ON THE EVE OF THE WAR

It is a mistaken opinion [...] that Russia’s policy does not stem from its real interests, but depends on the individual disposition of individuals: from the beginning of the reign at the court of Elizabeth it was repeated that the King of Prussia is the most dangerous enemy Russia is much more dangerous than France, and this was the conviction of the empress herself. left Russia in the most favorable external relations: it was surrounded by weak states - Sweden, Poland; Türkiye was, or at least seemed, stronger and more dangerous, and this conditioned the Austrian alliance on the unity of interests, on the same fear on the part of Turkey; This also led to a hostile relationship with France, which was in constant friendship with the Sultan. But now circumstances have changed; there is a new power near Russia; the Prussian king cuts off Russia's natural ally Austria; he encounters Russia in Sweden, Poland; Turkey's remoteness does not prevent him from seeking its friendship, and, of course, not for the benefit of Russia. […] They were afraid not only for Courland, but also for the acquisition of Peter the Great. This constant fear and irritation made the dominant thought about the need to surround the Prussian king with a chain of alliances and reduce his forces at the first opportunity. They accepted England’s proposal for a subsidy treaty, meaning to put up a large army against the Prussian king at someone else’s expense, and stopped only at the thought: what if England demands this army not against the Prussian king, but against France, demands that it be sent to the Netherlands?

RUSSIA'S POSITION

On March 30, the conference, in pursuance of the empress’s decree, decided the following: 1) to immediately begin an agreement with the Viennese court and persuade it, so that, taking advantage of the current war between England and France, it would attack the Prussian king together with Russia. Present to the Viennese court that since on the Russian side an army of 80,000 people is being deployed to curb the Prussian king, and if necessary, all forces will be used, then the Empress Queen has in her hands the most convenient opportunity to return what the Prussian king conquered to last war areas. If the Empress-Queen fears that France will divert her forces in the event of an attack on the King of Prussia, then imagine that France is busy at war with England and Austria, without interfering in their quarrel and without giving England any help, can convince France to she did not interfere in the war between Austria and Prussia, which Russia will assist on her part as much as possible, and for this purpose 2) to order the ministers here at foreign courts to treat the French ministers more kindly than before, in a word, to lead everything to this, so as to provide the Viennese court with security from France and persuade this court to war with Prussia. 3) Gradually prepare Poland so that it not only does not interfere with the passage of Russian troops through its possessions, but would also willingly watch it. 4) Try to keep the Turks and Swedes calm and inactive; to remain in friendship and harmony with both of these powers, so that on their part there is not the slightest obstacle to the success of local intentions regarding the reduction of the forces of the King of Prussia. 5) Following these rules, go further, namely, weakening the King of Prussia, making him fearless and carefree for Russia; strengthening Viennese courtyard the return of Silesia, to make an alliance with him against the Turks more important and valid. Having lent Poland the gift of royal Prussia, in return to receive not only Courland, but also such a rounding of the borders on the Polish side, thanks to which not only would the current incessant troubles and worries about them be stopped, but, perhaps, a way would be obtained to connect the trade of the Baltic and Black Sea and concentrate all Levantine trade in their hands.

Soloviev S.M. History of Russia from ancient times. M., 1962. Book. 24. Ch. 1. http://magister.msk.ru/library/history/solov/solv24p1.htm

THE SEVEN YEARS WAR AND RUSSIA'S PARTICIPATION IN IT

TRIP TO EAST PRUSSIA

With the outbreak of the war, it became clear (as almost always happened before and later) that the Russian army was poorly prepared for it: there were not enough soldiers and horses to reach a full complement. Things were not going well with the smart generals either. Field Marshal S.F. was appointed commander of the army, which moved only in the spring of 1757 to the Prussian border. Apraksin is an indecisive, idle and inexperienced person. Moreover, without special instructions from St. Petersburg, he could not take a single step. In mid-July, Russian regiments entered the territory East Prussia and slowly moved along the road to Allenburg and further, to the capital of this part of the kingdom - Konigsberg. Reconnaissance in the army worked poorly, and when on August 19, 1757, the Russian vanguard regiments went out along a forest road to the edge of the forest, they saw in front of them the army of Field Marshal Lewald, built in battle order, who immediately gave the cavalry the order to advance. However, the 2nd Moscow Regiment, which found itself in the hottest spot, managed to reorganize and hold back the first onslaught of the Prussians. Soon the division commander, General V.A., came to his aid. Lopukhin brought four more regiments. These five regiments took the fight to the Prussian infantry - Lewald's main force. The battle turned out to be bloody. General Lopukhin was mortally wounded, captured, and repulsed again. Having lost half of the soldiers, Lopukhin's regiments began to randomly roll back to the forest. The situation was saved by the young general P. A. Rumyantsev, the future field marshal. With reserve regiments, he managed to literally fight his way through the forest and hit the flank of the Prussian regiments that were chasing the remnants of Lopukhin’s division, which was the reason for the Russian victory.

