Russia in the first half of the 18th century. The struggle of the masses against feudal oppression

1. Socio-economic development of Russia in the 18th century..

In the 18th century The development of Russia, as in previous times, was carried out on a feudal-serf basis. Serfdom relations covered all spheres of public life, they spread to new territories and categories of the population, and became more and more severe forms. At the same time, the 18th century. was a period when capitalist relations began to take shape within the feudal system, which was an event of exceptional importance in the process of the country’s socio-economic development. The new way of life, being very weak, was strongly influenced by the dominant system and retained a number of features of serfdom. Socio-economic development of Russia in the 18th century. took place in complex and contradictory conditions.

The basis of the population structure in the 18th century. lay the class principle. The ruling class became Russian nobility, consolidated in the first quarter XVIII V. into a single class-estate. The class rights and privileges of the nobility, which secured its dominance in economics and politics, were strengthened and expanded throughout the century. By the end of the 18th century. nobles made up about 1% of the country's population. Certain benefits (exemption from poll tax, conscription, corporal punishment) were provided to the clergy and guild merchants, the so-called semi-privileged classes. The category of guild merchants accounted for only 0.5% of the population. By the end of the century, a semi-privileged military service class (Cossacks, Kalmyks, part of the Bashkirs) had emerged, accounting for less than 2% of the total population. It was exempt from poll tax and conscription, but carried out compulsory military service. special conditions. The bulk of the country's population consisted of tax-paying classes (peasants, townspeople, guild artisans). By the end of the century, the tax-paying population of cities accounted for slightly more than 3% of the total population. Over 90% of the country's population were peasants, divided into two large categories: state and landowners. Peasants of all categories were serfs. They were tied to the ground, paid feudal rent, bore conscription duties and experienced all the hardships of class inferiority.

The most difficult situation was for the privately owned peasants, who were under the unlimited power and ownership of the landowners. In the non-chernozem zone, in conditions of infertile soils, about 55% of the landowner peasants were transferred to cash rent, which was often supplemented by natural rent. Its size grew rapidly. The quitrent, according to experts, from 1713 to 1753 increased from 30 rubles to 200. A significant part was paid by peasants through the sale of their handicrafts and non-agricultural products on the market, as well as from money received from various jobs in cities and towns. in factories. All this testified to the destruction of the natural economy of the village, to the strengthening of ties between the quitrent peasant economy and the market. In the non-chernozem zone, areas appeared in which residents of villages and villages specialized in certain non-agricultural trades: leather production (Kimry, Tver province), weaving (Ivanovo-Vladimir province), metalworking (Lyskovo, Pavlovo, Murashkino Nizhny Novgorod province). Craft production here gradually developed into manufacturing.

In the black earth part of the country, working rent was widely practiced, sometimes reaching 4-5 days a week. The growth of corvée was accompanied by a sharp increase in the size of the lord's arable land due to the reduction of peasant plots. The landowners took away plots from some of the peasants and transferred them for a month. Such peasants, as a rule, did not have their own farm and worked almost the entire week in the master's plowing, receiving a meager monthly allowance. They had no time left to engage in crafts or trade. It was not the peasant, but the landowner, who was associated with the market in this zone. And the connection between the landowners' economy and the market strengthened. The nobles' desire for a luxurious life led to increased exploitation of the peasants, to the undermining of the peasant economy, and to the impoverishment of the peasants. Serfdom slowed down the process of social stratification of the peasantry and the formation of a class of rural bourgeoisie. Capitalist relations began to penetrate into the countryside (mainly their germs are felt in village crafts, which grew into manufacture), but they were still very weak and had a semi-feudal character.

The 18th century was a time of intensive development of industry, primarily manufacturing. The dynamics of its development are as follows. By the end of the first quarter of the century, there were more than 100 manufactories in Russia, in 1760 - about 500, and by the end of the century - over 1000. The Urals became the most important center of the metallurgical industry. By the middle of the century, 18 state-owned and 11 private ironworks operated in the Urals. Thanks to the high scale of Ural production at that time, Russia was smelting 2 million pounds of pig iron by the middle of the century, one and a half times more than England, which was advanced at that time. At the beginning of the century, Russia imported iron from abroad, and in the middle of the century, soft, malleable Ural iron became one of the important Russian exports. Following ferrous metallurgy, non-ferrous metallurgy developed. The arms industry and shipbuilding received a powerful impetus in its development.

Moscow and St. Petersburg became major centers of light industry. Linen, cloth, sailing, and leather manufactories arose in the central regions of Russia. In the 18th century A new branch of textile production for the country - cotton - received significant development. Calico-printing factories arose in Moscow, Kolomna, Arzamas, in the Vladimir province, etc. Some factories employed hundreds or even thousands of workers.

IN Russia XVIII V. There were two types of manufactories: a) based on the use of forced labor (state-owned and patrimonial manufactories); b) based on hired labor (merchant and peasant manufactories).

In the 18th century, the role of manufactories based on wage labor increased. Their owners, as a rule, were merchants and wealthy peasants. The majority of those who worked were peasants. In relation to the owners of manufactories, they acted as hired workers, but at the same time continued to remain serfs, paying feudal rent to their landowners. These manufactories successfully competed with state-owned and patrimonial ones.

XVIII century brought a lot of new things into the life of the city. From the end of the 17th century. The growth of the urban population intensified, more than tripling over the century. The number of cities also grew rapidly. If at the end of the 17th century. there were about 250 of them, then in the second half of the 18th century. - already about 400. Important distinguishing feature cities of the 18th century - the presence in many of them of large and small manufactories. The largest industrial region of the country was developing in the Moscow region. Moscow, Tula, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Kaluga had a developed and diverse manufacturing industry.

The expansion of internal volume led to deepening specialization in the production of goods and products of all kinds, which in turn determined the further development of the All-Russian market. At the end of the century, over 1,600 fairs were involved in domestic trade. The largest of them were: Nizhny Novgorod, Irbit (in the Urals), Svensk (near Bryansk), Korennaya (near Kursk), Nezhinsk (in Ukraine).

In foreign trade, Russia's partners were England, Sweden, Denmark, and in the East: Turkey, Iran, India and China. Foreign trade was now carried out through St. Petersburg, Riga, Narva, Revel and other Baltic ports. In the south, Astrakhan remained the main trade gate. A feature of Russian foreign trade in the 18th century. there was a significant predominance of exports over imports. The main exported goods were flax, hemp, timber, leather, canvas, canvas, and bread. In the second half of the century, iron exports increased sharply. All this testified to the increasing role commodity-money relations and manufacturing industry in the country's economy.

2. Domestic policy of Russia in 1725-1800.

The 37-year period of political instability (1725-1762) that followed the death of Peter I was called the “Era of Palace Revolutions.” During this period, state policy was determined by individual groups of the palace nobility, who actively intervened in resolving the issue of the heir to the throne, fought among themselves for power, and carried out palace coups. The reason for such an intervention was the Charter on the Succession to the Throne, issued by Peter I on February 5, 1722, which abolished “both orders of succession to the throne that were in force before, both the will and the conciliar election, replacing both with personal appointment, at the discretion of the reigning sovereign.” 5 (*) Peter himself did not take advantage of this charter; he died on January 28, 1725, without appointing a successor. Therefore, immediately after his death, a struggle for power began between representatives of the ruling elite.

The decisive force in the palace coups was the guard, a privileged part of the regular army created by Peter (these are the famous Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments, in the 30s two new ones were added to them, the Izmailovsky and Horse Guards). Her participation decided the outcome of the matter: which side the guard was on, that group would win. The Guard was not only a privileged part of the Russian army, it was a representative of an entire class (the nobility), from whose midst it was almost exclusively formed and whose interests it represented.

Palace coups testified to the weakness of absolute power under the successors of Peter I, who were unable to continue reforms with energy and in the spirit of a pioneer and who could govern the state only by relying on their entourage. Favoritism flourished in full bloom during this period. Temporary favorites received unlimited influence on state policy.

The only heir of Peter I in the male line was his grandson - the son of the executed Tsarevich Alexei Peter. But the wife of Peter I, Catherine, laid claim to the throne. Peter's two daughters, Anna (married to a Holstein prince) and Elizabeth, who was still a minor by that time, were also heirs. The issue of a successor was resolved by the quick actions of A. Menshikov, who, relying on the guard, carried out the first palace coup in favor of Catherine I (1725-1727). and became an all-powerful temporary worker under her.

As a result of mastering this chapter, the student should:

know

• the main directions and results of foreign policy of Catherine’s and Pavlov’s times;
• trends in the development of political and social structure Russian society during the crisis of serfdom;

be able to

• to substantiately identify the main trends in the decomposition of the serfdom economy;
• meaningfully compare such phenomena as “absolutism” and “enlightened absolutism”;

own

• the concept of “continuity in foreign policy”;
• basic principles of conflictology in relation to major protests, such as the peasant war led by E. I. Pugachev.

