Fyodor Mikhailovich Rtishchev, a learned theologian, founder of the first hospitals and shelters, a “philanthropist” and philanthropist. All this testified to the courage of thought, the scope and depth of the ideas of the progressive people of Muscovite Rus' in the 17th century, that same “Muscovy” that many ignorant and narrow-minded, narcissistic and stupid foreign ambassadors and travelers considered a “wild” and “Asian” country.

And Belinsky was deeply right when he spoke about the affairs and people of pre-Petrine Russia: “My God, what eras, what faces! Yes, there would be several Shakespeares and Walter Scotts!”

It was not for nothing that the Croatian scientist Yuri Krizanich sought to move to Moscow. This faithful son Slavs, for whom Russia became a second homeland, saw in Moscow a force capable of liberating Slavic peoples from “foreign rule” - foreign yoke. “No people under the sun have been so offended and disgraced by foreigners as we, Slavs, by the Germans...” wrote Krizhanich. Speaking as an ardent opponent of admiration for everything “German”, foreign, he appealed to the sense of self-worth, to the sense of national pride of the Slavs, saying that all sorrows “come from foreignness: we marvel at all sorts of foreign things, praise them and extol them, but we despise our home life "

The 17th century was a time when Russia established constant communication with Western Europe, established closer trade and diplomatic ties with it than before, used its technology and science, and embraced its culture and enlightenment. But this was precisely communication, not influence, and there could be no talk of any imitation.

By learning and borrowing, Russia developed independently and took only what it needed, and only when it was necessary. This was a time of accumulation of strength of the Russian people, which made it possible in the 18th century. to implement the grandiose reforms of Peter, prepared by the very course of the historical development of Russia.

The Russian people have been accumulating experience for centuries - the experience of farmers and woodcutters, masons and carpenters, brave Pomors and Cossacks. This experience was reflected in the development of “skillful sciences” and the knowledge of Russian people about the world and nature around them. The thirst and need for knowledge spread more and more among the advanced Russian people. In the struggle for the independence of their homeland, the Russian people sought to learn how to wield the enemy’s weapons and be no less skilled in military affairs; they saw the need to go to the sea in order to satisfy the interests of developing Russian trade and industry and provide what Russia deserves international situation. All this taken together, which manifested itself so clearly at the end of the 17th century, indicated that before the start of Peter’s activities, Russia stood on the threshold of transformation.

This was felt even during the reign of Peter I’s father, Alexei Mikhailovich. But he created only a “transformative mood.” Alexey Mikhailovich, an educated man for that time, showed a keen curiosity about everything “overseas”, but because of his indecision, he did not break with antiquity, although he did not turn away from innovations. By figuratively V. O. Klyuchevsky, “Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich adopted a pose in the transformative movement corresponding to this view of the matter: with one foot he still firmly rested on his native Orthodox antiquity, and the other was already carried beyond its line, and he remained in this indecisive transition position."

Muscovite Rus' was turned into Russian Empire Peter's reforms. True, these reforms were not the invention of one person, they were not the work of one outstanding personality- Peter I, no matter how talented he was, this “really great man" They were prepared social development Russia in the previous period. And when the great transformer of the Russian state entered the arena of history with his mighty stride, the ground for his activities was already prepared.

Peter's statesmanship was manifested precisely in the fact that he correctly took into account the conditions that had developed at the time of his activity, in which Russia was developing, understood what was necessary in order to make the Russian state strong, rich and cultural, and managed to direct all his activities to serve this goals. Peter gave all his remarkable talent, all his energy, all of himself to the service of his infinitely beloved Motherland. He realized that the future of the country was in his hands and “began to serve Russia.”

However, Peter could not completely resolve the grandiose task facing him, since the state, strengthening, enriching and cultural development to which Peter’s activities were devoted was “ nation state landowners and merchants,” since Peter’s policy was class-limited.