Although the losses of the Russian army were twice as large as those of the Prussians, Lewald's defeat was crushing, and the road to Konigsberg was open. But Apraksin did not follow it. On the contrary, unexpectedly for everyone, he gave the order to retreat, and from Tilsit the organized retreat began to resemble a disorderly flight... […] The results of the campaign in East Prussia were disastrous: the army lost 12 thousand people. 4.5 thousand people died on the battlefield, and 9.5 thousand died from disease!

http://storyo.ru/empire/78.htm

BATTLE OF ZORNDORF

General V.V. Fermor, appointed as the new commander-in-chief, already in January 1758 freely occupied Königsberg and by the summer moved to Brandenburg, the main territory of the Kingdom of Prussia, to unite with the Austrians for joint action against Frederick II in Silesia. Frederick decided to prevent this. In his characteristic decisive manner, he moved from Silesia to Brandenburg and, having crossed the Oder, bypassed the Russian army from the rear. Thus, he cut off her path to retreat and did not allow her to connect with Rumyantsev’s corps, which was unsuccessfully waiting for the Prussians at another crossing across the Oder. Frederick's flanking maneuver was discovered, Fermor turned his army around and took the battle.

The battle began with the Prussian infantry attacking the right flank of Fermor's army with superior forces in accordance with Frederick's favored "oblique battle formation." The infantry battalions did not march solid mass, and with ledges, they entered into battle one by one, increasing pressure on the enemy in a narrow space. But this time, part of the battalions of the main forces failed to maintain the oblique order of their vanguard, since along the way they had to go around the burning village of Zorndorf. Noticing a gap in the Prussian formation, Fermor gave the order to his infantry to advance. As a result, the counterattacks of the vanguard and the main forces of Frederick, which soon arrived, were thrown back. But Fermor miscalculated. He did not notice that the entire Prussian cavalry of General Seydlitz had not yet entered the battle and was only waiting for the moment to attack. It came when the Russian regiments pursuing the Prussian infantry exposed their flank and rear. With 46 squadrons of selected black hussars, Seydlitz struck the Russian infantry. It was a terrible attack. Well-trained horses accelerated and moved to a full quarry from a distance of more than half a kilometer. The squadrons marched without intervals, in close formation, stirrup to stirrup, knee to knee. Only a person with strong nerves could withstand this attack. From the frantic clatter of thousands of hooves, the earth shook and hummed, and inexorably and swiftly, accelerating and accelerating, a tall black shaft rushed towards you, ready to crush and trample all living things in its path. One must appreciate the courage of the Russian grenadiers in the face of such a terrifying attack. They did not have time to form into a square - defensive battle squares, but only managed to stand in groups back to back and took the blow of Seydlitz's cavalry. Solid formation disintegrated, the force of the blow weakened, Seydlitz took the frustrated squadrons to the rear. From that moment on, Fermor abandoned his troops and left command post. He probably thought the battle was lost. However, the Russian regiments, despite serious losses and the panic of some of the soldiers who began to break barrels of wine and rob the regimental cash registers, held their positions. By evening the battle began to subside.

For the first time in the 18th century, the losses of Russian troops were so great: they amounted to half of the personnel, and more were killed than wounded - 13 thousand out of 22.6 thousand people. This speaks of the terrible bloodshed and ferocity of the battle. The usual ratio of killed to wounded was 1 to 3. Of the 21 Russian generals, 5 were captured and 10 were killed. Only 6 left in service! The enemy got 85 cannons, 11 banners, and military treasury. But the Prussian losses were also great - over 11 thousand people. Therefore, a day later they did not prevent the Russians from withdrawing from the field of an unprecedentedly cruel battle, drenched in blood and littered with thousands of corpses of people and horses. Having formed two marching columns, between which the wounded were placed, 26 captured guns and 10 banners, the Russian army, stretching for 7 miles, walked for several hours in front of the Prussian positions, but great commander I didn’t dare attack her. The Battle of Zorndorf was not a victory for the Russians - the battlefield remained with Frederick II (and in the old days it was main criterion victory on the battlefield), but Zorndorf is not a defeat. Empress Elizabeth appreciated what happened: in the middle of an enemy country, far from Russia, in a bloody battle with the greatest commander of that time, the Russian army managed to survive. This, as stated in the empress’s rescript, “is the essence of such great deeds that the whole world will remain in eternal memory to the glory of our weapons."

Anisimov E.V. Imperial Russia. St. Petersburg, 2008 http://storyo.ru/empire/78.htm

EYEWITNESS ABOUT THE BATTLE OF ZORNDORF

I will never forget the quiet, majestic approach of the Prussian army. I would like the reader to be able to vividly imagine that beautiful but terrible moment when the Prussian system suddenly turned into a long, crooked line of battle formation. Even the Russians were surprised at this unprecedented spectacle, which, by all accounts, was a triumph of the then tactics of the great Frederick. The terrible beating of Prussian drums reached us, but no music could be heard yet. When the Prussians began to approach closer, we heard the sounds of oboes playing the famous hymn: Ich bin ja, Herr, in deiner Macht (Lord, I am in Thy power). Not a word about how I felt then; but I think no one will find it strange if I say that later, throughout my long life, this music always aroused in me the most intense sorrow.