Socio-economic status

In the second half of the 18th century. Russia was a typical agrarian country dominated by serfdom. During the period of palace coups, landownership increased significantly and the number of serfs increased, since this was the main reward for those who brought one or another monarch to power. At the same time, the process of strengthening serf oppression was underway, the lordly plowing and corvée itself grew, reaching in the south of Russia up to five to six days a week. In non-black earth regions, landowners, on the contrary, sought to transfer peasants to cash rent. The rights of serfs were consistently reduced, and the judicial and police power of the landowner over the serfs expanded. It became possible to sell peasants without land, which undermined the very basis of serfdom.

On the other hand, there was an increase in agricultural production, primarily due to the development of new annexed lands (Northern Black Sea region, Azov region, Kuban, Crimea), as well as in connection with the transition local population The Urals and Siberia (Bashkirs, Buryats, etc.) from nomadic cattle breeding to agriculture. New agricultural crops were developed: potatoes, sunflowers, tobacco. The government sought to introduce landowners to new methods and forms of farming. For this purpose, Volnoe was created in 1765 economic society, which turned out to be one of the most successful projects of the policy of “enlightened absolutism”. It existed until 1917.

The reforms of Peter I gave a significant impetus to the development of industrial production. The number of large manufactories that supplied the army and navy with their products increased. These manufactories employed civilian workers and assigned peasants. Ferrous metallurgy developed rapidly. By the middle of the 18th century. Russia came out on top in Europe in the production of cast iron, which it exported to European countries. New industries emerged: cotton, porcelain, gold mining.

Government policy contributed to the development of noble manufactories, as well as the transfer of some state-owned factories into private hands. In the Urals, private manufactories actively developed in mining and metallurgy, and in Central region- in linen and cloth production. The main workforce at these enterprises were sessional peasants. Among the patrimonial manufactories, textiles and distilleries, where serfs worked, predominated. Merchant manufactories, based on free labor, developed in cotton production. In 1762, it was prohibited to buy serfs into factories and the practice of assigning peasants to enterprises was stopped. A civilian labor market began to form. A further impetus to the development of industry was given by the 1775 manifesto on freedom of enterprise, which encouraged the creation of merchant and peasant manufactories.

The development and expansion of commodity-money relations continued. In 1769, Catherine II held financial reform, as a result of which paper money was introduced - banknotes. In 1777, loan and savings banks for short-term credit were opened, which expanded the opportunities for small entrepreneurs to develop and expand small-scale production. The fishing activity of peasants intensified, as well as otkhodnichestvo (otherwise known as waste fishing, when peasants left home to work in more developed areas), which destroyed the framework of the patriarchal economy. The process of economic specialization of the country's regions was actively underway. The formation of the all-Russian market was completed. Bread from the black earth regions and Ukraine, Ural iron, leather, fish and wool from the Volga region, Siberian furs and urban handicrafts central Russia, flax and hemp from the Novgorod and Smolensk lands and many other goods were sold at auctions and fairs in Nizhny Novgorod, Orenburg, Irbit, Nezhin (Ukraine), Kursk, Arkhangelsk. Stationary trade also developed, which was carried out in cities either daily or on certain days of the week.

Foreign trade was affected by the success of the development of domestic industry: Russia became Europe's largest exporter of cast iron, the export of which increased from 800 thousand poods in 1760 to 3840 thousand poods in 1783. Russia also exported timber, hemp, linen fabrics, sailing canvas, various types of leather. WITH late XVIII V. grain began to be sold through the Black Sea ports. The main consumer of Russian goods was England. Russia's major trading partners were Prussia and Sweden. Imports, as in the previous decade, were dominated by sugar, cloth, coffee, dyes, silk, tea, and wine. Russia exported manufactured goods to the countries of the East, and Türkiye and Iran remained the main trading partners. In addition, Russian merchants were engaged in intermediary trade, selling industrial products of European countries. Customs tariffs of 1776, 1782 and 1796 retained high duties on foreign goods, which indicated the preservation of the protectionist nature of the foreign trade policy of the Russian government.

In the second half of the 18th century. Capitalist relations were actively developing in European countries, and Russia entered a period of crisis of serfdom relations. Economic development Russia of this period had a number of features that remained in the first half of the 19th century:

• the extensive nature of the development of all sectors of the economy, especially agriculture;
• the large role of the state in the development of the economy (state orders, protectionist policies, etc.);
• the use of forced labor of serfs, possessions and assigned peasants in manufactories and factories, the absence of a free labor market;
• slow growth in demand for industrial goods, as peasant farm retained its natural character.

1. The state apparatus of the absolute monarchy in Russia in the first quarter of the 78th century.

The establishment of absolutism in Russia. Bureaucratic apparatus. Changes in the political system in the first quarter of the 18th century. were prepared by all the previous development of the country: the growth of productive forces in the field of agriculture and crafts, the formation of a single all-Russian market, the emergence of manufacturing, etc.

However, due to unfavorable foreign policy conditions (constant struggle with external enemies, lack of access to open seas) in the 17th century. The backwardness of the Russian state in comparison with the most developed states began to be especially noticeable Western Europe who have embarked on the path of capitalist development (England, Holland, and partly France).

The monarchy with the Boyar Duma, a loose apparatus of orders and governors could not solve complex domestic and foreign policy problems. It was necessary to strengthen the state system by transforming the higher, central and local apparatus and army, turning the head of state - the autocratic king - into a bearer of absolute (unlimited) power.

Certain features of absolutism in Russia appeared from the middle of the 17th century, but only from the reign of Peter 1 (1689-1725) did the autocratic monarchy acquire the character of absolute, when " supreme power belongs entirely and indivisibly (unlimitedly) to the king."

The power of the monarch was enshrined in the laws of the first quarter of the 18th century. “His Majesty,” it was noted in the “interpretation” of Article 20 of the Military Regulations of 1716, “is an autocratic monarch who should not give an answer to anyone in the world in his affairs; but he has strength and power, his states and lands, like a most Christian sovereign governs according to his own will and goodness."

The expansion and bureaucratization of the state apparatus required new personnel command staff regular army and civil bureaucracy. The legislation of Peter I introduced compulsory military or civil service for nobles. The church and numerous clergy were brought into the service of the state.

The influx of new bureaucratic forces caused the creation of a bureaucratic hierarchy of service ranks, established by the “Table of Ranks” on January 24, 1722. When filling posts in the army, navy and in the state apparatus, the “Table” took into account not only nobility, but also personal merit, abilities, and experience .

As a result of reforms in the field of management, a system of bureaucratic government institutions emerged: the Senate, Synod, Cabinet and collegiums - in the center, governors, governors, commissars and other bodies - in the localities. The main cadres of officials in this apparatus were occupied by landowners and nobles. It was a "bureaucratic-noble monarchy."

The ideology of the feudal monarchy was religion, but absolutism also needed other ideological foundations. In order to strengthen their positions, individual Russian monarchs XVIII century supported their policies, following the example of a number of Western European monarchs, with references to advanced bourgeois philosophy ( natural law, enlightenment), sought to present themselves in the eyes of the foreign, as well as the emerging noble community in Russia, as “enlightened monarchs”. The secondary state function of managing science, education, charity and education acquired great importance. The monarchy of Peter I bore the character of “enlightened absolutism.” Based on the philosophy of natural law, Peter I justified all his actions with “national benefits and needs.” The desire to bring the country out of backwardness led to the training of personnel for the economy and culture abroad, the creation of some educational institutions; Peter I prepared the opening of the Academy of Sciences (opened in December 1725)

The “enlightened absolutism” of Peter I was combined with the strengthening of the punitive apparatus. The absolute monarchy was a “regular” police state. Police regulation permeated all aspects of the activities of the bureaucratic apparatus. The “General Regulations” on February 28, 1720 established the procedure for the activities and office work of state institutions in Russia. All boards had “regulations”. The severity of punishment was closely related to police regulation. To the existing punishment by death penalty in sixty cases according to the Code of 1649, the Military Articles of 1716 added thirteen more (including “resistance to superiors”). The old types of death penalty were added: execution, execution by lot; self-harmful punishments include tearing out nostrils, tongue and branding; a new type of exile was sending to the galleys (hard labor).

In the first quarter of the 18th century. characteristic was the application of military criminal laws to civilians. In conditions of long-term Northern War(1700-1721), popular unrest and uprisings, the state apparatus of administration and justice in the country was of a military-police nature.

Peter the Great, who received the title of emperor on October 22, 1721, was an outstanding and energetic statesman. According to far from complete estimates, 3,314 decrees, regulations and charters were issued during his reign; Peter 1 personally took part in the compilation and editing of many of them. With his participation, the most extensive “General Regulations” were drawn up - a law that determined the activities of the boards, a decree on the post of prosecutor general in 1722; he personally wrote the Naval Charter of 1720. In many decrees, Peter 1 emphasized his unlimited power, justifying it.

Higher government institutions. By the end of the 17th century, the Boyar Duma lost its former significance. In 1991, the Duma was still meeting, but the tsar resolved the main issues of domestic and foreign policy independently, enshrining them in “nominal” decrees.

Composition of the Duma for last decade century has more than halved. Usually at its meetings in 1700-1701. 30-40 members were present.