While the enemy was approaching noisily and solemnly, the Russians stood so motionless and quiet that it seemed that there was no living soul between them. But then the thunder of the Prussian cannons rang out, and I drove inside the quadrangle, into my recess.

It seemed as if heaven and earth were being destroyed. The terrible roar of cannons and the firing of rifles intensified terribly. Thick smoke spread throughout the entire quadrangle, from the place where the attack took place. After a few hours it became dangerous to remain in our recess. The bullets screamed incessantly in the air, and soon began to hit the trees surrounding us; many of our people climbed onto them to better see the battle, and the dead and wounded fell from there at my feet. One young man, originally from Koenigsberg - I don’t know his name or rank - spoke to me, walked away four steps, and was immediately killed by a bullet in front of my eyes. At that same moment the Cossack fell from his horse, next to me. I stood neither alive nor dead, holding my horse by the reins, and did not know what to decide; but I was soon brought out of this state. The Prussians broke through our square, and the Prussian hussars of the Malakhov regiment were already in the rear of the Russians.

RELATION S.F. APRAKSINA TO EMPRESS ELIZAVETA PETROVNA ABOUT THE BATTLE OF GROSS JEGERSDORF AUGUST 20, 1757

I must admit that at all that time, despite the courage and bravery of both the generals, the headquarters and chief officers, and all the soldiers, and the great action of the secret howitzers newly invented by Feltzeichmeister General Count Shuvalov, which bring so much benefit, that, of course, , for such his work he deserves your Imperial Majesty’s highest favor and reward. Nothing decisive could be foreseen about victory, especially since your Imperial Majesty’s glorious army, being on the march behind many convoys, could not be built and used with such ability, as desired and delivered, but the justice of the matter, especially your zealous the Imperial Majesty hastened to pray to the Almighty, and delivered the proud enemy into your victorious arms. Ithako, most merciful empress, she is completely defeated, scattered and light troops he was driven across the Pregelya River to his former camp near Velava.

Relation S.F. Apraksin to Empress Elizabeth Petrovna about the battle of Gross-Jägersdorf on August 20, 1757

BATTLES OF PALZIG AND KUNERSDORF

The campaign of 1759 is notable for two battles of the Russian army, led by 60-year-old General Count P.S. Saltykov. On the tenth of July, the Prussian army under the command of Don cut off the Russians’ path near the village of Palzig, on the right bank of the Oder. The quick attack of the Prussians was repulsed by infantry, and a counterattack by Russian cuirassiers - heavy cavalry - completed the job: the Prussians fled, the Russian losses were for the first time less than those of the enemy - 5 thousand against 7 thousand people.

The battle with Frederick took place on August 1 near the village of Kunersdorf near Frankfurt an der Oder. Zorndorf's situation repeated itself: Friedrich again went to the rear of the Russian army, cutting off all routes to retreat. And again the Prussians quickly attacked the Russians in the flank. But this time the position of the combatants was somewhat different. Russian troops occupied positions on three hills: Mühlberg (left flank), Big Spitz (center) and Judenberg (right flank). On the right were in reserve allied forces Austrians. Frederick attacked the Russian left flank, and very successfully: the corps of Prince A.M. Golitsyn was shot down from the heights of Mühlberg, and the Prussian infantry rushed through the Kungrud ravine to the Big Spitz hill. A mortal threat loomed over the Russian army. Losing the central position led to inevitable defeat. Pressed against the banks of the Oder, the Russian army would have been doomed to capitulation or extermination.

The commander of the troops, Saltykov, gave the order in time to the regiments stationed on the Bolshoi Spiez to turn around former front and take the blow of the Prussian infantry emerging from the ravine. Since the Great Spitz ridge was narrow for construction, several lines of defense were formed. They entered the battle as the front lines died. This was the climax of the battle: if the Prussians had broken through the lines, Big Spitz would have fallen. But, as a contemporary writes, although the enemy “with indescribable courage attacked our small lines, exterminated one after another to the ground, however, like them, they stood without raising their hands, and each line, sitting on their knees, was still being shot back, until almost no one was left alive and intact, then all this stopped the Prussians to some extent.” An attempt to knock down Russian positions in the center with the help of Seydlitz's cavalry also failed - the Russian-Austrian cavalry and artillery repelled the attack. The Prussians began to retreat. Total losses Frederick's army of 48 thousand reached 17 thousand people, 5 thousand Prussians were captured. The trophies of the Russians and Austrians were 172 guns and 26 banners. The Russian army lost 13 thousand people. It was so much that Saltykov did not dare to pursue the panicked Frederick II and jokingly said that one more such victory, and he alone would have to go to St. Petersburg with a stick to report the victory.