In 1699, under the Boyar Duma, the Near Office was established for financial control over the receipt and expenditure of funds from all orders. Soon the competence of this office increased. It became the meeting place for members of the Boyar Duma. Since 1704, the heads of orders began to gather here. Since 1708, these permanent meetings have been called the Consilia (or Conzilia) of ministers (as heads of orders were sometimes called), where various issues of government were discussed. In the absence of the king, the Council of Ministers governed the state. The Boyar Duma stopped meeting.

With the establishment of the Senate, the Council of Ministers ceased to exist. Limited by function financial control The Near Office existed until the establishment of the Audit Board.

The frequent departures of Peter I prompted him to create a higher state body with broader powers than the Near Chancellery and the Council of Ministers. On February 22, 1711, on the eve of departure for the Prut campaign, a decree was approved on the establishment of the Government Senate, which, apparently, was initially intended by the tsar as a temporary body (“for our absences”), but soon turned into a permanent higher government institution.

The Senate was a collegial body whose members were appointed by the king. Of the nine members of the Senate, only three were representatives of the ancient titled nobility (Prince Dolgoruky, Prince G.I. Volkonsky, Prince P.A. Golitsyn), the rest belonged to unnoble families that rose to prominence only in the 7th century. (T.N. Streshnev, I.A. Musin-Pushkin), to recognized businessmen (G.A. Plemyannikov) or nobles (M.V. Samarin, Z.G. Apukhtin, N.P. Melnitsky). Only three of the senators (Musin-Pushkin, Streshnev and Plemyannikov) were former members of the Boyar Duma. An office headed by the chief secretary was established under the Senate. Additional decrees of March 2 and 5, 1711 determined the functions and procedures of the Senate, which was supposed to take care of the observance of justice, state revenues and expenses, the appearance of nobles for service, etc. In the first years of its existence, the functions of the Senate were varied, and its competence was unusually broad. However, already during this period the king did not share his power with the Senate. The Senate was a legislative institution, with the exception of a few emergency cases when, in the absence of the king, it played the role of a legislative body.

The Senate was a supervisory body over the government apparatus and officials. This supervision was carried out by the fiscals, originally created in March 1711, whose task was to secretly eavesdrop, inspect and report on all crimes that harm the state, violations of laws, bribery, embezzlement, etc. The fiscal was not punished for unfair denunciations, but for correct ones he received rewards, equal to half a judicial fine from the official he incriminated. The fiscals were led by the chief fiscal, who was part of the Senate, who maintained contact with them through the fiscal desk of the Senate office. Denunciations were considered and reported monthly to the Senate by the Execution Chamber - a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719)

Unlike the Boyar Duma, the Senate already in the first years became a bureaucratic institution with appointed officials, clerks and subordinate institutions.

With the creation of the collegiums, their presidents from 1718 became part of the Senate. However, in a decree of January 12, 1722, Peter 1 was forced to recognize the presence of presidents in the Senate as undesirable and incorrect, since it made it difficult to supervise the collegiums and distracted presidents from immediate affairs. After this decree, the presidents of only four collegiums remained in the Senate: the Foreign, Military, Admiralty and temporarily the Berg Collegium.

Having ended the war with Sweden, Peter could pay more attention to management issues. Soon after he accepted the title of emperor, the Senate was prohibited from issuing national laws in its own name. In 1722, the Prosecutor General was appointed at the head of the Senate. The closest assistant to the Governor General was the Chief Prosecutor. Prosecutors were appointed to the collegiums and court courts.

The Prosecutor General received enormous rights, enshrined in law by his “Position” on April 27, 1722. He was entrusted with supervision of the entire work schedule of the Senate: he convened senators, monitored the correctness of their attendance at meetings; The fiscal general and the office of the Senate were subordinate to him. The Prosecutor General's "proposals" had a decisive influence on Senate verdicts: he even had the right of legislative initiative.

The complex bureaucratic state apparatus created at the end of the reign of Peter I required elementary supervision, the body of which became the Senate. Main role In the implementation of this supervision, the prosecutor general played, who, acting through the prosecutors and fiscal officers subordinate to him, acted as “the king’s eye and lawyer on state affairs.”

During the first 14 years of its existence, the Senate from supreme body State Administration has become the highest body supervising management in the state.

The largest feudal landowner of the Russian state remained the church, which by the end of the 17th century. still retained some political independence, which was incompatible with the unlimited power of the monarch.

When Patriarch Andrian died in 1700, Peter I decided to “wait” for the election of a new patriarch. Ryazan Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky was temporarily appointed at the head of the clergy.

A highly educated church leader, an admirer of the reforms of Peter I, Pskov Bishop Feofan Prokopovich, on the instructions and with the help of the tsar, compiled the “Spiritual Regulations” and the scientific treatise “The Truth of the Will of the Monarchs,” in which he gave a theoretical justification for absolutism. On January 25, 1721, Peter I approved the “Spiritual Regulations”, according to which the Spiritual College was established, which was soon transformed (February 14) into the Holy Governing Synod. On May 11, 1722, Peter I appointed a chief prosecutor to oversee the activities of the Synod.

Central government agencies. In 1699 - 1701 a reform of the central administration was carried out, which consisted in the unification of a number of orders, which were either completely merged or united under the command of one person, while maintaining the apparatus of each order separately. In connection with the new needs of the country (especially with the beginning of the Northern War), several new orders arose. By the fall of 1699, there were 44 orders, but a significant part of them acted jointly, making up 25 independent institutions.

Orders in early XVIII V. represented a motley and discordant system of institutions with unclear functions and parallelism in activities, imperfect record keeping, red tape and gross arbitrariness of officials. Separate branches of management (management of the urban class, finance, manufacturing, mining, trade, etc.) were divided between several orders. All this slowed down the implementation of state tasks in new historical conditions and pushed to search for other organizational forms of the central state apparatus.

Reform 1718 - 1720 abolished most orders and introduced collegiums. A total of 12 boards were created. The first three were considered the most important, “state affairs”: Foreign (foreign) affairs, Military (Military), Admiralty; The Chambers, State Offices, and Audit Offices were in charge of the financial system of the state; Berg, Manufactory, and Commerce Collegiums were in charge of industry and trade; The Justic Collegium dealt with judicial system, Patrimonial - the affairs of the dominant noble class and the Chief Magistrate - the administration of cities and the affairs of the emerging bourgeoisie.

Initially, each board was guided by its own regulations, but on February 28, 1720, an extensive (of 56 chapters) “General Regulations” was published, which determined the uniformity of the organizational structure, the procedure for activities and office work. Throughout the 18th century. All Russian government agencies were guided by this law.

Collegiums differed from orders by collegial (joint) discussion and resolution of cases, uniformity of organizational structure, office work, and clearer competence.

The colleges were central institutions subordinate to the king and the Senate; collegiums on different industries The local apparatus was subordinate to the management.

Each board consisted of a presence (general meeting of members) and an office. The presence had 10 - II members and consisted of a president, vice-president, four to five advisers and four assessors. The president of the college was appointed by the king. The vice president and members were appointed by the Senate and confirmed by the king.

In case of negligence of the members, the president should " in polite words"remind them of their duties, and if they disobey, inform the Senate; he could also raise before the Senate the issue of replacing that member of the collegium who is “little reasonable.” In 1722, a prosecutor, subordinate to to the Prosecutor General of the Senate. There were also fiscals under the collegiums.

The General Regulations established exact schedule board meetings; on Mondays, Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Fridays; On Thursday, the presidents met in the Senate. The main form of activity of the board was meetings of its general presence. Cases were resolved “by the largest number of votes” (i.e., by majority); in the event of a tie, the opinion favored by the president gave the upper hand. Since 1722, each board had its own office in Moscow.

Local government agencies. In the new historical conditions, the old system of local institutions and officials with the lack of uniformity in territorial division and governing bodies, departmental diversity, and uncertainty of functions ceased to satisfy. The apparatus of the governor and provincial elders could not quickly and decisively fight various manifestations popular discontent, collect taxes, carry out recruitment into the army, carry out transformations prescribed from the center.

In 1699, the townspeople were separated from the power of the governor. The merchants, artisans and small traders of the cities received the right to choose burmisters from among themselves, united in burmister (zemstvo) huts.

By decree of December 18, 1708, “for the benefit of the whole people,” 8 provinces were created: Moscow, Ingria (from 1710 St. Petersburg), Smolensk, Kiev, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberian. In 1713, the Riga province was created, with the abolition of Smolensk, and in 1714 - Nizhny Novgorod and Astrakhan. These were vast administrative-territorial units, unequal in territory and population. There were 39 cities in the Moscow province, 77 in the Azov province, 17 in the Smolensk province, etc. The huge Siberian province (with its center in Tobolsk) included Perm and Vyatka. At the head of the St. Petersburg and Azov provinces were governors-general A. D. Menshikov and F. M. Apraksin. The remaining provinces were governed by governors appointed from among the most prominent government officials.

The governors received emergency powers: each of them not only had administrative, police, financial and judicial functions, but was also the commander of all troops located in the province under his jurisdiction. The governor ruled the province with the help of the provincial chancellery, where there were clerks and clerks (the latter soon became known as secretaries). The governor's closest assistants were the vice-governor and the landrichter. Landrichter was supposed to manage, under the leadership of the governor court cases, but in practice he was often entrusted with financial, boundary and investigative affairs. Other officials of the province were the head of the military department - the chief commandant, as well as the heads of cash and provisions collections in the province - the chief commissar and the chief provision master.

Each province included those established in the 17th century. counties, headed by commandants instead of governors since 1710. Governors, commandants and other officials corrected their positions without a term; between these officials there was a clearer division of affairs and bureaucratic subordination.

Wanting to place the activities of governors under the control of the local nobility, the government, by decree of 1713, established under each governor 8-12 Landrats (advisers), elected by the nobles. It was practically impossible to create Landrat collegiums under the governors. The Landrats appointed by the Senate turned into officials who carried out individual instructions from the governors.

The first reform of the local apparatus 1708 - 1715 somewhat streamlined the government apparatus, destroying departmental diversity and principles territorial division and management. The reform of 1719-1720 caused by the introduction of the poll tax. was a continuation of the first administrative reform. In May 1719, the territory of each province (there were 11 provinces in total by this time) was divided into several provinces; in the St. Petersburg province there were 2, in the Moscow - 9, in the Kyiv - 4, etc. A total of 45 provinces were established, and soon their number increased to fifty. As an administrative-territorial unit, the province continued to exist; in the Senate and collegiums, all statements, lists and various information were compiled by province, but the power of the governor extended only to the province of the provincial city. The province became the main unit of territorial division. The most important provinces were headed by governors-general, governors and vice-governors, and the rest were headed by governors.

All institutions created under the new administrative reform were supposed to begin work no later than January 1, 1720. In practice, they began to operate only in 1721.

Almost simultaneously with the local reform in 1719, judicial reform(1720), according to which an attempt was made to separate the court from the administration by creating two independent courts; lower (provincial and city) and court courts. The provincial court consisted of the Ober-Landrichter and several assessors and judged rural population, and the city court judged urban population, not part of the townsman community. Court courts were created in the provinces: in five provinces there was one court each, in three (in St. Petersburg, Riga and Siberia) there were two: in the Arkhangelsk and Astrakhan provinces there were no courts. Court courts had a collegial structure and were the second instance in criminal and civil cases. The third instance was the College of Justice, and the highest was the Senate. However, this order of the courts was often not respected.

Despite the creation local authorities separate collegiums and the proclaimed separation of the court from the administration, governors and voivodes actively interfered in the activities of local departments and courts. In 1722 provincial courts were abolished, and their cases again came under the jurisdiction of the governor, as well as assessors from retired officers. Court courts were abolished in 1727

Increasing complexity of the tasks of administrative bodies and institutions in the new and old capitals state - in St. Petersburg and Moscow - caused the creation of independent police bodies: in 1718 - a chief general of police in St. Petersburg, and in 1722 - a chief police chief. in Moscow. They had the corresponding offices of police chief affairs. The police bodies of the capitals were entrusted with the protection of order, peace and security, catching fugitives, food supply, issues of urban improvement, etc. In their activities, these bodies relied on the street elders and tens. In other cities and provinces, the police had not yet been separated from the administration and police tasks were carried out by local administrators (governors, voivodes, commissars, etc.) and their corresponding institutions.

In 1723-1724. The reform of urban estate administration was completed. The regulations of the Chief Magistrate divided the townspeople into “regular” and irregular (“mean”). The “regulars” were divided into guilds and workshops. Initially, guilds were organized along professional lines. The first guild, along with rich merchants, included city doctors and pharmacists, painters, skippers of merchant ships and representatives of some other professions (including bankers that do not exist in Russia), and the second - small traders and artisans. Soon the guilds turned into merchant corporate associations based on their property status.

Enrollment in workshops was mandatory for all artisans. Guilds and guilds had their own elders, who were in charge of both class affairs and the performance of some functions of state administration in the area of ​​police and financial collections (registration of the tax population, collection of taxes, carrying out recruitment, etc.).

In 1723-1724. City magistrates were created, replacing the burmister's huts. The magistrates were collegial institutions consisting of a president, 2 - 4 mayors and 2-8 ratmans (depending on the importance and size of the city). These officials were not chosen from the entire townsman population, but only from “first-class citizens, good, wealthy and intelligent.” The magistrates were in charge of all city administration: criminal and civil courts, police, financial and economic affairs. The most important judicial decisions of the magistrates were submitted to the court courts for approval. Guilds and guilds were subordinate to the magistrates. IN small towns Town halls were established with a simpler structure and narrower competence.

In the first quarter of the CVIII century. the autocratic monarchy with the Boyar Duma and the boyar bureaucracy turned into absolute monarchy led by the emperor. Orders and governors were replaced by a Senate-led system of bureaucratic institutions - collegiums, and locally by governors and other officials. The Russian state became the Russian Empire.

2. Development of the state system in the second quarter of the 18th century.

In the second quarter of the 18th century. V state system the country has undergone a number of changes. The struggle for the throne lasted throughout the second quarter of the 18th century. It is no coincidence that this period of Russian history V.O. Klyuchevsky called it “the era of palace coups.”

After the death of Peter I, the role of the Senate as the highest governing body begins to decline. In February 1726, under Catherine I (1725-1727), the Supreme Privy Council was established, which took away a number of powers from the Senate. The Empress herself was considered the Chairman of the Council, and among its seven members were two favorites: Alexander Menshigov and Pyotr Tolstoy. A representative of the noble aristocracy, Prince D.M. Golitsyn, was also included in the Council. The Supreme Privy Council began to consider complaints about the actions of the Senate and select candidates for senators. With this proximity, the Senate turned into one of the collegiums, and the Supreme Privy Council became the highest institution in the state, the first three collegiums (Military, Admiralty and Foreign Affairs), as well as the Senate, were subordinate to it. The latter lost the title of government and began to be called high. The Supreme Privy Council acquires legislative powers, laws are signed either by the Empress (Catherine I) or the Supreme Privy Council. By organizing the Supreme Privy Council and introducing a representative of the aristocracy into its composition, Catherine tried, on the one hand, to reduce Menshikov’s personal influence, and on the other, to soften the contradictions that existed between the new and old nobility.

Catherine I sought to make local government cheaper and simpler. The decree of March 15, 1727 read: “the court courts, as well as all unnecessary administrators and offices and their offices, chamberlains and zemstvo commissars and others like that, should be completely dismissed, and all punishment and justice will still be left to the governors and governors, and from the governors an appeal to the College of Justice, so that relief could be shown to those subjects and instead of many different offices and judges, they knew only one office.”

After the death of Catherine I in 1727, according to her will, the grandson of Peter I, Peter II, was proclaimed emperor, and the functions of the regent were transferred to the Supreme Privy Council.

Under Peter II (1727-1730), the Supreme Privy Council was replenished to 8 members, and collegiums became subordinate to it. The Supreme Privy Council turned into a representation of the old nobility. Menshikov's attempt to become regent failed; in 1727 he was arrested, exiled to Siberia, where he died in 1729.

The fall of Menshikov actually meant a palace coup. Firstly, the composition of the Supreme Privy Council changed, in which, of the nobles of Peter’s time, only Osterman remained, and the majority was acquired by representatives of the aristocratic families of the Golitsyns and Dolgorukys. Secondly, the position of the Supreme Privy Council has changed. 12-year-old Peter II soon declared himself a full-fledged ruler, which put an end to the regency of the Supreme Council. After the death of Peter II in 1730, the Council gave the throne to Anna Ioannovna, the widow of the Duke of Courland, who accepted the conditions drawn up by Prince Dmitry Golitsyn, limiting her power and leaving all management in the hands of the Supreme Privy Council. Taking advantage of the split among the nobility, Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740) abolished this body in 1730 and accepted “autocracy.”

In 1731, at her court, “for the better and more decent administration of all state affairs,” a Cabinet was established, consisting of three ministers: A. Osterman (1686-1747), Prince Cherkassky, Chancellor G.I. Golovkin (1660-1734), but actual power belonged to the favorite of the Empress E. Biron (1690-1772) and close associates of the Baltic Germans BMinich (1707-1788), and others.

Assessing this body, V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote: “The office is either the personal office of the empress, or a parody of the Supreme Privy Council: it discussed the most important matters of legislation, and also wrote out rabbits for the court and looked through bills for lace for the empress. As a direct and irresponsible body of the supreme will, devoid of any legal appearance, the Cabinet confused the competence and paperwork of government agencies, reflecting the behind-the-scenes mind of its creator and the nature of the dark reign."

Since 1735, the Cabinet has been vested with legislative powers; a full set of ministerial signatures (three) replaces the signature of the Empress in her absence. The Cabinet of Ministers actually headed the executive power in the country, concentrating all government administration. The Senate, which by this time consisted of five departments, collaborated with the Cabinet, implementing its decisions

During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, the influence of foreigners reached unprecedented proportions. The tone at court was set by the empress's ignorant favorite, the Courland German Biron, who enjoyed her boundless trust. Foreigners were given advantages when appointed to lucrative positions and promoted. This caused protest from the Russian nobility.