Russia was never able to reap the fruits of victory on the field near the village of Kunersdorf. The blood was shed in vain. It soon became clear that Saltykov suffered from the same disease as his predecessors - indecision and slowness. Moral responsibility for the army entrusted to him, feuds with the Austrians oppressed the commander, and he lost heart. With irritation, the empress wrote to the newly appointed field marshal regarding his reports on the main intention - to save the army: “Although we should take care of saving our army, that frugality is bad when we have to fight a war for several years instead of ending it in one campaign, with one blow " As a result, more than 18 thousand Russian soldiers who died in 1759 turned out to be a vain sacrifice - the enemy was not defeated. In the middle of the 1760 campaign, Saltykov had to be replaced by Field Marshal A.B. Buturlina. By this time, dissatisfaction with both the actions of the army and general situation, in which Russia found itself. The Russians did not achieve victory at Kunersdorf by chance. It reflected the increased power of the army. The experience of continuous campaigns and battles indicated that the commanders were not acting as decisively as needed. In a rescript to Saltykov on October 13, 1759, the Conference at the highest court formed at the beginning of the war noted: “Since the Prussian king has already attacked the Russian army four times, the honor of our weapons would require attacking him at least once, and now - especially since our the army was superior to the Prussian army both in number and in vigor, and we explained to you at length that it is always more profitable to attack than to be attacked.” The sluggishness of the allied generals and marshals (and Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, many fought against Frederick German states) led to the fact that for the fourth campaign in a row, Frederick got away with it. And although the allied armies were twice as large as the Prussian army, there was no sign of victory. Frederick, continuously maneuvering, striking each ally in turn, skillfully making up for losses, avoided general defeat in the war. Since 1760, he became completely invulnerable. After the defeat at Kunersdorf, he avoided battles whenever possible and, with continuous marches and false attacks, drove the Austrian and Russian commanders into a frenzy.

Anisimov E.V. Imperial Russia. St. Petersburg, 2008 http://storyo.ru/empire/78.htm

THE CAPTURE OF BERLIN

At this time, the idea of ​​occupying Berlin matured, which would have allowed Frederick to inflict great material and moral damage. At the end of September, a Russian-Austrian detachment approached and besieged the capital of the Prussian kingdom. On the night of September 28, all Prussian troops suddenly abandoned the city, which immediately capitulated to the mercy of the winner, presenting them with the keys to the city gates. The allies stayed in the city for two days and, having received news of Frederick's rapid movement to help their capital, hastily left Berlin. But in two days they managed to rip off a huge indemnity from the Berliners, destroy to the ground the huge warehouses and workshops of the Prussian army, and burn down arms factories in Berlin and Potsdam. Berlin operation could not make up for failures in other theaters of war. The main enemy of Prussia, the Austrian army, acted extremely unsuccessfully, suffered defeats from Frederick, and its commanders were never able to find common language with the Russians. St. Petersburg was dissatisfied with the fact that at the very beginning of the war, Russia was assigned a subordinate role; it was obliged to always play along with Austria, which fought for Silesia. Russian strategic and imperial interests, meanwhile, were aimed at other goals. Since 1760, Russian diplomats increasingly demanded from the allies solid compensation for the blood shed for the common benefit. Already from the beginning of 1758, East Prussia with Königsberg was occupied by Russia. Moreover, its residents swore allegiance to Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, that is, they were recognized as subjects of Russia.

[…] At the same time, the Russian army seriously took up the siege of the key fortress of Kolberg on the Prussian coast, control over which would allow it to act more decisively against Frederick and the capital of his kingdom. The fortress fell on December 5, 1761, and Empress Elizabeth Petrovna died 20 days later.

From that day on, the international situation began to change rapidly. Coming to the Russian throne Peter III immediately broke the alliance with Austria and offered Frederick II peace without any conditions. Prussia, driven to ruin by a five-year war, was saved, which allowed it to fight until 1763. Russia, which left the war earlier, did not receive any territories or compensation for losses.

Anisimov E.V. Imperial Russia. St. Petersburg, 2008 http://storyo.ru/empire/78.htm

Points of surrender, which the city of Berlin, out of the mercy of Her Imperial Majesty of All Russia and according to the well-known philanthropy of His Excellency the Commanding General, Mr. General, hopes to receive.

1. So that this capital city and all the inhabitants were supported with their privileges, liberties and rights, and trade, factories and sciences were left on the same basis.

2. That the free exercise of faith and the service of God be allowed under the present institution without the slightest abolition.

3. So that the city and all the suburbs are freed from billets, and light troops are not allowed to break into the city and the suburbs.

4. If need requires several regular troops to be stationed in the city and on the outskirts, then this would be done on the basis of the existing institutions, and those that were previously disabled and will henceforth be free to be.

5. All ordinary people, whatever their rank and dignity, will remain in the peaceful possession of their estate, and all riots and robberies in the city and on the outskirts and in the magistrate’s villages will not be allowed. […]

He significantly expanded the borders of his state. Prussia, which by the beginning of the war of 1740-1748 had the third army in Europe in terms of numbers and the first in training, could now create powerful competition for the Austrians in the rivalry for supremacy over Germany. The Austrian Empress Maria Theresa did not want to come to terms with the loss of Silesia. Her hostility towards Frederick II was intensified by the religious difference between Catholic Austria and Protestant Prussia.

Frederick II the Great of Prussia - main character Seven Years' War

The Prussian-Austrian feud was main reason The Seven Years' War, but it was also supplemented by the colonial conflicts of England and France. IN mid-18th century century, the question of which of these two powers would dominate North America and India was decided. Confusion European relations led to the "diplomatic revolution" of the 1750s. Two centuries of enmity between Austrian Habsburgs and the French Bourbons were overcome in the name of common goals. Instead of the Anglo-Austrian and Franco-Prussian alliances that fought each other during the War of the Austrian Succession, new coalitions were formed: the Franco-Austrian and Anglo-Prussian.