The empress's successor was the son of her niece's daughter, and the regent infant It was not the mother who was identified, but Biron. The coup of November 8, 1740 deprived Biron of the rights of regent, which he enjoyed for only three weeks. For some time, Minich, the president of the military college, became an influential person in the country. Due to the intrigues of Osterman, who competed with him in the struggle for power, Minich was forced to resign.

Infighting among the Germans accelerated the decline of their influence at court. During the next coup, carried out on November 25, 1741 in favor of the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth (1709-1761), the little emperor and his parents, as well as Minich, Osterman and other influential Germans were arrested.

In the personal decree of Empress Elizabeth dated December 12, 1741, it was announced that during the previous reigns “many omissions of state affairs occurred” due to the abolition of the order established by Peter I. The decree restored the importance of the Senate as the highest state body and eliminated the Cabinet of Ministers that stood above it. Instead of the latter, a simple Cabinet was created as a personal imperial office, deprived of power. The Senate was under the control of the Empress.

"Quantitative Analysis documents of the highest state institutions confirms the opinion about the significant dependence of the Senate on the imperial power. In November-December 1741, Elizaveta Petrovna gave the Senate 51 decrees... and received 14 reports from it for “the highest approval.” In 1742 these figures were 183 and 113, in 1743 - 129 and 54, in 1744 - 164 and 38, etc."

State and church. Elizabeth's religious policy was determined by her commitment to Orthodoxy and was far from religious tolerance. In December 1742, she issued a decree on the expulsion of persons of the Jewish faith from Russia. The Senate sent a report to the Empress that this measure would have a bad effect on trade. Elizabeth imposed a resolution on this document: “I do not want interesting profits from the enemies of Christ.” Elizabeth departed from Peter I’s course towards the secularization of church and monastic lands and returned to the monasteries the right to complete control of the estates.

The empress earned the grateful memory of her posterity with the decree of May 17, 1744, which actually abolished death penalty in R^sii. This decree was the fulfillment of the vow made by Elizabeth before the coup of 1741 - “not to execute anyone by death.” Not a single person was executed during her reign.

In 1743, a Conference was created at the imperial court, which received the functions of the abolished Cabinet. The Conference was attended by the heads of the military and diplomatic departments, as well as persons specially invited by the Empress. The Senate continued to play important role. The Chief Magistrate was restored, as well as the Manufacturer and Berg Collegiums, which had previously been merged with the Commerce Collegium under the pretext that “one case is found in different hands.”

In 1744, Elizabeth abolished the College of Economy, which managed real estate belonging to monasteries and dioceses and dealt with spiritual affairs under the supervision of the Senate. The functions of this secular College were transferred to the Spiritual Chancellery, which was directly subordinate to the Synod. Of the remaining collegiums, some retained only nominal power, such as the Collegium of Foreign Affairs after the rise of Bestuzhev.

By implementing a comprehensive program aimed at unifying various parts empire, Peter I abolished the autonomous administration of Little Russia and the hetman's power. Since the death of the last hetman Apostol (1734), this region was governed by a temporary board (the board of the hetman's order), consisting of six members, half Great Russians, half Little Russians. In 1744, the Empress visited Kyiv and received an embassy asking for the restoration of the hetmanate. On the appointed day - February 22, 1750 in Glukhov, Kirill Razumovsky (1728-1803) - was unanimously elected hetman. However, in 1761, Kyiv was torn away from Little Russia by the Senate and turned into the main city of the district, which was under its direct control. This meant a complete and final return to the program of Peter I.

In the east, Elizabeth’s government faced another huge task: the establishment and settlement of vast expanses stretching from the Urals to the ocean shores. In March 1744, the Orenburg province was created by a special decree.

Summing up the results of Elizabeth's reign, historian S.F. Platonov (1860-1933) wrote that "Elizabeth's ideas (national and humane) are generally higher than her activities." He characterizes the empress this way:

“Peter the Great knew how to unite his employees, personally directing them. Elizabeth could not do this: she was least suitable as a leader and unifier... There was no unifier among her assistants either...”

Under Peter I, Russia becomes an empire, and Peter I becomes its first emperor; Absolutism was finally established in Russia.

Modernization in the field of management carried out by the great reformer of Russia Peter I led to a significant expansion of the role of the state and strengthening of its control functions. Under Peter I, the replacement of orders with collegiums contributed to the strict distribution of spheres of public administration. Then the functions of the central and local government apparatus were differentiated, and the three branches of power were divided: legislative, executive and judicial. Under Peter I, the church was separated from the state; it lost the rights of political autonomy in 1721, when the patriarchate was abolished and the Synod was established. The new imperial status of Russia led to the creation of a regular army, staffed by conscription. In the military and civil departments, Peter I introduced uniformity of national ranks of the bureaucratic hierarchy, which made it possible to attract public administration qualified and educated people.

Under the successors of Peter I, in the conditions of palace coups and struggles for power, state interests were relegated to the background by the monarchs. The priority was measures to strengthen their autocratic power, therefore, deviations from the innovations of Peter I were allowed. Under Catherine I, the Supreme Privy Council was established with legislative powers, which deprived the Senate of some FUNCTIONS. Under Peter II, the Supreme Privy Council was expanded in composition. In 1730, this body was abolished, and the “autocracy” was assumed by Anna Ioannovna, who vested executive power in the Cabinet, which consisted of three ministers close to the empress.

The daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth, who ascended the throne in 1741, restored the importance of the Senate as the highest state body, eliminating the Cabinet of Ministers that stood above it; restored the Chief Magistrate, as well as the Manufactory and Berg Collegiums. However, contrary to the actions of Peter I, Elizabeth moved away from the course of secularization of church and monastic lands and returned to the monasteries the right to full disposal of their estates.

Despite these attempts, in general, the reforms of Peter I outlived his time. The last recruitment took place in 1874, i.e. 170 years after the first (1705). The Senate existed from 1711 to 1917, i.e. 206 years, the synodal structure of the Orthodox Church remained unchanged from 1721 to 1918, i.e. for 197 years.

At the beginning of the 18th century. Russia started the Northern War (1700 - 1721) against Sweden for obtaining lands in the Baltic states, captured by Sweden at the beginning of the 17th century, for access to the Baltic Sea.

Russia's allies were Denmark, Saxony, and Poland. Denmark was soon defeated and made peace with Sweden. 1700 Russia declared war on Sweden, however Russian army, poorly trained and armed, was defeated near Narva.

The Swedish king Charles XII, considering Russia defeated, sent his main forces to Poland. Russia used this respite to reorganize and strengthen its troops. Replenished with tens of thousands of recruits and armed with new cannons and rifles, the Russian army of 1701r. launched offensive operations against the Swedish troops in the Baltic states: it received the fortresses of Noteburg, Nyenschanz (Petersburg was founded at the mouth of the Neva River in 1703)” then Narva, Dorpat.

Charles XII (1682-1718) - King of Sweden since 1697, commander. Conducted wars of conquest in Central and Eastern Europe. He led the Swedish army during the Northern War of 1700-1721. After the Battle of Poltava 1709 returned to Sweden.

Meanwhile, Poland was defeated in the war with the Swedes. Polish king August II abdicated the throne and the Polish throne was taken by the Swedish protege Stanislav Leszczynski.

In the summer of 1708, the Swedish army led by Charles XII moved towards Russia. Having met resistance from the Russian army, Charles XII turned to Ukraine. 1708. Swedish troops invaded the Northern Left Bank, but were unable to capture the cities of Staro Dub, Novgorod-Seversky and others. The population of many Ukrainian cities (Mglina, Piryatina, Veprika and the like) took an active part in the fight against the Swedish troops. The Swedish army was completely defeated in Battle of Poltava June 27 (July 8), 1709, which became a radical turning point in the course of the war.

Russian troops moved to the Baltic states, where they received the cities of Riga, Revel (now Tallinn), Vyborg and Kexholm.

1710 Turkey, conquered by Charles XII, declared war on Russia. After an unsuccessful Prut campaign Russian government made peace with Turkey - the Prut Treaty, which made it possible to continue military operations against Sweden.

In the Battle of Tangut in 1714, the Russian fleet defeated the Swedish. Russian troops occupied the Åland Islands and were even able to approach Stockholm.

Sweden was forced to conclude the Treaty of Nystadt in 1721. Estland (Estonia), Livonia (part of Latvia), Ingermanland, part of Karelia, as well as a number of islands in the Baltic Sea went to Russia.

As a result of the victorious end of the Northern War, the Russian state gained a foothold on the coast Baltic Sea.

For the Russian economy of the first half of the 18th century. characterized by the growth of the manufacturing industry, due to the military needs of the country. Before mid-18th century century. there were already more than 600 manufactories - metallurgical, textile, etc. Among the new industries, the construction of naval ships stood out. Manufactories appeared that produced canvas for sails, ropes, and cloth. However, serfdom prevailed in manufactories, and the labor of hired workers was almost never used.