Russia's position on the eve of the Seven Years' War was also difficult. At the St. Petersburg court, supporters of both Austria and Prussia had influence. In the end, the former prevailed; Empress Elizabeth Petrovna moved her troops to support the Habsburgs and France. However, the authority of the “Prussophiles” continued to remain strong. Russian participation in the Seven Years' War was marked from beginning to end by indecision and hesitation between the two European factions.

The course of the Seven Years' War - briefly

The alliance of Austria, France and Russia against Prussia was concluded in great secrecy, but Frederick II managed to find out about it. He decided to be the first to attack the not fully prepared allies in order to prevent them from uniting. The Seven Years' War began with the Prussian invasion of Saxony on August 29, 1756, whose elector sided with Frederick's enemies. The Saxon army (7 thousand soldiers) was blocked in Pirna (on the Bohemian border) and forced to surrender. The Austrian commander Brown tried to save the Saxons, but after the battle on October 1, 1756 near Lobositz, the Prussians forced him to retreat. Frederick captured Saxony.

The Seven Years' War continued in 1757. By the beginning of this year, the Austrians had collected great forces. Three French armies moved against Frederick from the west - d'Estrée, Richelieu and Soubise, from the east - the Russians, from the north - the Swedes. The German Diet declared Prussia a violator of the peace. But the English army arrived in Westphalia to help Frederick. The British thought to shackle the French with Prussian hands in Europe, in order to decisively push them out in the American and Indian colonies, England had enormous naval and financial power, but it ground force was weak, and was commanded by the incapable son of King George II, the Duke of Cumberland.

In the spring of 1757, Frederick moved to Bohemia (Czech Republic) and on May 6, 1757 inflicted a heavy defeat on the Austrians near Prague, capturing up to 12 thousand soldiers. He locked another 40 thousand soldiers in Prague, and they almost repeated the fate of the Saxons in Pirna. But the Austrian commander-in-chief Daun rescued his troops by moving towards Prague. Frederick the Great, who thought to stop him, was repulsed with great damage on June 18 in the battle of Collin and thrown back from the Czech Republic.

Seven Years' War. Life Guards battalion at the Battle of Collin, 1757. Artist R. Knötel

On Western theater During the Seven Years' War, the three commanders of the French armies intrigued against each other: each of them wanted to lead the war alone. Accustomed to luxury French officers They looked at the hike as if it were a picnic. They went to Paris every now and then, bringing crowds of servants with them, and their soldiers needed everything and died in droves from disease. On July 26, 1757, d'Estré defeated the Duke of Cumberland near Hamelin. The Hanoverian aristocrats, thinking only about their own benefits, concluded a capitulation that gave all of Hanover to the French. The Duke of Cumberland also wanted to approve it, but the English government Pitt the Elder prevented this. It succeeded in removing the Duke from command and replacing him (on the advice of Frederick the Great) with the German prince Ferdinand of Brunswick.

Other french army(Subise), uniting with the Austrians, entered Saxony. Frederick the Great had only 25 thousand troops here - half as many as the enemy. But when he attacked the enemies near the village of Rosbach on November 5, 1757, they fled in panic even before the entire Prussian army entered the battle. From Rosbach, Frederick went to Silesia. On December 5, 1757, he inflicted a severe defeat on the Austrians near Leuthen, throwing them back to the Czech Republic. On December 20, the 20,000-strong Austrian garrison of Breslau surrendered - and all of Europe froze in surprise at the exploits of the Prussian king. His actions in the Seven Years' War were warmly admired even in France.

Prussian infantry attack at the Battle of Leuthen, 1757. Artist Karl Röchling

Even before this, numerous Russian army Apraksina. On August 30, 1757, it inflicted defeat on the old Prussian field marshal Lewald at Gross-Jägersdorf and thereby opened the way beyond the Oder. However, instead further movement forward Apraksin suddenly went back to Russian border. This action of his was associated with dangerous disease Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. Apraksin either did not want to quarrel with Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, a passionate Prussophile, who was supposed to inherit the Russian throne after Elizabeth, or he intended, together with Chancellor Bestuzhev, with the help of his army, to force the unbalanced Peter to abdicate in favor of his son. But Elizaveta Petrovna, who was already dying, recovered, and the Russian campaign against Prussia soon resumed.

Stepan Apraksin, one of the four Russian commanders in chief in the Seven Years' War

The English government of Pitt continued the Seven Years' War with energy, intensifying financial support Prussians. Frederick the Great cruelly exploited Saxony and Mecklenburg, which he occupied. In the western theater of the Seven Years' War, Ferdinand of Brunswick in 1758 pushed the French all the way to the Rhine and defeated them at Krefeld, already on the left bank of the river. But the new, more capable French commander-in-chief, Marshal Contade, again invaded the Rhine and in the fall of 1758 passed through Westphalia to the Lippe River.