The development of industrial production and Russia's access to the Baltic Sea contributed to the growth of the volume of its domestic and foreign trade. Canals were built that connected the Volga with the Neva. WITH different ends merchants brought countries to St. Petersburg, and then transported flax, hemp, skins, linen, and the like to other countries. The importance of Arkhangelsk in Russia's foreign trade has noticeably decreased. Peter sought to protect and promote domestic producers. Exports of Russian goods exceeded imports.

The economic rise of Russia during the time of Peter I (1689-1725) occurred under conditions of increasing feudal-serf oppression. In 1707, a new peasant war broke out in Russia under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin. its participants were serfs, Cossacks, and townspeople. The uprising began on the Don, because it was there that Colonel Dolgoruky searched with particular cruelty and tried to return the fugitives to his masters. Bulavin and the rebels attacked him and destroyed his entire detachment. The frightened elders of the Don Cossacks defeated the rebels. Bulavin managed to hide in the Zaporozhye Sich. 1708. The uprising broke out again. Bulavin appeared on the Don and was elected ataman. The rebels defeated government troops, captured Tsaritsyn, made a campaign against Azov, but were unable to capture the city. Taking advantage of their failure wealthy Cossacks organized a conspiracy and killed Bulavin. By the end of 1708, government punitive detachments suppressed the uprising.

Under Peter I, significant reforms took place in government. Local power was strengthened and the country was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, Ingermanland (the Baltic and Karelia regions with St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Kazan, Kyiv, Smolensk, Azov and Siberian. Each province was divided into provinces.

In 1711, the Senate was created - the highest legislative, administrative and executive body under the tsar, headed by the prosecutor general, whom Peter I called " the sovereign's eye". Boyar Duma was liquidated.

Instead of fifty orders, collegiums were created: foreign affairs, military, Admiralty collegium, Justice collegium, Manufacturer collegium, Commerce collegium, Patrimony, Spiritual, or Synod, etc.

1721 Peter I was proclaimed Russian Emperor, which meant the further strengthening of autocratic power, and a year later the “Table of Ranks” was introduced, which determined the system of ranks (all ranks were divided into 14 classes) and the order of promotion in the military and civil service.

As a result of the reforms of Peter I, the Russian Empire was formed. The creation of a regular army and navy and the pursuit of an active foreign policy made it possible for Russia to establish itself on the shores of the Baltic Sea. Thanks to the growth of manufacturing industry and trade, its economic isolation was ended, and the creation centralized system government headed by the emperor meant finalization absolutism in Russia.

After Peter's death in 1726, a fierce struggle between noble factions for power began. Second quarter of Khule Art. entered the history of Russia as the era of palace coups. Not only the inner circle of Peter I, but also well-born aristocrats led by Prince Dmitry Golitsyn joined the struggle for power. The latter defended the candidacy of the grandson of Peter I, the son of the executed Tsarevich Alexei - Peter P. While the Senate was deciding who to transfer the throne to, the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments supported Peter's wife.

Catherine I (1725-1727) was proclaimed empress. Under her reign, the Supreme Privy Council was created with broad powers that limited the royal power. The de facto ruler of the country was Prince Alexander Menshikov. To strengthen his influence in the state, he tried to marry Tsarevich Peter with his daughter. After the death of Catherine and Menshikov, he was removed from all positions, deprived of his huge fortune and, together with his family, was exiled to Siberia.

The next emperor was Peter II (1727-1730). He showed no inclination towards state affairs and the country was ruled by princes Dolgoruky and Golitsyn. They began to prepare the wedding of the young king. The entire court moved to Moscow, where his coronation was to take place. But Peter II fell ill with smallpox and died.

In Russia, the problem of succession to the throne has again become acute. The princes decided to transfer the Russian crown to the niece of Peter I, the daughter of his elder brother, Anna Ivanovna (1730-1740), but on the condition that she sign the so-called secret “Conditions”. Anna signed them, agreeing to limit the autocratic royal power. Soon the "Condition" became known to wide circles of the nobility. Outraged, the empress publicly tore up these documents. The conspirators were arrested, and their families, stripped of their titles and property, were deported to Siberia. This is how absolutism was preserved in Russia. Having received unlimited power, Empress Anna Ivanovna created the Secret Chancellery, which was supposed to monitor “word and deed,” that is, control not only the actions, but also the thoughts of every person. From that time on, all actions against Anna were mercilessly punished. Death sentences were announced one after another. Her favorite, the Courland nobleman Biron, became the de facto ruler of the state. With his assistance, all the most important positions were occupied by foreigners, primarily Germans.

During Anna's reign, the Russian-Turkish war of 1735 - 1739 took place. The reason for it was the attacks of the Crimean Tatars on the territory of Ukraine and the campaign of the Crimean Khan to the Caucasus. Russia wanted to take control of Azov and Crimea. The army of Field Marshal Burchard Munnich captured the Perekop fortifications, Bakhchisarai metro station, but the lack of food and the epidemic that began forced Minich to retreat to the territory of Ukraine. The Don Army, with the help of the Don Flotilla, captured Azov. Minich's army took the Ochakov fortress by storm, and the Don army crossed the Genichesk Strait to Arabat arrow, crossed Sivash and entered Crimea in July, but lack of water and food forced Russian troops to leave it. In 1737, Austria entered the war against Turkey, but its troops were defeated.

In 1738 there were practically no active military operations. Due to the plague epidemic, Russian troops abandoned Ochakov and Kinburn. Minich's army crossed the Dniester and received Khotyn and Iasi. At this time, Austria entered into a separate agreement. The threat of an attack from Sweden forced Russia to conclude the Peace of Belgrade (1739) with Turkey, according to which Russia regained Azov.

at the end of her reign, Anna Ioannovna appointed Ivan Antonovich, the son of her niece Anna Leopoldovna, as heir. He was only a few months old when he was proclaimed Emperor Ivan VI (1740-1741).

Soon, the daughter of Peter I, Princess Elizabeth, with the support of the guard, carried out a coup d'etat. She promised to continue her father's policies and was proclaimed Empress Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761/62). All state affairs were decided on her behalf by her favorites. Her favorite, Alexei Razumovsky, enjoyed particular influence at court.

During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, Russia took an active part in the Seven Years' War (1766-1763). The war was sparked by the struggle between Britain and France for colonies in North America and the East Indies. Anglo-French armed clashes began in 1754-1756. in Canada and in 1756 Great Britain declared war on France. This conflict significantly changed the traditional political ties between European states. Austria tried to regain Silesia, captured by Prussia in the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740-1748.

At the beginning of the war, two coalitions were created: on the one hand - Prussia, Great Britain, some German states (Hesse-Kassel, Brunswick, Schaumburg-Lippe and Saxe-Gotha), on the other - Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, Saxony and the majority German states, part of the Holy Roman Empire. Frederick II had the goal of capturing Saxony and exchanging it for Bohemia (Czech Republic)" and also putting Poland into vassal dependence on Prussia. Austria sought to return Silesia, France - to capture Hanover, Sweden - Prussian Pomerania, Russia - to expand its borders in the West, annexing Polish land.

In August 1756, Frederick II invaded Saxony, which quickly capitulated. In April 1756, Prussian troops defeated the Austrian army of Field Marshal Braun near Prague and blocked S. The Austrian army of Field Marshal L. Down came to the rescue and in June defeated the Prussian troops near Kalina. Frederick II was forced to leave the Czech Republic. In the spring of 1757, Austria's allies entered the war. Frederick II, leaving Saxony, opposed the Franco-Imperial troops and defeated them in Rosbach at the end of October, and after the defeat of the Austrian troops, he captured all of Silesia. In May 1757, Russian troops under the command of Field Marshal A. Apraksin went to East Prussia. On August 19, in the battle of Gross-Bgersdorf, they defeated Lewaldd's corps. A. Apraksin's indecisiveness during Elizaveta Petrovna's illness forced him to retreat to the territory of Lithuania. The Empress recalled A. Apraksin and appointed General V. Fermor in his place. Winter 1757-1758 pp. The Russian army re-entered East Prussia and on January 11, 1758 occupied Königsberg, which was annexed to Russia. In 1758, Frederick II directed his main efforts against Austrian and Russian troops. He entered the Czech Republic. On August 14, a bloody battle took place near Zorndorf, which ended with virtually no results. In 1758, military operations did not bring success to either side, which caused distrust among the members of the anti-Prussian coalition towards each other.