On eastern theater During the Seven Years' War, the Russians, led by Saltykov after the removal of Apraksin, moved from East Prussia to Brandenburg and Pomerania. Frederick the Great himself unsuccessfully besieged Moravian Olmutz in 1758, and then moved to Brandenburg and on August 25, 1758 gave the Russian army the Battle of Zorndorf. Its outcome was indecisive, but after this battle the Russians chose to retreat from Brandenburg, so it was recognized that they were defeated. Frederick rushed to Saxony, against the Austrians. October 14, 1758 rising star Austrian army, General Laudon, thanks to a surprise attack, defeated the king at Hochkirch. However, by the end of the year, Frederick's generals had driven the Austrians out of Saxony.

Frederick the Great at the Battle of Zorndorf. Artist Karl Roechling

At the beginning of the campaign of 1759, Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick suffered great damage from French general Broglie in action at Bergen (April 13), near Frankfurt am Main. In the summer of 1759, the French commander-in-chief Contad advanced deep into Germany to the Weser, but then Prince Ferdinand defeated him in the battle of Prussian Minden and forced him to retreat beyond the Rhine and Main. Ferdinand, however, was unable to develop his success: he had to send 12 thousand soldiers to King Frederick, whose position in the east was very bad.

The Russian commander Saltykov led the 1759 campaign very slowly and only reached the Oder in July. On July 23, 1759, he defeated the Prussian general Wedel at Züllichau and Kaei. This defeat could have been disastrous for Prussia and ended the Seven Years' War. But Saltykov, fearing the imminent death of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna and the rise to power of the “Prussophile” Peter III, continued to hesitate. On August 7, he united with the Austrian corps of Laudon, and on August 12, 1759 he joined Frederick II himself in the Battle of Kunersdorf. In this battle, the Prussian king suffered such a defeat that after it he already considered the war lost and thought about suicide. Laudon wanted to go to Berlin, but Saltykov did not trust the Austrians and did not want to assist them in acquiring unconditional hegemony over Germany. Until the end of August, the Russian commander stood motionless in Frankfurt, citing big losses, and returned to Poland in October. This saved Frederick the Great from inevitable defeat.

Pyotr Saltykov, one of the four Russian commanders-in-chief in the Seven Years' War

Frederick began the campaign of 1760 in the most desperate situation. On June 28, 1760, the Prussian general Fouquet was defeated by Laudon at Landsgut. However, on August 15, 1760, Frederick the Great, in turn, defeated Laudon at Liegnitz. Saltykov, who continued to avoid any decisive undertakings, took advantage of this failure of the Austrians to retreat beyond the Oder. The Austrians launched Lassi's corps on a short raid on Berlin. Saltykov sent Chernyshov’s detachment to reinforce him only after a strict order from St. Petersburg. On October 9, 1760, the united Russian-Austrian corps entered Berlin, stayed there for four days and took an indemnity from the city.

Friedrich Great theme Over time he continued to fight in Saxony. On November 3, here, at the Torgau fortress, the most bloody battle Seven Years' War. The Prussians won a brilliant victory in it, but most of Saxony and part of Silesia remained in the hands of their opponents. The alliance against Prussia was replenished: Spain, controlled by a subsidiary branch of the French Bourbons, joined it.

But soon the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died (1761), and her successor, Peter III, an enthusiastic admirer of Frederick II, not only abandoned everything he had done Russian armies conquests, but even expressed his intention to go over to the side of Prussia in the Seven Years' War. The latter did not happen only because Peter III was deprived of the throne by his wife Catherine II after the coup on June 28, 1762. She withdrew from any participation in the Seven Years' War, Russia withdrew from it. The Swedes also lagged behind the coalition. Frederick II could now direct all his efforts against Austria, which was inclined towards peace, especially since France fought so ineptly that it seemed to have completely outlived its former military glory of the era of Louis XIV.

Seven Years' War European continent accompanied and colonial struggle in America and India.

Results of the Seven Years' War - briefly

The results of the Seven Years' War determined the Paris and Hubertsburg peace treaties of 1763.

The Peace of Paris of 1763 put an end to the maritime and colonial struggle between France and England. England seized an entire empire in North America from the French: Southern and Eastern Canada, the Ohio River Valley and the entire left bank of the Mississippi. The British received Florida from Spain. Before the Seven Years' War French influence the whole south of India was subordinated. Now it was completely lost there, soon to pass to the British.

Results of the Seven Years' War in North America. Map. Red indicates British possessions before 1763, pink indicates the annexation of the British following the Seven Years' War.

The Treaty of Hubertsburg of 1763 between Prussia and Austria summed up the results of the Seven Years' War on the continent. In Europe, the previous borders have been restored almost everywhere. Russia and Austria failed to return Prussia to the position of a minor power. However, Frederick the Great’s plans for new seizures and weakening the power of the Habsburg emperors of Germany to the benefit of the Prussians did not come true.

Seven Years' War 1756-1763 was provoked by a clash of interests between Russia, France and Austria on the one hand and Portugal, Prussia and England (in union with Hanover) on the other. Each of the states that entered the war, of course, pursued its own goals. Thus, Russia tried to strengthen its influence in the West.

The war began with the battle of the fleets of England and France near the Balearic Islands on May 19, 1756. It ended in victory for the French. Ground operations began later - on August 28. An army under the command of the Prussian king Frederick 2 invaded the lands of Saxony, and later began the siege of Prague. At the same time, the French army occupied Hanover.

Russia entered the war in 1757. In August, the Russian army suffered heavy losses, but won the Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf, opening the way to East Prussia. However, Field Marshal General Apraksin, who commanded the troops, learned about the illness of Empress Elizaveta Petrovna. Believing that her heir, Pyotr Fedorovich, would soon take the throne, he began withdrawing troops to the Russian border. Later, declaring such actions treason, the empress brought Apraksin to trial. Fremor took his place as commander. In 1758, the territory of East Prussia was annexed into Russia.

Further events of the Seven Years' War are brief: the victories won in 1757 by the Prussian army under the command of Frederick 2 in 1769 were reduced to zero thanks to the successful actions of Russian-Austrian troops during the Battle of Kunersdorf. By 1761, Prussia was on the verge of defeat. But in 1762, Empress Elizabeth died. Peter III, who ascended the throne, was a supporter of rapprochement with Prussia. Preliminary peace negotiations held in the fall of 1762 ended with the conclusion of the Paris Peace Treaty on January 30, 1763. This day is officially considered the date of the end of the seven-year war.

With the exception of military experience, Russia gained nothing as a result of this war. France - lost Canada and most of overseas possessions, Austria lost all rights to Silesia and the County of Galtz. The balance of power in Europe has completely changed.

Brief biography of Catherine 2

The German princess Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerpt was born on April 21, 1729. Her family was not rich and the princess received only a home education, which shaped the personality of Catherine 2, the future Russian empress. In 1744, an event occurred that determined not only the further biography of Catherine 2, but also, in many ways, the fate of Russia. Princess Sophia Augusta was chosen as the heir's bride Russian throne Peter 3. By invitation Elizaveta Petrovna she arrived at the court. And, treating Russia as her second homeland, she actively engaged in self-education, studying the language, culture, and history of the country in which she was to live.

In 1744, on June 24, she was baptized into Orthodoxy under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. Wedding ceremony with Peter 3 took place on August 21, 1745. But the husband did not pay much attention to his young wife. And Catherine’s only entertainment was balls, masquerades and hunting. In 1754, on September 20, Catherine gave birth to a son, the future emperor Pavel 1, but the child was immediately taken away from her. Relations with the Empress and Peter 3 deteriorated noticeably. Peter 3 had mistresses, and Catherine herself entered into a relationship with the future Polish king Stanislav Poniatowski.

Daughter Anna, born on December 9, 1758, was not accepted by her husband, since Peter 3 had serious doubts about the paternity of the child. By that time, Empress Elizabeth had become seriously ill. Catherine’s secret correspondence with the Austrian ambassador was also revealed. The fate of Catherine the Great could have turned out completely differently if not for the support of her associates and favorites with whom the wife of Peter 3 surrounded herself.

Peter 3 ascended the throne in 1761 after the death of Elizabeth. Catherine was immediately moved away from the marital quarters, which were occupied by her mistress. Having become pregnant by G. Orlov, she was forced to hide her situation. Her son Alexei was born in the strictest secrecy.

Internal and foreign policy Peter 3 caused growing discontent. Intelligent and active Catherine looked much more profitable against the background of such “deeds” of Peter as the return of lands seized during the Seven Years' War to Prussia. A conspiracy formed in the circle of Peter 3. Catherine's supporters persuaded the guards units to take part in the conspiracy. They took the oath to the future empress in St. Petersburg on June 28, 1762. The next day, Peter 3 was forced to abdicate in favor of his wife and was arrested. Soon after this he was killed. Thus began the reign of Catherine 2, called by historians the Golden Age of the Russian Empire.

The domestic policy of Catherine II was determined by the Russian Empress's commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment. It was during the period called the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II that the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the management system was unified, and the autocracy was strengthened. In order to carry out comprehensive and useful reforms for the country, Catherine 2 convened the Statutory Commission, which included deputies from the nobility, townspeople and rural population. But it was not possible to avoid internal political problems, and the largest of them was the peasant war led by Emelyan Pugacheva 1773 – 1775.

The foreign policy of Catherine 2 was quite energetic and very successful. The Empress sought to secure the southern borders of the country from the claims of Turkey. Perhaps it was in Turkish companies that the interests of the Russian Empire clashed most sharply with the interests of France and England. Second the most important task for Tsarina Catherine 2, it was the annexation of the lands of Belarus and Ukraine to the territory of the empire, which she achieved with the help of the divisions of Poland, carried out jointly by both Austria and Prussia. It is also worth noting the decree of Catherine 2 on the liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich.

The period of reign of Empress Catherine 2 the Great was long and lasted from 1762 to 1796. It was based on the philosophy of the Enlightenment. There is information that Catherine was thinking about the abolition of serfdom, but she never decided on such large-scale changes. During the era of Catherine 2, the Hermitage and the Public Library, the Smolny Institute and pedagogical schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg were created. It was during this period that the foundations of civil society in Russia were laid. The death of Catherine 2 occurred from a cerebral hemorrhage that occurred on November 5, 1796. The Empress died the next day, November 6. Her son, Paul 1, ascended the Russian throne.