In the spring of 1759, the Russian army was led by General P. Saltykov, who defeated the corps of the Prussian General K. Wedel near Palzig. On August 12, the Battle of Kunersdorf took place, during which the Prussian army was defeated. In 1760, as a result of uncoordinated actions, no important consequences were achieved. Russian troops captured Berlin on September 28, but did not receive support from Austrian troops and had to abandon the city. Due to the illness of Field Marshal P. Saltykov, Field Marshal A. Buturlin took command of the Russian troops. In 1761 There were no significant events, except for the battle for the Kolberg fortress, during which the Russian corps was commanded by P. Rumyantsev. In the same year, Spain entered the war on the side of France, and Portugal on the side of Great Britain. Prussia's position became more complicated. On January 5, 1762, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna died, and Peter III, a zealous supporter of Frederick II, took the Russian throne, who stopped the war, returned to Prussia all the territories captured by Russian troops, and on April 24 (May 5), 1762, concluded an alliance treaty with Prussia. A month later, Sweden left the war. Although on June 28, as a result of a palace coup, Catherine II came to power in Russia and the treaty of alliance was terminated, hostilities never resumed. Russia's exit from the war actually saved Prussia. At the end of October 1762, Prussia signed a peace treaty with France, and in November - with Austria. The war at sea and in the colonies was initially successful for France, but from 1758 the French fleet and troops in the colonies began to suffer defeats. English troops captured Canada (1760), part of Louisiana, Florida and most French colonies in India. On January 30, 1763, the Treaty of Paris was concluded between Great Britain and France, to which Spain and Portugal acceded.

The Seven Years' War ended with the Peace of Gubertusburg, which was signed on February 4 (15), 1763 by Prussia on one side and Austria and Saxony on the other. The treaty confirmed Prussian possession of Silesia and the County of Glaoui.

The Seven Years' War did not change political map Europe, but significantly influenced the balance of forces in the groups that took part in it. Great Britain has significantly expanded colonial possessions at the expense of France and Spain and became the strongest naval power. Prussia strengthened its position, and France emerged from the war significantly weakened and its political exhaustion intensified the internal crisis and led to the Great French Revolution. Weakened Austria went over to Russia's side in the fight against Turkey.

So, in the first half of the 18th century. Russia turned into a noble empire. her domestic politics was aimed at protecting the interests of the nobility. This policy was continued by Catherine II, under whom the Russian autocracy entered its “golden age.”

Russia during the reign of Peter I . In the historical literature there is no single assessment of the activities PetraI(1682-1725). Even in pre-revolutionary historiography, there were two points of view on his reign. Some believed that Peter’s reforms disrupted the natural course of the country’s development, others insisted that they were vitally necessary for Russia, and the country was prepared for them by the entire previous course of historical development. Most historians are currently inclined to the point of view that the reforms of Peter I are a forced “Europeanization of Russia”, which marked the beginning of the modernization of the country, and during which absolutism was formalized.

After the death of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, the question of succession to the throne arose. Power was supposed to pass to Peter's older brother, the sickly and feeble-minded Ivan. But the closest circle of the deceased king insisted on transferring power to a healthy heir, Peter. Violation of the principle of seniority when inheriting the throne gave rise to Ivan's relatives - the Miloslavsky boyars - to raise the archers to revolt. As a result, Ivan was also proclaimed tsar, along with Peter, and before they came of age, the elder sister, Sophia, became the ruler of the state. Peter and his mother left Moscow for the village of Preobrazhenskoye, where they lived until he came of age.

In August 1689, having received news that Princess Sophia was preparing a new uprising of the Streltsy in order to remove him from power, Peter fled to the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. Boyars, nobles, and military men also began to flock there, feeling that Sophia’s reign was coming to an end. In September, Peter entered Moscow and ordered Sophia to be imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent. Thus began the reign of Peter the Great.

Peter I went down in history as a reformer tsar. Peter did not have a unified plan for transforming the Russian state, but it can be noted that his reforms were subordinated primarily to the military needs of Russia.

Primary attention was paid to military reform, which began in 1699, on the eve of the Northern War. For the first time in Russia it was created regular army based on recruitment kits. The Streltsy army was disbanded. The formation of the new army was completed by the decree of 1705, which introduced uniform small arms, equipment, uniforms, and a training and education system. To create qualified officer personnel, navigation, artillery, engineering, and surgical schools were opened. In 1716, the “Military Charter” was adopted, and a little later the “Naval Charter” - the first sets of military laws in the history of Russia.

Russia could not become great power without a powerful navy. In 1708, the first 28-gun frigate was launched. The fleet was built in the south, in the north, in the Baltic. By the end of Peter's reign, the Russian fleet consisted of about 900 ships.

An equally important component of the military reform was the creation of our own military industry. In 1701 – 1704 By decree of the tsar, the country's first large metallurgical plants were built in the Urals, working exclusively for the army. State-owned manufactories were also created to produce gunpowder, weapons, and cloth. The result of the military reform was impressive: Russia became one of the great military and sea ​​powers Europe.

The continuous military actions waged by Russia caused an acute financial crisis. In order to get out of it, monetary and tax reforms were carried out. New types of coins were introduced, including copper ones. In 1711, by decree of the tsar, the silver content in coins was reduced by 20%. In 1710, a house-to-house census was carried out. The census formed the basis of tax reform. In 1718 - 1724 The poll tax was introduced - a single cash tax on men. All these measures made it possible to increase revenues to the state treasury by 3 times.

Public administration was radically changed. In 1699, the Near Chancellery was established, soon renamed the “consultation of ministers.” The Senate became the highest government institution in 1711. Its functions included: court, adoption of laws and control over the work of the state apparatus. The Senate consisted of 9 people - representatives of the family nobility and Peter's nominees. The Senate was also controlled by the Prosecutor General, whose position was established in 1722.

In 1718 – 1720 orders were replaced by collegiums in which decisions were made collectively. The board was led by a president, vice-president, and several advisors. The activities of the boards were determined by the General Regulations and internal regulations of each board.

Cases of state crimes were handled by the Secret Chancellery, which was under the authority of the emperor himself.

Changed and local government. In 1708, Russia was divided into 8 provinces, headed by governors appointed by the tsar, who had full administrative, military and judicial power. The provinces were divided into districts. In 1719, Peter again turned to the reform of local government. The country was divided into 50 provinces (led by governors) and counties. The provincial division was preserved, but only military and judicial functions remained under the jurisdiction of the governors.

In 1703, the Tsar ordered the construction of a new capital, St. Petersburg, to begin at the mouth of the Neva. It was built with straight streets, spacious squares, and numerous stone buildings. In 1710, the court moved here, and in 1712, St. Petersburg officially acquired the status of the capital of the state.

In 1721, Peter I became emperor, and Russia became an empire.

The patriarchate was abolished, and a special board, the Holy Governing Synod, dealt with the affairs of the church. The Spiritual Collegium included representatives of the highest Russian clergy appointed by the Tsar. The decisions of the Synod were approved by the emperor. His activities were supervised by the chief prosecutor. In fact, the Tsar himself became the head of the Russian Orthodox Church. Part of the church's income began to flow into the state treasury. Thus, the church turned into a state institution, completely subordinate to secular power.

The social policy of Peter I was aimed at strengthening the ruling class and strengthening its role in the state. In 1714, a Decree on Single Inheritance was issued, according to which the noble estate was equal in rights to the boyar estate, i.e. A single ruling class was formed - the nobles. In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was published, according to which the nobles were obliged to serve the emperor in military, civil or court service. 14 classes (ranks) of officials were defined. A commoner who achieved the rank of 8th grade became a hereditary nobleman. For their service, officials received land, peasants and salary.

According to the city reform of 1720, a chief magistrate was created in St. Petersburg, to whom local magistrates, headed by mayors and elected representatives of the city population, were subordinate. The townspeople were divided into “regular” (higher) and “mean” (lower). “Regulars” enjoyed special government support and benefits. The reform contributed to the economic recovery of cities.

In 1722, Peter I issued a Decree on Succession to the Throne, according to which the emperor himself appointed an heir, based on the interests of the state.

The main feature of the economic policy of Peter I was the strengthening of state intervention in the economic life of the country. Almost everything industrial production worked for the needs of the army and navy. The Tsar also encouraged private enterprise. The main directions of economic transformation were protectionism and mercantilism. Peter provided all possible support to the domestic industry and ensured that the export of goods from the country prevailed over the import.

Manufacturing production was actively developing. Russia has taken third place in Europe in metal production (after England and Sweden). The peculiarity of Russian industry was that it was based on serf labor. The government allowed breeders to buy peasants, who were called sessional. Harsh working conditions and high mortality rates led to frequent changes workers. The number of artisans continued to grow. The largest centers of crafts were Moscow and St. Petersburg. The main types of production were household items: locks, knives, pewter, canvas, jewelry made of gold, silver, and enamel. Felting craft (felt boots and hats), candle and soap production developed.

Unlike industry, changes in agriculture were not significant. Peter ordered the use of a Lithuanian scythe and rake when harvesting grain. They were purchased in thousands and distributed throughout the provinces, which made it possible to increase the productivity of peasant labor. Agricultural development of lands in the Volga region and Siberia continued. For the production of cloth, Merino sheep were purchased from Holland and Spain. The first stud farms were created. Silkworms were bred for the needs of the yard. The plantings of industrial crops - flax and hemp, which were required for army needs, increased significantly. Peter I brought potatoes, tomatoes and tobacco to Russia.

The all-Russian market was developing. The main centers of trade were rural markets, where sellers and buyers from neighboring villages gathered two or three times a week. Wholesale fairs also appeared.