Theory of wars Kvasha Grigory Semenovich

Chapter 7 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR (1756–1763)

SEVEN YEARS' WAR (1756–1763)

Analysis of this war, as well as all other wars, through territorial claims or dynastic problems are counterproductive. Moreover, the war turned out to be serious and it brought together the Empire (Russia), its Double (Prussia), five minutes before the Empire (England), five minutes before its Double (France), the just defeated Double (Sweden) - etc. And the majority in their Ideological period, which, in fact, determined tough character war.

1756 - alliances are overturned. England, which has always focused on Austria, finds a new ally - Prussia; Austria, which has always argued with France, is forced to find a common language with it. And this unexpected ensemble is led by a “new kid” in the club of European superpowers – Russia. The systematic beating of Prussia begins. The monster will have to fight a coalition of the three strongest continental powers and their allies, which he dubbed the “union of three women” (Maria Theresa, Elizabeth and Madame Pompadour). However, behind the jokes of the Prussian king in relation to his opponents lies uncertainty in his capabilities: the forces in the war on the continent are too unequal, and England, which does not have a strong ground army, other than subsidies, can do little to help him.

1756 - Prussia invades Saxony. This financially and economically prosperous power was militarily very weak. The invasion and plunder of a small and generally defenseless state certainly made a strong impression on everyone.

1757 - Prussia invades Bohemia and Silesia. Having taken Prague, Frederick moved on to Vienna. But the blitzkrieg failed, the Austrians inflicted a rather brutal defeat on the Prussians. However, by the end of the year, Frederick again turned the situation around, winning a victory on December 5 in Silesia (at Leuthen). As a result of this victory, the situation that existed at the beginning of the year was restored. Thus, the result of the campaign was a “combat draw.” At the beginning of the same year, France pressed back the Prussian army, but on November 5, Frederick completely defeated them with a sudden blow. And again in the same year, Prussia is at war with Russia. The Russian army wins a number of victories in East Prussia, but is not going to take advantage of the results of the victories and retreats back.

1758 - having replaced the commander, the Russian army captures all of East Prussia, including Koenigsberg. On August 14, the decisive Battle of Zorndorf takes place. According to Carl Clausewitz, this was the most strange battle in the history of the Seven Years' War, meaning its chaotic, unpredictable course. Having begun “according to the rules,” it eventually resulted in a great massacre, breaking up into many separate battles in which Russian soldiers showed unsurpassed tenacity. According to Friedrich, it was not enough to kill them, it was also necessary to knock them down. Both sides fought to the point of complete exhaustion and suffered huge losses. The Russian army lost 16 thousand people, the Prussians - 11 thousand. The next day, Frederick turned his army around and led it into Saxony.

1759 - fighting on three fronts is almost hopeless; on August 12, Prussia suffered decisive defeat(Battle of Kunersdorf), Frederick is completely defeated. After the victory at Kunersdorf, the Allies could only inflict the last blow, take Berlin, the road to which was clear, and thereby force Prussia to capitulate, but disagreements in their camp did not allow them to use the victory and end the war. Instead of attacking Berlin, they withdrew their troops away, accusing each other of violating allied obligations. Frederick himself called his unexpected salvation “the miracle of the House of Brandenburg.”

1760 - October 9, Russians enter Berlin. But they immediately leave him. November 3 Frederick wins his last victory(at Torgau), but this victory practically deprives him of his army, there is no one else to fight. All that remains is to finish off the dead Prussia, but then Elizaveta Petrovna dies and Russia, from Prussia’s enemy, becomes its ally. That same theoretical somersault (Two-Empire Truce). The second miracle of the Brandenburg House is a completely unique theoretical phenomenon.

Elizaveta Petrovna, who once declared her determination to continue the war to a victorious end, even if she had to sell half of her dresses, leaves the throne to Peter III, a fierce admirer of Frederick II. Russia voluntarily renounces all its acquisitions in this war, in particular East Prussia, whose inhabitants, including the philosopher Kant, have already sworn allegiance to the Russian crown. Moreover, Frederick was given a corps under the command of Count Chernyshev for the war against the Austrians, his recent allies.

But this is not some shabby state of the West, this is the Empire, a force that never makes historical mistakes (the principle of Imperial infallibility). The war with Prussia is frozen, the defeat is postponed 200 years into the future. This is the scenario of world history. Early, too early... they could have lost the main participant of the Central episode.

The fact that the freezing of Prussia was not a historical accident is proven by the behavior of Catherine II. Having overthrown her husband and recalled Chernyshev’s corps, she does not renew the war, giving Frederick the opportunity to recover and end the war quietly and without much loss. Some even credit Prussia with the victory. Well, if placing a half-corpse in the refrigerator can be considered a victory, then why not. In the near future, the half-corpse, after being re-frozen, will be taken out and sent to war again. But this time the Russians will not give up Koenigsberg.

By the way, about the solidarity of Monsters. Not only Hitler admired Frederick the Great, but also Napoleon. How they smell each other!