Peter I improved the means of communication: he built the Vyshnevolotsky Canal and began construction of the Ladoga Bypass Canal, which had a positive effect on the development of domestic trade. This was also facilitated by the growth in the number of cities and urban population, the increase in the volume of manufacturing production, and the creation of a large army.

Access to the Baltic Sea also contributed to an increase in the volume of foreign trade. Russia's main European trading partners were England and Holland. Through Astrakhan, Russia traded with Persia and Transcaucasia. As part of the policy of protectionism, Peter in 1724 adopted a Customs Tariff, which established a 75% duty on the import of foreign goods if they were produced in sufficient quantities in Russia. It was also prohibited to export raw materials needed by domestic industry.

Among the most significant cultural transformations of Peter it is necessary to mention: the emergence of a secular school, the publication of the first newspaper "Vedomosti", the founding of the Academy of Sciences (1705), the appearance of the first geographical maps, the opening of the first museum and the first library at the Academy of Sciences, the introduction of European clothing and a new calendar from Christmas Christova (from January 1, 1700).

Peter I faced two strategic foreign policy tasks: to achieve access to the Black and Baltic Seas. In the south in 1695-1696. Peter I managed to gain a foothold only on the shores of the Sea of ​​Azov. But his life's work was North War(1700-1721) with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. Having first suffered a crushing defeat near Narva in 1700, Peter I threw all his efforts into creating a regular army and navy. The results were not long in coming. Already in 1709, Russian troops defeated the Swedish army in the Battle of Poltava. But in 1710 Türkiye intervened in the war. Russia was not ready to conduct military operations on two fronts, and the Azov acquisitions had to be returned. Having won two major victories in the Baltic Sea - in 1714 at Cape Gangut and in 1720 at Grengam Island, Peter I clearly showed the superiority of the Russian fleet over the Swedish. According to the Treaty of Nystadt, Russia received the Baltic coast from Vyborg to Riga. Immediately after the end of the Northern War, taking advantage of the internal political crisis in Iran, a campaign was undertaken in the Transcaucasus (Persian Campaign). The campaign was successful, and Russia received the western shore of the Caspian Sea.

Assessing the results of the reforms of Peter I, we can note:

– the creation of a strong army and regular fleet, which turned Russia into a powerful European power;

– reforms of the state apparatus were the formalization of absolutism and culminated in the creation of a bureaucratic-bureaucratic empire;

– great successes in science, enlightenment and education;

– successes in economic development;

- achieving access to Europe, which was vital for the economic and political development of Russia.

The time of Peter I also meant a change in the political model - from the Moscow autocracy, implying the harmony of secular and church power - to the European type of absolutism. The results were: the abolition of the autonomy of the church, the elimination of the conciliar-consultative principle of power, the growth and strengthening of the bureaucratic apparatus, and the predominance of a voluntaristic style of government.

The era of palace coups. The period from Peter I to Catherine II (1725 – 1762) was called in history era of palace coups. Over the course of 37 years, rulers were changed by force 5 times. Among the main reasons for the frequency and ease of coups are Peter the Great's decree on succession to the throne, the strengthening of the role of the guard in government affairs, an intense struggle for power in court circles. The main content of the domestic policy of those years was the expansion of the privileges of the nobility, the further enslavement of the peasants, and the strengthening of absolutism.

Ironically, Peter I did not have time to appoint an heir for himself. The only male heir of the tsar was his 9-year-old grandson Pyotr Alekseevich, whose accession to the throne was advocated by the old family aristocracy (Dolgoruky, Golitsyn, Repnin). However, the emperor’s nominees (Menshikov, Golovkin, Prokopovich, etc.), fearing for their position, sought to enthrone the emperor’s wife, Catherine. By order of Menshikov, the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments came out in support of the empress. In gratitude, Catherine I (1725 – 1727) appointed Menshikov as her first minister. In 1726 it was created Supreme Privy Council, who helped the empress govern the state. It included both the “old aristocracy” and Peter’s associates. But the reign of Catherine I did not last long. Dying, she handed over the throne to Peter's grandson, Peter II, indicating that until the emperor came of age, he should be under the care of the Supreme Privy Council, headed by Menshikov.

Menshikov hoped to marry his daughter Maria to the young emperor, but this plan was not destined to come true. Through the emperor’s peer and friend, Ivan Dolgoruky, Peter II was influenced by the “old aristocracy.” Menshikov's fall turned out to be a matter of time. He was accused of abuses, deprived of his property and exiled with his family to Siberia, where he soon died. The Tsar's new bride was Ekaterina Dolgorukaya. Their wedding was supposed to take place in 1730, but Peter II caught a cold while hunting and died on the day of his wedding. With his death, the male line of the Romanovs was cut short. The question of succession to the throne arose again.

Members of the Supreme Privy Council rejected Peter's two daughters as candidates for the throne, pointing out their illegal origin (born before Peter's marriage to Catherine). They decided to turn to the line of Ivan V. His daughter Anna, the widow of the Duke of Courland, was invited to the Russian throne. The council drew up conditions - the conditions for inviting Anna to the throne. She was not supposed to marry, appoint an heir, start a war and make peace, introduce new taxes, assign military ranks, encroach on the lives, honor and estates of nobles, grant estates with serfs. Anna Ioannovna signed these conditions, but upon arriving in Russia, she received a “petition” from the nobles and the guards, in which they showed their dissatisfaction with the conditions. Anna tore up the terms and abolished the Supreme Privy Council.

Anna Ioannovna ruled Russia for 10 years (1730 – 1740). She was not too interested in state affairs, leaving the sphere of management to her favorite E.I. Biron (former groom) and Vice-Chancellor A.I. Osterman. Under Anna Ioannovna, the period of compulsory noble service was limited to 25 years (but one of the sons could not serve and remain on the estate); Peter I's decree on unified inheritance was cancelled; To educate the children of nobles, the Gentry Corps was opened, graduating officers. The Empress wanted to secure the throne for the descendants of her father. For this purpose, her niece, Anna Leopoldovna, the wife of Prince Anton of Brunswick, was invited to the court. In 1740, Anna Leopoldovna gave birth to a son, Ivan, who was declared heir Russian throne(Ivan VI). Dying, Anna appointed Biron as regent for the young emperor. However, the nobles and the guard supported the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth.

During the next palace coup, Elizaveta Petrovna became the Russian Empress (1741 - 1761), Biron was exiled, and Ivan VI and his mother were imprisoned. The administration of the state was entrusted to the favorites and trusted persons Elizabeth - A. G. Razumovsky, P. I. Shuvalov, A. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, M. I. Vorontsov. Elizaveta Petrovna secured the right to own land and peasants only for the nobles, distillation was declared a monopoly of the nobility, they received the right to judge their peasants and exile them to Siberia, and the Noble Land Bank was created for the economic support of the nobles. Thinking about an heir, the empress invited her nephew, Peter Fedorovich, to the court, and soon married him to the German princess Sophia Augusta Frederick of Anhalt-Zerbt, who received the name Catherine at baptism. However, the hot-tempered and rude nephew soon disappointed Elizabeth. After the birth of Peter and Catherine’s son, Paul, Elizabeth took him into her care, intending to transfer the throne to him. But she did not have time to make the appropriate orders on this matter. In December 1761, Elizaveta Petrovna died. Peter III became emperor.

Among the acts of Peter III (1761 - 1762) there were many important government measures - the destruction of the Secret Chancellery, the end of the persecution of schismatics, the announcement of the secularization of church lands (the decree was finally implemented under Catherine II), the proclamation of freedom of foreign trade. Peter III completed the transformation of the nobility from the service class into the privileged one. According to the “Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility,” nobles were exempted from compulsory service to the state, they were allowed to educate their children at home, and to travel abroad to serve another sovereign. However, this was not enough to keep him on the throne. Behind Peter III, a hostile political group of the highest bureaucracy formed, which, with the help of the guard, overthrew the emperor and elevated his wife, Catherine, to the Russian throne.

Russia during the era of palace coups faced three foreign policy tasks: the struggle for access to the Black Sea, the preservation of Peter's conquests in the Baltic, and advancement to the East. During the Russian-Turkish war of 1736 - 1739. Russia managed to annex minor territories of right-bank Ukraine. But Russia never received access to the Black Sea and the right to have fortresses and a navy on the Sea of ​​Azov. Sweden could not come to terms with the results of the Northern War and provoked the Russian-Swedish War of 1741 - 1743. But this war also turned out to be successful for Russia, which managed not only to defend Peter’s conquests, but also to obtain part of the Finnish lands as far as Vyborg. In the second quarter of the 18th century. Kazakh lands were annexed to Russia. Under Elizaveta Petrovna, Russia took part in the Seven Years' War of 1756 - 1762, in which, together with France and Austria, it opposed Prussia and England. Russian troops successfully acted against the Prussian army. In September 1760, the Russian army entered Berlin. Prussia was on the verge of complete collapse. But the death of Elizabeth Petrovna and the accession of Peter III radically changed the course of the war. The new Russian emperor stopped hostilities and entered into an alliance with Frederick II. The coup in favor of Catherine marked Russia's exit from the war.